This influence can be more or less hidden or obvious positive friendly benevolent or negative conflict hostile. Types of communication: 1 according to the position of the communicants in space and time - contact and distant communication; 2 by the presence or absence of any mediating apparatus direct contact and mediated indirect; 3 according to the form of the language - oral and written; 4 from the point of view of the position of the speaker and the listener - dialogical and monologue; 5 in terms of the number of participants...

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abstract

Psychology of communication and methods of influencing people on each other. Mechanisms of socio-psychological impact

It is necessary to understand the very concept of "communication" and to find the variety of its definitions. Communication - a complex, multifaceted process that simultaneously acts as an information process, interaction and attitude of people to each other, as a process of mutual influence on each other and a process of empathy and mutual understanding. Communication - intentional mutual influence on the behavior, state, attitudes, level of activity and activity of the partner; in the course of communication, psychological contact arises, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual experience, mutual influence, mutual understanding, etc.

Main functions of communication:1) information and communication (associated with the reception and transmission of information, people's knowledge of each other); 2) regulatory and communicative (regulation by people of each other's behavior, organization of joint activities); 3) affective-communicative (determine the emotional sphere of a person). In a real act of communication, all functions are intertwined. Communication is always a process of mutual influence. This influence may begreater or lesser, hidden or explicit, positive (friendly, benevolent) or negative (conflict, hostile). Strengthit depends on the spiritual wealth of the individual, as well as on personal qualities person.

Should be definedsides and types of communication. So, when analyzing the aspects of communication It is important to note the three-way model: communication - exchange of information between the participants of communication in joint activities using verbal and non-verbal means; interaction - interaction of communicating, exchange of actions, actions; perception - perception of each other.

Types of communication: 1) according to the position of the communicants in space and time - contact and distant communication;

2) by the presence or absence of any mediating "apparatus" - direct (contact) and indirect (indirect);

3) according to the form of the language - oral and written;

4) from the point of view of the position of I-speaking and you-hearing - dialogical and monologue;

5) in terms of the number of participants - interpersonal, group, mass;

6) from the point of view of the situation of communication and the relationship of those communicating - private and official;

7) on the use or non-use of language means - verbal (speech, verbal), non-verbal (wordless with the use of facial expressions, gestures, posture).

Considering the levels of communication, three should be highlighted:

1) intrapersonal level - a person's communication with himself, when he develops ideas, plans, prepares to communicate with someone;

2) interpersonal - communication between two or more people;

3) public - communication with a large audience.

The most important goal and result of communication is the satisfaction of one's biological, social and spiritual needs.

Communication phenomena:

A) Emotional experience in communication is the basis of friendship and love. A positive emotional connection in communication occurs when the attitudes and expectations of people are realized in the process of communication.

B) Formation of a picture of the world - when comparing the ideas of others with their own, a person realizes what the world around him is like and what he himself is in the world, an image of his own Self is formed.

C) Changing a person in the process of communication: a) natural (as a result of communication); b) directed (in the process of personality formation: teacher-student).

D) Collaboration is the key moment of communication. It depends on the leader (group leader), social, political, and state attitudes. As a result, constructive and other forms of relations can be formed.

Relationship forms:

Friendly cooperation -partners trust each other, are ready to assist in solving the problems of the group;

Antagonistic rivalry- based on a lack of trust, respect for each other, everyone strives to prove their superiority;

- friendly competition -partners have a positive attitude towards each other, although they show healthy rivalry.

Primitive level of communication -the lowest. For a person communicating at this level, the interlocutor is perceived as an object necessary for listening to his speech or interfering with him. driven by selfish needs. People around are judged by purely external qualities: strong-weak, old-young.

Manipulative level of communication -using a partner for their own purposes. The subject for this is perceived as an opponent in the game, which must be beaten. Winning has a material, worldly or psychological benefit for him. In the process of communication, the "manipulator" seeks to identify not his features in the partner, which can be used as weak points to exert a strong influence. Various moves are being made to deceive the interlocutor, to hide their own true face.

Mask contact characterizes a situation where people do not have a genuine desire for contact or readiness for it. A person communicating at this level, depending on the direction of communication, chooses one or another mask - kindness, aggression, indifference, innocence. In the process of communication, the desire for its speedy termination is emphasized.

Game level of communicationcharacteristic of people knowing friend friend and showing mutual interest. Communication is based on the desire of both to bring joy to each other, benefit, mutual enrichment. Partners are equal among themselves, trust each other, appreciate advantages and forgive shortcomings.

Business level communication- communicating seek to resolve business issues affecting the interests of each of them, the team, society as a whole.

Spiritual level of communicationis the highest. A partner is perceived as a bearer of spiritual values ​​that evoke in you feelings akin to reverence, delight, adoration.

Communication style - this is the structural unity of expressive means used by communicators in communication and creating, firstly, the semiotic (sign) and semantic (semantic) field of communications, and, secondly, determining the measure of compatibility of communicative values ​​and charismatic qualities of the communicators.

