Definition 1

pedagogical theory- this is a special organization of knowledge that explains a separate area of ​​the teacher's phenomena.

There are such main components of pedagogical theory:

• Laws and patterns.
• Basics.
• Rules
• Explanations.

There is a classification of pedagogical theories in the literature. Universal Systems Pedagogy is divided into theories of education and training. This was greatly influenced by: B. I. Korotaev, B. T. Likhachev, I. P. Podlasy, V. G. Pryanikova, Z. I. Ravkin and others.

Psychological pedagogical theory considers such a question - analysis of the relationship between education, upbringing and development of preschool children. At the end of the thirties of the 20th century, three main theories were formed:

• The first is that the upbringing of the child is referred to as a free process from learning and teaching. The main task is independence, the independence of the child from the adult.
• The second is the study of the relationship between development and learning.
• The third theory is a separate process in pedagogy, which involves the development of the child, regardless of training and education.

The pedagogical theory of developmental education requires the highest theoretical level of education. It is also necessary to adhere to a fast pace of learning, constant cramming educational material in modern conditions, teaching children material that motivates in learning and cognition, humanizing the relationship between children and teachers.

When raising a child, it is necessary to direct him not only to existing standards, but to the embodiment of his potentials. Skills, knowledge and skills are a way to fully create a child's personality, and not a goal. During classes, the teacher treats the student as an employee or partner. The teacher must take into account the interests of the child, since in the first place is the direction of his subsequent improvement as a member of society.

There are special pedagogical theories that reveal the problems of raising preschool children. Beyond teaching anthropology, learning is the creation of conditions that guide the development of children. The main thing is the personality of the child as a subject. Every child needs the support and help of an adult.

Personal Development Judgment

According to the type of judgment of personality development, pedagogical theories are divided into the following:

• Cognitive.
• Psychoanalytic.
• attachment theory.
• Behaviorist.
• Humanistic.
• Activity approach.

All these theories, in terms of content, implement the principle of integration. They are revealed at the stage of scientific understanding and experimentation.

Scientific studies that are being carried out today show positive side convergence of various types of activity, while using forms and means of content that are interesting for children. In parallel, research is underway different types programs. This will save enough time to organize the child's play and independent activity and achieve the desired educational effect in a small amount of time.

Domestic pedagogical theories

Domestic theories perform the following functions:

• Includes limited areas of development of children.
• Take into account the data of psychology and pedagogy of a preschooler.
• They show the result of the authors' work over many years on various problems.

AT recent times the problem of the role of the economy in shaping the personality of a preschooler has become relevant. This problem of economic education has recently begun to be seen in the aspect of moral and labor education.

AT theoretical aspect legal education was considered from the side of respect for the freedom of children as individuals. Moral and legal education implies:

• Development of a child's self-esteem.
• Development of self-confidence.
• Moral motives of behavior.
• Relationship development.

The main task of modern pedagogy preschool education- the solution of issues that are related to the formation of an active and interested relationship in the child to the country in which he lives.

Based on the principles of the nationality of Ushinsky, Tolstoy and the studies of Zhukovsky, Levin-Shchirin, Kozlova, Bogomolova, Belyaeva, Melnikova, Suslova, Korneeva, a pedagogical theory of civic and patriotic education of preschoolers was built. Special programs for teaching preschool children in matters of patriotism were created. The following works became relevant: “Origins”, “Childhood”, “From Childhood to Adolescence”, “Heritage” by Novitskaya, “Our Home - Southern Urals" Babunova, "I am a Man" Kozlova, "Ethnology" Lazorevoy and others.

Three stages of education

The pedagogical theory of the legal education of preschool children explains the importance, content, periods and teaching conditions. There are three main stages of education:

• The first stage is called the base stage. This includes getting to know moral standards and principles: ethical conversations, testimony moral situations, videos, moral deeds of children, etc.
• The second stage is called the main stage. There is an acquaintance with the personal rights of the child: to rest, education, name and surname, love. Reading in progress works of art, ethical conversations, exercises in practical skills of behavior in different situations.
• The third stage is the final one. Includes a story about the Convention, about the rights of the child that apply to all children, reading works of art, developing a collage about the rights of the child, moral conversations and more.

Definition 2

Concept in Pedagogy- this is the definition of patriotic education, which is considered in the context of the comprehensive formation of personality.

Patriotism It is love for one's Motherland and the Earth.

Allocate such means of patriotic education:

• Mesoenvironment.
• Literature and art.
• Folklore.
• Practice.
• Customs and more.

Various methods of patriotic development are used: excursions, travel games, visits to museums, exhibitions of children's drawings. Modern pedagogical theories study the issues of education and development of preschool children. To enrich the system of preschool education, foreign pedagogical theories are being studied.

Preschool teaching science is constantly improving and improving. Positive experience plays a big role educational institutions for preschool children.

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Work plan

Introduction

Developmental learning in the theory of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov

Theory of intensification of learning L.V. Zankov

The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin)

Theory of programmed learning (L.N. Landa, V.V. Okon)

Problem-Based Learning Theory (M.I. Makhmutov, A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev)

Theory of contextual learning (A.A. Verbitsky)

Introduction

Under theory or concept of learningis understood as a set of generalized provisions or a system of views on understanding the essence, content, methodology and organization educational process, as well as the features of the activities of teachers and trainees in the course of its implementation. In the practice of modern education, the associative-reflex concept of learning, the theory of the phased formation of mental actions and concepts (P.Ya. Galperin), the theory of problem-based learning, the theory of meaningful generalization by V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin (developmental learning), programmed learning theory, contextual learning, behavioral learning theory, gestalt learning theory, suggestopedic concept of learning, learning theory based on neurolinguistic programming and others.

The modern psychological and pedagogical literature presents the following approaches to the classification of learning theories:

Based on immediacy-mediation of the interaction between the teacher and the studentshapes can be selected contact and remotetraining, where the first group includes all traditionally developed areas of training, the second - only currently created training at a distance with the help of special technical (laser) means interacting at the output and input.

2. Based on the principle of consciousness (intuitionism)learning is allocated, correlated with the intuitive mastering of experience, for example, mastering mother tongue determined by L.S. Vygotsky, as the path “from the bottom up” (this includes the suggestopedic direction of G.K. Lozanov, which arose in the mid-60s), and conscious.

When considering theories of learning based on the principle of consciousness, it is significant to answer the question, whatis an object of awareness by students in the learning process. If only rules and means are realized, then this is a form of the so-called traditional, “reporting, dogmatic”, according to N.F. Talyzina, education. If this is the awareness of the actions themselves, subject to certain rules, then this is the theory of the formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina). If this is the awareness of the program, the algorithm of actions, then this is programmed learning, the theory of algorithmization (N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa). If this is an awareness of a problem, a task, for the solution of which it is necessary to master means, methods, techniques, then this is problem-based learning (V. Okon, M.M. Makhmutov, A.M. Matyushkin, I.Ya. Lerner).

Based on availability educational process managementlearning can be divided into: not based on it (for example, traditional learning) and considering management as the main learning mechanism (the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, programmed, algorithmic learning).

Based on relationship between education and cultureteaching, the claim of which is the projection of the image of culture into education and the formation of project activities of students (theories of project learning), and training based on the disciplinary-subject principle (traditional training) can be distinguished.

5.Based on linking learning to future activities“sign-contextual”, or contextual, learning (A.A. Verbitsky) and traditional out-of-context learning can be distinguished.

6.By way organization of trainingactive forms and methods of teaching and traditional (informational, informing) teaching are singled out.

According to the above reasons traditional educationcan be defined as contact (it can be distant), reporting, based on the principle of consciousness (the awareness of the very subject of development - knowledge), purposefully not controlled, built on a disciplinary-subject principle, out of context (in the system higher education without targeted modeling of the future professional activity during the learning process).

Definition of N.F. Talyzina traditional learningas information-communicating, dogmatic, passive reflects all the characteristics mentioned above.

In education, along with traditional education on the above grounds, other areas have also been formed:

· problem learning,

· programmed learning,

· training based on the theory of the phased formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina),

· learning algorithms (L.N. Landa),

· developmental learning according to the sign-context type (A.A. Verbitsky),

· project training, etc.

These learning theories exist both in a “pure form” and in a combined one, i.e. each of these types of learning includes elements of the other. So, learning based on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and sign-context learning include problematic, problematic tasks; traditional learning includes elements of contextual learning, etc.

Let us present the essence of the main theories of learning.

1. Developmental learning in the theory of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov

The essence of the theory:The training system developed under the direction of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov, is associated with the study of reserves intellectual development schoolchildren and the maximum use of these reserves. It is usually believed that the thinking of children 7 - 10 years old has a concrete-figurative character, is distinguished by a relatively low ability to distract and abstract. However, it turned out that with a certain content and a special organization of training, junior schoolchildren it is possible to develop a much higher level of distraction and reasoning ability than is commonly thought. They may well master relatively complex abstract concepts from the field of linguistics and mathematics.

The content and methodology of this training differ significantly from the generally accepted ones: theoretical and general knowledge.Learning goes from knowledge of a general type to information of a more specific and specific nature. From awareness of the general, children move on to awareness of the richest diversity of its specific manifestations.

Junior schoolchildren from grade I systematically get acquainted with the general relations of quantities and their properties, dependencies between quantities, learn to use letter symbols to describe them (for example, they use letter and sign symbols to depict equalities and inequalities, their properties and actions with them). Starting from grade II, schoolchildren begin to solve problems with letter data by compiling equations. At the lessons of labor, younger students successfully master simple ways planning their work activities, while using such auxiliary technical means as educational and instructional maps and drawings of products. Experimental training showed the possibility of developing in first-graders and second-graders the skills of operational planning of their activities and their operational control (this also applies to activities for the manufacture of completely new products for children, i.e. planning and control skills acquire a generalized character).

Expected result:effective development of educational activities by schoolchildren, the development of their rational-theoretical thinking, the formation of personality. The organization of education built according to a theoretical type, according to V.V. Davydov and his followers, is most favorable for the mental development of the child, so they called such training developing.

Flaw:the danger of student learning overload.

2. Theory of intensification of learning L.V. Zankov

The essence of the theory:training programs are built as a division of the whole into diverse forms and stages, the emergence of differences in the process of content movement. The central place is occupied by work on a clear demarcationdifferent features of the studied objects and phenomena. The distinction is carried out within the framework of the principle of consistency and integrity: each element is assimilated in connection with the other and within a certain whole. Zankovites do not deny the deductive approach to the formation of concepts, ways of thinking, activity, but still the dominant principle in their system is path is inductive.A special place is given to the process comparisons,because through a well-organized comparison, they establish in what ways things and phenomena are similar and in what ways they are different, differentiate their properties, aspects, relations. The focus is on the development analyzing observation,the ability to highlight different aspects and properties of phenomena, their clear speech expression. The idea of ​​harmonization requires combining rational and emotional, facts and generalizations, collective and individual, informational and problematic, explanatory and search methods in the methodology.

The lesson remains the main element educational process, but in the L.V. Zankov, its functions, the form of organization can vary significantly. Its main invariant qualities:

Goals are subject not only to the message and verification of ZUN, but also to other groups of personality traits;

• polylogue in the classroom, based on the independent mental activity of children;
• collaboration between teacher and student.
• The methodological goal is to create conditions in the lesson for the manifestation cognitive activity students.
• This goal is achieved in the following ways:
• the teacher creates problem situations, collisions;
• uses a variety of forms and methods of organizing educational activities, allowing to reveal the subjective experience of students;
• develops and discusses the lesson plan with the students;
• creates an atmosphere of interest for each student in the work of the class;
• stimulates students to make statements, use various ways of completing tasks without fear of making a mistake, getting the wrong answer, etc.;
• uses during the lesson didactic material, allowing the student to choose the most significant type and form of educational content for him;
• evaluates not only the final result (correct - incorrect), but also the process of the student's activity;
• encourages the student's desire to find his own way of working (solving a problem), to analyze the ways of work of other students, to choose and master the most rational ones.
• Lesson features:
• The course of knowledge - "from the students."
• The transformative nature of the student's activity: they observe, compare, group, classify, draw conclusions, find out patterns. Hence the different nature of the tasks: not just write off and insert the missing letters, solve the problem, but awaken them to mental actions, their planning
• Intensive independent activity of students associated with emotional experience, which is accompanied by the effect of the surprise of the task, the inclusion of an orienting-research reaction, the mechanism of creativity, help and encouragement from the teacher.
• A collective search directed by the teacher, which is provided with questions that awaken the independent thought of students, preliminary homework.
• Creation pedagogical situations communication in the classroom, allowing each student to show initiative, independence, selectivity in ways of working; creating an environment for natural self-expression of the student.
• Flexible structure. The identified general goals and means of organizing a lesson in the technology of developing education are specified by the teacher, depending on the purpose of the lesson, its thematic content.
• Development Tracking

Involving the student in learning activities, focused on his potential, the teacher should know what methods of activity he mastered in the course of previous training, what psychological features this process and the degree of understanding.

Expected result:a special, trusting atmosphere of the educational process contributes to the harmonious development of the individual, the lasting assimilation of knowledge.

Flaw:the danger of mental overload of younger students, the requirement for special training of a teacher conducting classes according to the system of L.V. Zankov.

3. The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin)

developmental learning intensification mental

The essence of the theory:The theory is based on the idea of ​​a fundamental commonality of internal and external human activity. According to this idea, mental development, as well as the assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, occurs through interiorization,those. gradual transition of "material" (external) activity to the internal mental plane. As a result of such a transition, external actions with external objects are transformed into mental ones - they are internalized. At the same time, they are generalized, verbalized, reduced, and become ready for further internal development, which may exceed the possibilities of external activity.

Stages of formation of mental actions:

1. Preliminary acquaintance with the action, creation of the OOD.There is a preliminary acquaintance with the action, i.e. construction in the mind of the trainee of the orienting basis of action (let's designate this as OOD). OOD is a textually or graphically designed model of the studied action, a system of conditions for its correct implementation. There are several types of OOD: complete, incomplete, invariant, etc.

2. Material (materialized) action.Trainees perform a material (materialized) action in accordance with the training task in an external material, expanded form. They receive and work with information in the form of various material objects: real objects or their models, diagrams, layouts, drawings, etc., comparing their actions with the OOD (instruction).

3. Stage of external speech.After performing several actions of the same type, the need to refer to the instruction disappears and the function of the orienting basis is performed by external speech. The trainees say aloud the action, the operation, which in this moment are mastering. In their minds, generalization, reduction of educational information takes place, and the performed action begins to be automated.

4. Stage of inner speech.The trainees pronounce the action being performed, the operation to themselves, while the spoken text does not have to be complete, the trainees can pronounce only the most complex, significant elements of the action, which contributes to its further mental folding and generalization.

5.Stage automated action.Trainees automatically perform the practiced action, even without mentally controlling themselves whether it is performed correctly. This indicates that the action has been internalized, passed into the internal plan, and the need for an external support has disappeared.

Expected result:full indicative basis of action

Flaw:this concept is not unconditionally recognized by all psychologists. It is pointed out, for example, that it is unlawful to separate inner speech from the first two stages: inner speech, as a form of internal development of thought, is important at all stages cognitive process and is a speech means of expressing actions. The mental actions themselves are diverse in their psychological structure, and there are hardly any grounds for reducing them to the indicated tripartite scheme. It is also noted that it is far from always necessary and rational to go through all these stages sequentially when learning. It seems insufficiently substantiated the desire to so sharply differentiate and isolate one stage from another, while there are no sharp boundaries between them. In addition, this concept has not yet been developed with sufficient completeness for the entire learning process, especially for its creative side. Nevertheless, it is certainly of great interest, and the practical results of training by this method are very effective.

4. Theory of programmed learning (L.N. Landa, V.V. Okon)

The essence of the theory:programmed learning is not only learning with the help of various learning machines, learning devices. Programmed learning can be either machine-based (using technical means) or machine-less. The main thing is feedback in the "teacher-student" system and continuous monitoring of the work of each student, which makes the educational process fully manageable.

An algorithm is a system of instructions (prescriptions) about these actions, about which of them and how to perform them. An algorithmic process is a system of actions (operations) with an object, it "is nothing more than a consistent and ordered selection of certain elements in this or that object." Programmed learning involves such an organization of learning when the student cannot take the next step in assimilation without mastering the previous one. To do this, the educational material is divided into small portions (which are called "steps", "frames", "doses"), located in a strict logical sequence. Such a construction of educational material is called a "program". These "portions" are sequentially presented to students and can be addressed both to the visual analyzer (in the form of text, drawings, diagrams, drawings), and auditory (recordings on tape during training foreign language) or both at the same time.

Expected result:programmed learning really provides control over every step cognitive activity and thus makes it possible to fully control the learning process.

Flaw:the complexity and laboriousness of creating training programs, educational and methodological tools, a certain formality of training.

. Problem-Based Learning Theory (M.I. Makhmutov, A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev)

The essence of the theory:problem-based learning is new system rules for applying previously known methods of learning and teaching, built taking into account logic of mental operations(analysis, generalization, etc.) and patterns of search activity of students(problem situation, cognitive interest, needs, etc.). Therefore, it provides the most the development of the student's mental abilities, his general development and the formation of beliefs.

Problem-based learning is based on the analytical and synthetic activity of students, implemented in reasoning, reflection. This is a heuristic, exploratory type of learning with great developmental potential. In problem-based learning, the teacher's activity consists in the fact that, when necessary, he gives an explanation of the content of the most complex concepts, systematically creates problem situations, informs students of facts and organizes their educational and cognitive activity in such a way that, based on the analysis of facts, students independently draw conclusions and generalizations. , formulate (with the help of a teacher) definitions of concepts, rules, theorems, laws, or independently apply known knowledge in a new situation (invent, design, plan, make), or, finally, artistically reflect reality (write poems, essays, draw, are playing).

As a result, students develop the skills of mental operations and actions, the skills of transferring knowledge, develop attention, will, creative imagination, conjecture, develop the ability to discover new knowledge and find new ways of acting by putting forward hypotheses and substantiating them.

problem situation -this is an intellectual difficulty of a person that arises when he does not know how to explain the phenomenon, fact, process of reality that has arisen, cannot achieve the goal by the method of action known to him. This encourages a person to look for a new way of explaining or a way of acting. A problem situation is a pattern of productive, creative cognitive activity. It determines the beginning of thinking, active mental activity takes place in the process of posing and solving problems.

Expected result:the formation of a harmoniously, comprehensively developed personality. The most important indicator of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality is the presence of a high level of mental abilities. If learning leads to development creativity, then it can be considered developing in the modern sense of the word, if not, then we can talk about the activation of the learning process, about its effectiveness (in the sense of mastering the program material by schoolchildren and their general development), but no more. The purpose of problem-based learning is the assimilation of not only the results of scientific knowledge, the system of knowledge, but also the path itself, the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student's cognitive independence and the development of his creative abilities.

Flaw:sometimes you can hear statements about the combination of traditional and problem-based learning methods. It seems that this can be said with a big reservation. Theoretically, the methods of these two didactic systems are based on diametrically opposed principles. In practice, the combination of explanatory-illustrative education and problem-based education is possible only because of the weak development of the theory of the latter. Firstly, within the same subject, the teacher conducts problematic and non-problematic lessons, without creating problematic situations and without organizing students' performance. independent work creative nature, i.e., as if deliberately lowering the effectiveness of training. Secondly, within the curriculum, one teacher conducts problem-based learning, and the other explanatory and illustrative. Sometimes these differences are difficult to establish: methodically illiterately organized problematic.

6. Theory of contextual learning (A.A. Verbitsky)

The essence of the theory:“Sign-contextual” or “contextual” learning is now quite widespread in professional (higher and secondary) education. In this direction of learning, educational information is presented in the form of educational texts (“signs”), and the tasks constructed on the basis of the information contained in them set the context for future professional activity. According to A.A. Verbitsky, the subject and social content of future professional activity is modeled in the educational process by all didactic means, forms, methods, among which one of the main places is business game. As you know, the business game is a fairly common, multi-variant form of modern university and postgraduate education. In the concept of A.A. Verbitsky and his followers, the business game is educational.

The business educational game serves, first of all, as a “tool” for the development of the theoretical and practical thinking of a specialist: the ability to analyze complex production conditions, set and solve subjectively new professional tasks for the student. This is achieved by organizing the interaction of game participants with the cognizable content of professional activity, set in the game constructively in the form of a system problematic assignments or specific work situations.

Expected result:development of a creative, active personality of a professional.

Flaw:As applied to university education, this theory encounters two fundamental difficulties that prevent the wide dissemination of this approach. The first is that the mastery of professional activity should be provided within the framework and means of a qualitatively different educational activity, structurally and functionally isomorphic professional activity, but characterized by its inherent features, in fact, allowing it to be considered as an educational activity. The second difficulty is a consequence of the first - the form of organization of educational activity, and, consequently, the educational activity itself is not adequate to the forms of acquired professional activity.

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General concept of didactics

The components of a holistic pedagogical process, as noted above, are training and education. They flow in unity and interconnection. However, each of these components has its own characteristics, independent significance, therefore, in pedagogy, it is more traditional to consider them separately.

The central place in the structure of the pedagogical process is occupied by the learning process, during which knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired, personal qualities are formed that allow a person to adapt to external conditions and show his individuality.

Theoretical foundations of the organization of the learning process, its patterns, principles, methods, etc. studies the most important branch of pedagogy - didactics. A significant contribution to the development of didactics as a science was made by Ya.A. Comenius, I.G. Pestalozzi, I.F. Herbart, D. Dewey, K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Kapterev, M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov, M.N. Skatkin, L.V. Zankov and other scientists.

The term "didactics" comes from the Greek words "didaktikos" - teaching and "didasko" - studying. This concept was first introduced into scientific circulation by the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke (1571–1635) to denote the art of teaching (in the course of lectures “A Brief Report from Didactics, or the Art of Learning by Ratichius”).

The great Czech educator JashAmos Comenius in his work "Great Didactics" called this science "the universal art of teaching everything to everyone", including, however, education in its structure. German teacher I.F. Herbart at the beginning of the 20th century. gave didactics the status of a holistic theory of nurturing education.

As pedagogy developed, didactics concentrated its attention more and more on the development of problems in the theory of learning. The problems of upbringing are not independently considered in didactics, although neither training nor education without upbringing exists. It follows that didactics is a pedagogical theory of learning that provides a scientific justification for its content, methods and organizational forms. .

Didactics is the science of teaching and education, their goals, content, methods, means and organizational forms.

IN AND. Andreev believes that such a definition is not complete enough, since, firstly, there is not one, but several sufficiently substantiated and effective theories of education and training: developmental, problematic, modular, differentiated, computer and other types and types of education. Secondly, especially in last years in pedagogy, the idea that didactics does not end with the theory of education and training, but goes to the level of technology of education, is increasingly being carried out more and more consistently and in detail. Therefore, the author believes that the following definition will be more complete: didactics is the science of theories of education and learning technologies .

Didactics as a science has its own subject.The subject of didactics- regularities and principles of education, its goals, scientific foundations of the content of education, methods, forms, means of education.

Distinguish between general and particular didactics. General didactics explores the learning process, along with the factors that give rise to it, the conditions in which it takes place, and the results to which it leads. It studies the regularities, analyzes the dependencies that determine the course and results of the learning process, determines the methods, organizational forms and means that ensure the implementation of the planned goals and the solution of the tasks set.

Private didacticsstudy the patterns of the course of the learning process, the content, forms and methods of teaching various subjects. Private didactics callteaching methods (of the corresponding academic subject).

How the science of didactics deals with the development of problems:

1. why to teach (goals of education, training);
2. whom to teach (subjects of learning);
3. what learning strategies are most effective (principles of learning);
4. what to teach (content of education, training);
5. how to teach (teaching methods);
6. how to organize training (forms of organization of training);
7. what teaching aids are needed (textbooks, teaching aids, computer programs, didactic material, etc.);
8. what is achieved as a result of training (criteria and indicators characterizing the results of training);
9. how to control and evaluate learning outcomes (methods of monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes).

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Learning as a didactic process

Consideration of this issue should begin with clarification of the essence pedagogical categories"learning" and "learning process". Sometimes they are considered as identical concepts. But it is not always the case. The concept of "learning" defines the phenomenon, while the concept of "learning process" (or "learning process") is the development of the process in time and space, the successive change of its stages.

For a long time, the learning process was basically understood only as teaching, i.e. teacher activity. Over time, a broader meaning began to be invested in this concept, paying special attention to the activities of students.

The learning process is a complex process of objective reality. It includes a large number of various connections and relations of many factors of various orders and nature. Therefore, it is difficult to give a complete and comprehensive definition of it. In the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia, the learning process is understood as "the joint purposeful activity of the teacher and students, during which the development of the personality, its education and upbringing" are carried out. .

Yu.K. Babansky believes: “The learning process is a purposeful interaction between the teacher and students, during which the tasks of educating students are solved” .

A more capacious definition of this concept is given by I.P. Podlasy: "The learning process is a specially organized, goal-setting and controlled process of interaction between teachers and students, aimed at mastering knowledge, skills, shaping a worldview, developing the mental strength and potential of students, consolidating self-education skills in accordance with the goals" .

From all that has been said, it can be concluded thatlearning process- this is a purposeful process of interaction between teachers and trainees, during which education, upbringing and development of the latter are carried out.

The learning process is two-way. It includes two organically interrelated activities: teaching - the teaching activity of the teacher in organizing the assimilation of educational material and doctrine - the activity of students in the assimilation of knowledge. The link between them is the content of education, which mediates joint activities.

Learning is based on knowledge, skills and abilities, which represent for the teacher the basic components of the content of this process and are perceived by students as learning products.

The most important element of teaching is motives, those. motives by which the student is guided, carrying out certain educational actions or educational activities in general. A multitude of motives of various properties induces the teaching, each of which does not act in isolation, but in interaction with others. Among the intellectually motivating motives, a special place is occupied bycognitive interests and needs.Their development is facilitated by a high level of education with its truly scientific content and pedagogically expedient organization of active and independent cognition.

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Functions of the learning process

The learning process performs a number of functions: educational, developmental, educational, incentive and organizational. They act as a complex, but in order to properly organize practical activities, plan training tasks, they should be considered separately.

educational functionthe learning process lies in the fact that it is aimed primarily at the formation of knowledge, skills, experience creative activity.

Knowledge - this is the understanding, storage in memory and reproduction of facts, information, concepts, rules, laws, theories, formulas, characteristics, etc.

In the process of learning, scientific knowledge should become the property of the individual, enter the structure of her experience. The implementation of this function ensures the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, their strength and effectiveness. At the same time, students receive information on the basics of sciences and types of activity, they lay the foundations for consciously operating with the acquired knowledge, using them to solve life problems.

The educational function also assumes that learning is aimed not only at obtaining knowledge by students, but also at developing their skills and abilities.

Skill - is the ability to perform certain operations (actions), based on the rules. Or: skill is the possession of ways to apply knowledge in practice.

Skill is an automated component of conscious activity. In other words, this is a skill brought to automatism, a high degree of perfection.

Skills are formed as a result of exercises. Repeated repetition is necessary to develop skills.

Skills and abilities are general education and special The latter include practical skills and abilities specific to the respective subject and branch of science. For example, in physics and chemistry, this is laboratory experiments, demonstrations; in geography - work with a map, large-scale measurements, orientation using a compass and other instruments; in biology - work with herbariums, models, collections, preparations, a microscope; in mathematics - work with a slide rule, computers, various types of models, etc.

In addition to special in the learning process, students master general educational skills that are relevant to all subjects. For example, the skills of reading and writing, the rational organization of independent cognitive activity, the ability to work with textbooks, reference books, bibliographic apparatus, etc.

As already mentioned, the learning process, simultaneously with the educational one, also implements the educational function.educational functionlearning objectively follows from the very nature of this social process. It consists in the fact that in the process of learning, students develop views, a scientific worldview, an understanding of the laws of nature, society and thinking, moral and aesthetic ideas, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, to comply with the laws adopted in it. In the learning process, the needs of the individual, motives for activity, social behavior, values ​​and value orientations are also formed.

The content of education has opportunities for upbringing, first of all. All academic subjects have one or another educational potential. Humanities and socio-economic disciplines have great opportunities for the formation of personal qualities of students. The content of the disciplines of the natural science cycle contributes to the formation of a worldview, a unified picture of the world in the minds of students, and the development of views on life and activity on this basis.

The educational impact in the learning process is also exerted by the nature of communication between the teacher and the student, students among themselves, the psychological climate in the team. There are different styles of communication between participants in the pedagogical process: authoritarian, democratic, liberal. Modern pedagogy believes that the best is democratic, which combines a humane, respectful attitude of the teacher to students, providing them with a certain independence, involving them in the organization of the learning process.

Education always educates, but not automatically and sometimes not in the right direction, therefore, the implementation of the educational function of education requires the organization of the educational process, the selection of its content, the choice of forms and methods, to proceed from the correctly understood tasks of education.

Simultaneously with the educational and educational functions, the learning process implements anddevelopmental function.In the process of learning, in addition to the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by students, their development takes place. Moreover, it is carried out in all directions: the development of speech, thinking, sensory and motor spheres of the personality, emotional-volitional and need-motivational areas. “Learning leads to development” - states one of the important laws of psychology, formulated by L.S. Vygotsky. It is promoted both by the content of education, the methods and forms of teaching used, and the active, diverse, conscious activity of students.

Although properly delivered training always develops, however, this function is more successfully implemented in the presence of a special orientation. In theory and practice, special training technologies have been developed that pursue precisely the Goals of personal development. A significant contribution to the creation of a system of developmental education was made by domestic scientists P.A. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin and others.

AND I. Galperin and N.F. Talyzin developed a theory of the gradual formation of mental actions. L.V. Zankov substantiated a set of principles for the development of thinking in the learning process: an increase in the proportion of theoretical material, learning at a fast pace and at a high level of difficulty, ensuring that students are aware of their learning activities. A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov developed the foundations of problem-based learning. AND I. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin proposed a system of developing teaching methods, V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin - the concept of meaningful generalization in education, G.I. Schukin - ways to enhance the cognitive activity of students. D. Kabalevsky, I. Volkov developed a methodological system that contributes to the development of the emotional sphere, the richness of feelings, experiences from the perception of nature and art, surrounding people.

Currently, there are many technologies that successfully implement the developmental function of learning (see lecture 11).

In addition to educational, upbringing and developing, some scientists also distinguish motivating and organizing learning functions. The learning process must be built in such a way that it encourages students to further educational and cognitive actions, organizes them to learn new things.

It is indisputable that all the functions of the learning process are interdependent and are implemented in all its didactic components.

Preview:

Methodological foundations of training

There are various methodological approaches to explaining the essence of learning. Of the foreign concepts, the most common, revealing the mechanisms of learning, are behavioral and pragmatic theories.

behavioral theoryhas become widespread in teaching practice USA and many European countries. Its adherents consider all the phenomena of mental life as a set of behavioral acts. They identify the psyche of man and animals, reduce all complex life activity to the formula "stimulus - reaction". From their point of view, the learning process is the art of controlling stimuli in order to cause or prevent certain reactions, and the learning process is a set of reactions to stimuli and stimulating situations. The development of consciousness is identified with the formation of students' reactions, i.e. they see learning as developing the ability to respond in a certain way to certain situations, and not as developing the ability to act or think.

Thus, the conscious activity of a person in the learning process is explained not by mental, but by physiological processes. Conscious actions of students are replaced by purely reflex ones. Behaviorists see the difference between a person and highly organized animals in that he can be influenced by secondary, verbal, stimuli, to which responses also occur.

Unlike the behaviorists pragmatists reduce learning only to the expansion personal experience student, so that he adapts as best as possible to the existing social order. Education can only contribute to the manifestation of the possibilities inherent in a person from birth. Therefore, its goal is to teach the child to live. And that means adapting to environment, satisfy personal interests and needs without focusing on the social environment, based on a subjectively understood benefit.

In accordance with these views, pragmatists argue that learning is a purely individual process. They do not consider it necessary to form systematic knowledge, skills, and, therefore, deny the scientific substantiation of curricula and programs. Pragmatists belittle the importance of the teacher in the learning process, assigning him the role of an assistant, a consultant. For them, the main mechanism and, accordingly, the method of obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities is “learning through doing”, i.e. implementation of practical tasks, exercises.

In addition to behaviorism and pragmatism, there are other theories of learning. Some of them reject both physiological and psychological foundations educational process, reducing it only to the reactions occurring in the soul of the student. They either do not explain the mechanism for obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities, or they reduce it to intuition, insight, discretion, etc. This direction hasexistentialism and neo-Thomism which belittle the role of education, subordinate intellectual development to the education of the senses. The explanation of such a position comes from the assertion that it is possible to know only individual facts, but without their awareness, without taking into account the interconnection of patterns.

There are other approaches to explaining the learning mechanism. At present, most scientists share the point of view that the theoretical and methodological basis of education is materialistictheory of knowledge (epistemology),according to which the real world is objective and exists outside of human consciousness, it is knowable. Cognition is a reflection of reality in consciousness, active mental and emotional activity, the result of which is knowledge, generalizations in the form of theories, laws, scientific concepts.

The dialectical path of cognition of truth, objective reality goes from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice.

In the process of living contemplation, i.e. through sensations, perception, active study of objective reality, certain ideas about certain phenomena and objects arise. These representations form the basis for generalizations. Abstract thinking allows you to establish common signs cognizable phenomena, assimilate concepts, judgments, conclusions, establish essential, necessary, stable connections between phenomena, i.e. deduce certain laws and regularities.

All these provisions of epistemology are directly related to educational knowledge. Teaching is always connected with knowledge. The task of education is to make the laws of nature, the development of society and the mental processes of a person become the property of the students' consciousness.

There are many similarities between knowledge and learning. The student also knows the world. Teaching, therefore, can be regarded as a variety, a peculiar form of knowledge.

However, there are significant differences between cognition and learning:

1. knowledge is a socio-historical category. Over many centuries, scientists have discovered many patterns of development of nature, society and human thinking. This means that scientists learn the new in its original form, so it may be incomplete. In the process of learning, students perceive the known as new, assimilate the ideas, concepts, facts already accumulated by science. They, as it were, rediscover well-known truths for themselves, study simplified material, didactically adapted to the age-related learning opportunities and characteristics of students. In addition, educational cognition necessarily involves the direct or indirect influence of the teacher, and the scientist often dispenses with interpersonal interaction;
2. in the process of cognition, the path to discoveries is often a long period (sometimes centuries) of searches, experiments, scientific reflections, trial and error, testing in practice. In the educational process, the way of mastering knowledge is shorter, it is greatly facilitated by the skill of the teacher;
3. the process of cognition requires the perception of material or spiritual objects, while practice is the criterion of truth. It serves as an indispensable condition in the discovery of regularities. The logic of the process of cognition goes from living contemplation to comprehension and practice. In teaching, the teacher can change the links in the process of mastering knowledge, alternate or combine with practical skills and abilities.

Thus, there are both common features and differences between cognition and the learning process. The educational process develops according to its inherent internal logic based on the laws that occur in the mental activity of students.

Recently, however, works have appeared in which the teaching methodology is understood differently. VC. Dyachenko proves that learning and cognition are not only different, but in a certain sense opposite processes. Cognition is a kind of reflection of objects and phenomena of the objectively existing world, their properties, features, essences. Learning, on the other hand, is a joint activity of a teacher and a student, their real, primarily physical, communicative interaction through sounds and signs, with the help of language. If this physical, material interaction does not exist, then learning cannot take place.

Education is a practical activity of people, it is an objective reality, and knowledge is a reflection, a phenomenon of a secondary order.

Unlike cognition, which is a function of the brain, of the internal mental properties of a person, learning takes place in a classroom, workshop, or factory. These processes are opposite to the extent that real things and real phenomena are opposite to the concepts and ideas about them in people's heads.

If the essence of learning and the essence of cognition coincided, then both learning and cognition would take place in consciousness. But learning is a real, physical interaction of people teaching and learning, and it does not take place in their minds. Therefore, the theory of knowledge, no matter how detailed and concrete it may be stated in relation to learning, cannot serve as a methodological, scientific and theoretical basis for learning. It is necessary to analyze the interaction between the student and the teacher, carried out with the help of language, sounds and signs, that is, to consider learning not as a special case of cognition, but as a special case of communication. Therefore, the essence of learning is communication.

This is the position of V.K. Dyachenko . This approach has not received wide acceptance.

Questions and tasks for self-examination

1. What are the main theories explaining the essence of learning?
2. What do you think is the essence of learning - cognition or communication?
3. How are the processes of cognition and learning related?
4. Give a description of the main functions of the learning process.
5. Name the main links of the learning process. Describe them.

Literature

Main

1. Andreev V.I. Pedagogy of creative self-development: Innovative course. In 2 books. Book. 2. Kazan, 1998.

1. Pedagogy: Textbook / Ed. P.I. piddly. M., 2002.

1. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. New course: Textbook: In 2 books. Book. 1. M., 1999.

Additional

1. Davydov V.V. The theory of developmental learning. M., 1996.
2. Dyachenko V.K. New didactics. M., 2001.

1. Zagvyazinsky V.I.Theory of learning. Modern interpretation. M., 2001.
2. Kupisevich C. Fundamentals of general didactics: Per. from Polish. M., 1986.
3. Snegurov A.V. Pedagogy from A to Z: Useful entertaining book for children and adults. M., 1999.

The theory of learning is an independent part of the science of pedagogy. It is also commonly called didactics (from the Greek "didacticos" - educating, instructing). teachers in schools Ancient Greece They were called didascalas, because they were entrusted with the duty not only to give young people certain knowledge, but also to educate them as real citizens. Gradually, in the colloquial language, this concept acquired a contemptuous meaning: "the desire to teach everyone, to overly moralize."

But the German teacher W. Rathke returned the lost meaning to this term - the art of education or training. In the work of Jan Amos Comenius "Great Didactics" it is indicated that this theory applies not only to children at school, "it teaches everyone everything", and therefore it is universal. Indeed, in the course of our lives we learn something new every day, and how well we learn the information depends on the way it is presented. Methods, techniques and types of didactics were further developed by such prominent scientists as V.I. Zagvyazinsky, I.Ya. Lerner, I.P. Podlasy and Yu.K. Babanskiy.

Thus, modern learning theory explores the interaction and interrelationships of "educational" teaching with schoolchildren. She sets herself the task of improving the educational process, developing new effective ones. In addition, she describes and explains the process of upbringing and education. For example, didactics different stages encourages the use of various forms and methods of cognitive activity: teacher - students; schoolboy - book; child - class and others.

Thus, the theory of learning says that we acquire knowledge not by itself, not in isolation, but in unity with the principles of their presentation and the practice of their application. Moreover, each science has its own specifics of material presentation: physics, chemistry, and other applied disciplines are fundamentally different from the process of teaching music or philosophy. On this basis, didactics distinguishes subject methods. In addition, it is believed that this science performs two main functions: theoretical (gives general concepts to students) and practical (inculcates certain skills in them).

But also one should not discount the most important task of pedagogy - the education of an independent personality. A person not only needs to acquire theoretical knowledge and apply it as explained by the teacher, but also be creative in using these initial theories and practices in order to create something new. This area of ​​pedagogy is called "developing learning theory". Its foundations were put forward in the 18th century by Pestalozzi, pointing out that a person from birth has a striving

nie to development. The task of the teacher is to help these abilities develop to the fullest.

Soviet pedagogy proceeded from the principle that education and the acquisition of information must precede and lead the development of the inclinations and talents of students. Therefore, the domestic theory of learning is based on the following principles: a high level of difficulty for the entire class (calculated for the most gifted children); primacy of theoretical material; fast pace of mastering the material; students' awareness of the learning process. is focused on the potential of the student in order to “spur” them to fully open up.

didactics can be defined as .

Main groups tasks of modern didactics:

Ticket 2 The essence of learning as a pedagogical process

Education- this is a process of joint purposeful activity of a teacher and students, during which education, upbringing and development of the individual is carried out (Fig. 4.1).

. The essence of the educational process

Learning is a process, the flow of which is subject to a certain logic, and therefore can be studied, managed and predicted. The learning process is otherwise called the educational or didactic process.

Social orientation learning is manifested in the fact that learning is one of the best ways of social adaptation of a person, i.e. preparation of a person for life in society.

The essence of learning can be expressed through the following features of the modern didactic process:

The bilateral nature of the process (teaching - learning);

Joint activities of teacher and student;

Leadership role of the teacher;

Special systematic organization of the whole process;

Compliance of the educational process with regularities age development students;

Education and development of students in the learning process.

Logics of the educational process reflects the path of cognition that the student follows in the learning process. The logic of the educational process depends on the age and level of preparedness of students, on the characteristics of the material being studied, on the goals and objectives of the educational process. For example, in primary school the traditional logic of learning prevails: the perception of specific objects and phenomena → the formation of ideas → the generalization of individual ideas → the formation of general concepts. In the middle and senior grades, almost simultaneously with the perception of specific objects and phenomena, scientific concepts can be introduced, principles can be explained.

Structure the educational process is the construction of the learning process, the unity, interconnection and interaction of its individual components (I. F. Kharlamov):

Target (set goals and objectives of education, upbringing and development of students);

Motivational-need-based (motives for teaching and learning, the need for the transfer and perception of knowledge and experience);

Activity-operational ( educational technologies);

Emotional-volitional (cognitive interests and responsibility in the educational process);

Control and adjustment (control of the course of the educational process, its correction);

Evaluative-effective (objective assessment of learning outcomes based on a comparison of the result with the target component).

Ticket3 Functions of the learning process

The main functions of training: educational, educational, developing. These functions have historically been assigned to the learning process, their implementation ensures the full development and successful socialization of the personality of students.

educational function consists in the formation of knowledge, skills, experience of creative activity.

educational function associated with the formation of students' morality, aesthetic ideas and tastes, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow social norms of behavior.

Developmental function consists in the fact that in the process of learning the child develops in all directions: his speech, thinking, emotional-volitional, motivational-need and sensory-motor spheres of the personality develop.

The problem of the unity and interconnection of learning functions lies in the fact that in order to form a student's basic personality culture, for his harmonious development, the educational process must be carried out in such a way that its functions are inseparable, implemented in all components of learning: in the complex of lesson tasks, in the content of the educational material, in the system of methods, techniques, forms and means of teaching, etc.

Ticket 4 Contradictions as driving forces of the learning process

driving forces learning process is based on its contradictions. The learning process, due to its complexity and versatility, is very controversial. Movement, i.e. the course of the educational process is achieved through the constant resolution of emerging contradictions.

contradictions learning processes are manifested between the cognitive and practical tasks that arise in the course of training, which require students to solve, and the level of knowledge, skills, mental development and value relations that students have. Each time, faced with a task, the solution of which requires the development of new knowledge and experience, the student, with the help of the teacher, is forced to overcome these contradictions.

Contradiction becomes the driving force of learning if...

a) it is recognized by the student as requiring permission;

b) the resolution of the contradiction is feasible for a student of a given level of development;

c) this contradiction is a natural link in the system of contradictions that require gradual resolution.

Ticket 6 Principles of learning

Learning principles- these are fundamental provisions that reflect the general requirements for the organization of the educational process. Principles are formulated on the basis scientific analysis learning process, correlate with its laws, with the goals and objectives of education, with the level of development of pedagogical science, with the capabilities of the existing education system.

Today there is no unity of opinion on the issue of the principles of education, the authors of various teaching aids offer different formulations and a different number of principles. So, I.P. Podlasy believes that the system of basic didactic principles should include the following principles: 1) consciousness and activity; 2) visibility; 3) consistency and systematic; 4) strength; 5) accessibility; 6) scientific character; 7) links between theory and practice. P.I. Pidkasisty and V.V. Voronov adds to them the principle of the developing and educating nature of education and the principle of a rational combination of collective and individual forms of educational work.

However, with all the variety of existing approaches, it is possible to single out a number of principles that have passed the long test of time and are present - one way or another - in the vast majority of modern textbooks and manuals on pedagogy. Let's look at these principles.

Scientific principle orients the teacher to the formation of scientific knowledge in students. It is implemented in the analysis of educational material, highlighting important ideas in it, using reliable scientific knowledge, facts and examples, as well as standard scientific terms. The implementation of this principle requires the teacher ...

Correct the actual errors of students and organize the search and correction of such errors in the classroom;

Apply the latest scientific terminology, do not use outdated terms;

Keep abreast of the latest scientific advances in your subject;

Encourage research work schoolchildren;

Find an opportunity to introduce schoolchildren to the technique of experimental work, the algorithm for solving inventive problems, the use of reference materials, archival documents, and the processing of primary sources.

The principle of consistency determines the need to form a complete system of knowledge and skills, topics and sections of educational material among students. The principle of consistency is implemented in a set of rules, among which are the following:

Use plans, schemes, in order to ensure the assimilation of the knowledge system by students;

Divide the content of the educational material into logical completed parts (i.e. apply a “step-by-step system”), consistently implement these parts (steps, stages) and accustom students to this;
- prevent violations of the system in the content and methods of teaching, and if it is violated, then immediately neutralize the gaps in order to prevent poor progress;

State the foundations of the theory, explain the consequences of the theory and show the limits of its application.

The principle of accessibility (feasibility)– reflection of principles sequences and gradualism teachings that have been known since antiquity.

Perhaps one of the most convincing examples of the implementation of these principles is the story of the invincible ancient wrestler Milo, who lived in the 4th century BC. In his youth, Milon trained by carrying a small calf on his shoulders daily. The calf grew, gradually becoming heavier. However, the young man at that time developed physically, and could still wear it on himself.

The essence of the principle of accessibility is that you first need to identify early-formed knowledge and skills, and only then gradually implement new stages of learning. The principle of accessibility does not mean that learning should take place without effort on the part of the student, however, overcoming the difficulties that arise should be within his powers. To comply with this principle, it is necessary to follow a number of rules:

To achieve the coincidence of the rate of communication of information and the speed of its assimilation by students;

Orient students to understanding and comprehension of the material being studied, and not to memorization and cramming;

When teaching, proceed from the level of preparedness of students, rely on their capabilities;

Study and take into account the life experience, interests, characteristics of the development of students, etc.

The principle of visibility consists not only in illustrating the subject and phenomenon under study, but in the use of a whole range of techniques and means that ensure the formation of a clear and distinct perception of the knowledge communicated by the teacher. Here are some of the rules for effective implementation of the visibility principle:

Use in teaching the pattern according to which the memorization of objects presented visually (for example, on models or pictures) is better than if they are described only in verbal form;

Using visual aids, do not get carried away with an excessive amount of visual aids;

When using visual aids, do not limit yourself to just showing them, but explain and comment on the visual material;

Carefully prepare the types of visualization for use, thinking through the didactic techniques accompanying them;

In the selection of visual aids, take into account the age characteristics of students.

The principle of consciousness and activity is aimed at forming students' motivation for learning, cognitive needs, conviction in the need to study the material, interest in learning. The essence of the principle is that the teacher must achieve understanding (and not mechanical memorization) of the theoretical material by the students and their comprehension of practical actions, encourage them to active learning actions, and stimulate independence in cognition. As a recommendation for practical application This principle can be summarized as follows:

Use the opportunities of mutual learning;

Organize competition and partnership of students;

Provide conditions for the collective search for the correct answer;

Enter into the learning process entertaining tasks, game elements;

To teach to find the secondary and the main thing in the studied material;

Use real life situations in teaching and require students to independently understand, see the differences between the facts observed in life and their scientific explanation.

The standard is the sample, the norm

State educational standard- a system of basic parameters accepted as the state norm of education, reflecting the social ideal and taking into account the possibilities of the individual and the education system to achieve this ideal (V.S. Lednev).

The legal basis for the state standardization of education is contained in Constitution of the Russian Federation, according to which the Russian Federation establishes federal state educational standards(Article 43.5), as well as in the Law of the Russian Federation "On education"(adopted in 1992, expires on 09/01/2013) and the new Federal Law "On Education in the Russian Federation"(2012) , which comes into effect on 01.09.2013.

The main reasons for the state standardization of the content of education:

· it is necessary to ensure a single minimum level of education received in different types of educational institutions in Russia;

It is necessary to take into account the trends in the development of education in the world (on a national scale, it is more rational to do this centrally.

1. Ensuring the unity of the formed space R.F.

2. Ensuring acceptability

3. Variability of providing educational programs

4. Providing guarantees of the quality of education and guarantees of the appropriate level

Types of requirements:

1. To the structure of the mandatory part and part of the formation of educational relations by the participants.

2. Requirements for the results of the development of the BEP

3. To the conditions for the implementation of the main educational program primary general education.

The Federal State Educational Standards (FSES) of general education that are in force in Russia today are the main documents regulating the content of general education for each of its levels. Separate GEFs have been developed for primary, basic, complete (secondary) general education, and each of them is approved by a separate order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.
At the same time, all GEFs are successive, any of them has the following structure.
I. General provisions.
II. Requirements for the results of mastering the main educational program.

· Personal Outcomes mastering the main educational program. (self-determination, the meaning of the formation of motivation for learning, moral orientation)

· Meta-subject results of mastering the main educational program.

· Subject results of mastering the main educational program.

III. Requirements for the structure of the main educational program.
IV. Requirements for the conditions for the implementation of the main educational program.

Ticket 10 Curriculum: essence, types. Basic academic plan: tasks, parts, construction options

Academic plan fixes the recommended composition of subjects and the distribution of study time between them. It has the form of a table, in which, for each subject, the number of lessons per week for each year of study is indicated. There are three main types of curriculum:

Basic;

Typical;

School curriculum.

Basic Plan secondary school- the main state regulatory document, which is part of GOST in the field of education. It serves as the basis for the development of model and work plans and is the source document for school funding.

The basic curriculum for the basic school is approved by the State Duma, and the full high school approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation.

Individual curriculum: developed for distance learning

Curriculum - a normative document according to which a particular school works; certificate of an educational institution, which determines:

a) duration school year, duration of quarters and holidays;

b) a complete list of subjects that are studied in this educational institution;

c) distribution of subjects by years of study;

d) the number of hours for each subject for the entire time of study and for studying the subject in each class;

e) the number of hours per week for studying each subject;

f) the structure and duration of workshops, camp fees, extracurricular activities.

There are 2 types of curricula in an educational institution:

1) school curriculum - developed on the basis of the state basic curriculum for a long period;

2) a working curriculum - developed on the basis of GOST, taking into account current conditions and approved by the school's teachers' council annually.

The curriculum is divided into 3 main training sessions:

Compulsory classes;

Compulsory classes at the choice of students;

Optional classes.

Basic Curriculum

The basic educational (educational) plan of educational institutions of the Russian Federation is the most important regulatory document for the introduction of federal state educational standards general education into action, determines the maximum volume of the teaching load of students, the composition of academic subjects and areas of extracurricular activities, distributes the study time allotted for mastering the content of education by grade, academic subjects.

The basic educational (educational) plan of educational institutions consists of two parts: an invariant part, a variable part, including extracurricular activities carried out in the afternoon.

For the first stage of general education, four possible options for the curriculum are presented.

Options 1 and 2 of the basic curriculum (educational) plan are intended for educational institutions where education is conducted in Russian.

Option 3 of the basic curriculum (educational) plan is intended for general educational institutions where education is conducted in Russian, but along with it one of the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia is studied.

Option 4 of the basic curriculum (educational) plan is intended for general education institutions where education is conducted in the native (non-Russian) language.

Estimation errors

The main typical subjective errors in assessment at school and university include:

generosity, condescension. Manifested in the overestimation of grades. The extreme form of generosity in the assessments of the trainees was percentage mania, which is now eradicated in schools;

transfer of sympathy or antipathy from the student to the assessment (mark);

Mood rating.

lack of firm criteria (for weak answers, the teacher can put high marks or vice versa);

Central tendency (manifested in the desire to avoid extreme marks, for example, do not put deuces and fives);

· instability of the system (the teacher either does not ask for a long time, or the whole lesson conducts a survey);

the proximity of the assessment to the one that was set earlier (for example, in previous exams by other teachers or a teacher it is difficult to immediately put a five after a deuce);

halo errors (manifested in the teacher's tendency to evaluate only positively or negatively those students to whom he treats, respectively, either positively or negatively);

transferring the assessment for behavior to the assessment for subject;

Overestimation or underestimation of marks, etc.

However, behind each deliberate overestimation and underestimation, there may be a different meaning. For example, giving a positive grade to a weak student can be perceived as a factor in psychological support for him in educational advancement. Therefore, not all subjective value judgments should be considered as errors.

Features of the technique

Problem-based learning was based on the ideas of the American psychologist, philosopher and educator J. Dewey (1859-1952), who in 1894 founded an experimental school in Chicago, in which the basis of learning was not the curriculum, but games and work. Methods, techniques, new teaching principles used in this school were not theoretically substantiated and formulated in the form of a concept, but became widespread in the 20-30s of the 20th century. In the USSR, they were also used and even considered as revolutionary, but in 1932 they were declared a scheme and banned.

The scheme of problem-based learning is presented as a sequence of procedures, including: the setting by the teacher of an educational-problem task, the creation of a problem situation for students; awareness, acceptance and resolution of the problem that has arisen, in the process of which they master generalized ways of acquiring new knowledge; application of these methods for solving specific systems of problems.

The main thing in problem-based learning is the creation problematic situation.

Problematic - main condition development of the object (the world) and the subject (man) - can be considered as a dialectical category, side by side with others, or as the main feature of these categories in development, or as the main principle of their action, activity, or as the need to act.

Problematic situation - way revealing an objectively existing problem, expressed explicitly or implicitly, which manifests itself as a mental state of intellectual difficulty in the interaction of subject and object.

Problematic task - means creating a problem situation - has a shell, materialized in its formulation (oral or written), focused on the needs and capabilities of the subject.

Problematization is a mechanism underlying the discovery of the problematic nature of the object by the subject, materialized in this problematic task.

Problem - contradiction - a unit of the content and process of movement in the material and ideal space, generating the process of development of the world and man and generated developed person. This process is continuous.

Main psychological conditions for the successful application of problem-based learning

1. Problem situations should meet the goals of forming a knowledge system.

2. Be accessible to students

3. Must cause their own cognitive activity and activity.

4. Tasks should be such that the student could not complete them based on existing knowledge, but sufficient for independent analysis of the problem and finding the unknown.

Advantages of problem-based learning:

1. High independence of students;

2. Formation of cognitive interest or personal motivation of the student;

Problem-based learning includes several stages:

1) awareness of the general problem situation;

2) its analysis, formulation of a specific problem;

3) problem solving (promotion, substantiation of hypotheses, their consistent verification);

4) checking the correctness of the solution to the problem.

Binary teaching methods.

Reporting the teaching method is a system of techniques that provide the teacher with facts or conclusions without sufficient explanation, generalization and systematization.

Executive The method of teaching is a combination of techniques that characterize the student's learning activity, mainly according to the model, using previously acquired skills. This method involves: listening to the teacher's story, memorizing the facts and conclusions presented by the teacher without critical analysis and comprehension.

Explanatory the method consists of a system of techniques, including reports and generalizations by the teacher of the facts of a given science, their description and explanation.

reproductive teaching method - a system of such techniques as listening and understanding, perception, observation, systematization of facts, solving typical problems, analysis, and the like. It is used to comprehend the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, to process skills and abilities, to memorize educational material.

instructive teaching method. The teacher instructs the students what to do and shows them how to do it. Used to organize practical activities students.

Practical teaching method involves practical and physical learning as the main activity. This method is a combination of techniques:

a) processing the skills of practical actions for the manufacture of objects or their processing in order to improve, modify.

b) activities related to technical modeling and design, rationalization and invention.

explanatory and motivating the teaching method is a combination of methods of explaining and encouraging the student to independent actions of a search nature. The learning material is partly explained by the teacher and partly given by the student in the form

problematic tasks, questions, assignments for independent assimilation by discovering new knowledge.

Partial search the teaching method is a combination of the perception of the teacher's explanations by the student with his own search activity for the performance of work requiring independent passage of all stages of the cognitive process. The predominant teaching methods here are most often listening and understanding, analyzing facts, systematizing, and finding solutions to problems.

motivating The method of teaching is the activity of the teacher, which encourages active mental activity of the student.

Search the method of teaching represents the mental actions of formulating a problem and finding a way to solve it.

Problem-Based Learning Functions

1. development of creative potentials and formation of structures of creative activity;

2. creative assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity;

3. creative mastery of the methods of modern science.

The difficulties of problem-based learning include the fact that it always causes difficulty for students in the learning process, so it takes much more time to comprehend and find solutions than traditional learning. In addition, the development of problem-based learning technology requires a great pedagogical skill and a lot of time from the teacher. In my opinion, knowing the level of intellectual development of students in their class and working in the system, these difficulties can be avoided.

Ticket1 Learning theory as a section of pedagogy

Learning theory (didactics) is traditionally viewed as a relatively independent part pedagogical science. Modern didactics is designed to implement the ideas of humane pedagogy, aimed at the formation of a free, creative, socially active, useful and successful personality. Knowledge of the theory of learning is necessary for every teacher, since the tasks of education, upbringing and development of students in pedagogical activity most effectively solved based on scientific knowledge.

Didactics (from the Greek didaktikos - "teaching, teaching") - the theory of learning.

Even in ancient Greece, a teacher teaching at school was called a didascal. The term "didactics" appeared in the 17th century. It was introduced by V. Rathke in the meaning of "the art of learning." Ya.A. Comenius in his book "Great Didactics" defined didactics as "the universal art of teaching everyone everything", including both training and education in the range of issues studied by didactics. However, with the development of pedagogical science, didactics gradually focused its attention exclusively on the educational process.

Based on the most recognized definitions in pedagogical science (Yu.K. Babansky, I.Ya. Lerner, I.P. Podlasy, V.I. Zagvyazinsky), the modern didactics can be defined as a relatively independent section of pedagogy, a science that studies the theoretical and methodological foundations of education, provides scientific justification for the goals, content, methods, means, organization of training and education.

The subject of modern didactics is the relationship and interaction of teaching (learning educational activities of the teacher) and learning (educational and cognitive activities of students).

Main groups tasks of modern didactics:

1) describe and explain the learning process and the conditions for its flow;

2) improve the learning process, develop new, more effective learning systems and educational technologies.

Today, didactics covers various directions of research of the educational process:

Explores the essence and patterns of learning, the general principles of the organization of the educational process;

Studies and develops ways to enhance the cognitive activity of students;

Determines the pedagogical foundations of the content of education;

Develops a system of teaching methods, techniques and rules, determines the conditions for their effective application;

Develops and improves forms, types, systems, training models;

Improves the organization of teaching and learning processes in various types of educational institutions.