In control theory distinguish 3 styles of communication , which to a lesser extent reveal the sources and features of stylization of communication: authoritarian, democratic, liberal .

It is necessary to understand what influence is from the point of view of psychology.Psychological impact- impact on the psychological state, thoughts, feelings, actions of a communication partner in order to change his behavior.Means of influence:

1. verbal - (7%);
2. non-verbal - (55%);
3. paralinguistic (tone, speech sounds) - (38%).

Analyzing the fifth the question is, it is necessary to distinguish between the main mechanisms of socio-psychological influence: infection, imitation, suggestion, persuasion, and other forms and mechanisms of influence of people on each other in the practice of communication.

Infection - unconscious, involuntary and spontaneous transmission of the emotional state of one person to another. A person here does not experience organized, deliberate pressure, but unconsciously assimilates patterns of someone else's behavior, only obeying him. "Infection" occurs as a result of the mental impact on a person of an emotional charge, feelings and passions of another person in conditions of direct contact. Infection can be carried out both verbally and non-verbally. Facilities: artistry, expression, the gradual involvement of a partner in the performance of certain actions; intimate look; bodily contact (touch, hug); sincerity.

Imitation - reproduction by a person of certain patterns of behavior, manner of speaking, way of thinking of another person. This is following common examples, standards, stereotypes, one of the phenomena of group integration. As a result of imitation, group norms and values ​​arise. Children, impressionable, unable to think independently or weak-willed people lend themselves to imitation. Facilities: fame, competence, appeal, demonstration of fashionable behavior.Laws of imitation:a) imitation from the internal to the external (the spirit of religion is imitated earlier than rituals); b) the lower ones imitate the higher ones (the province - the city, the nobility - the royal family).

Suggestion - conscious unreasoned impact of one person on another or a group, with the aim of changing his state or attitude to something. Active influence, carried out verbally, but addressed not to logic, but to the emotional world of a person. With suggestion, the process of transmitting information based on its non-critical perception is carried out. The effect of suggestion depends on age. So, children are more suggestible than adults. Also, people who are tired and physically weakened are more suggestible. However, the effect of suggestion is the higher, the higher the authority and prestige of the manager, as well as the trust in him. A particularly high effect of suggestion is achieved when the subordinate is excited and urgently looking for a way out of the situation. At this point, he is ready to follow any advice from the manager. Facilities: personal magnetism, personal authority, use of the means of the environment, enhancing the impact (muffled light, quiet music, speech); selection of easily suggestible partners; confident behavior.

Persuasion - deliberately reasoned influence on a person, aimed at changing his decision or opinion. The process and result of purposeful influence with the help of a system of rational arguments focused on a critical personality. Beliefs are an active life position of a person. It is built on using rationale to achieve consent from the person receiving the information (as opposed to suggestion, in which agreement is not achieved, but simply acceptance of the information in its finished form). Persuasion is an intellectual influence, and suggestion is an emotional-volitional one. Therefore, persuasion has a slower effect. Facilities : presentation of arguments, open recognition of both strengths and weaknesses, obtaining agreement at every stage of the discussion.

psychological compatibility. The psychology of conflict and the main stylistic methods for its resolution

By revisingthe concept of psychological compatibility, it is necessary to give an interpretation of interpersonal compatibilityand designate compatibility levels. Interpersonal compatibility is the acceptance of communication partners in joint activities. Acceptance is based on the optimal combination of interpersonal interactions that are significantindividual psychological characteristicscommunication partners ( value orientations, social attitudes, interests, motives, needs, characters, temperaments, etc.). Individual psychological characteristics do not exist by themselves, they are manifested in the behavior and actions of a person.

Interpersonal compatibility is accompanied by positive emotions: the emergence of mutual sympathy, respect, confidence in the successful outcome of future contacts, negotiations between partners.

Distinguish 4 levels of compatibility:

1. Psychophysiological levelcompatibility is based on the interaction of temperaments, needs and other psychophysiological characteristics.
2. Psychological levelincludes the compatibility of characters and stereotypes of behavior.
3. Socio-psychologicalthe level of compatibility involves the coordination of functional-role expectations and actions.
4. Sociologicalthe level implies the coincidence or similarity of interests, value orientations of partners in joint activities.

Psychological compatibility(PS) in business communication is determined by the dominant setting for the joint solution of business problems, subject to the mutual acceptance of people, the coordination of their interests and motivations, as well as functional and role expectations: a person must correspond to what is expected of him in accordance with his age, gender and qualification.

Psychological compatibility requires: mutual sympathy, lack of egocentric attitudes, readiness and ability to get along with another person. Otherwise, a conflict occurs.

Particular attention should be paid todifferent points of view and approaches regarding the phenomenon of conflict, to know the main stages of the development of the conflict, as well as its positive and negative functions. Conflict - (from lat. clash) - clash, confrontation of oppositely directed, incompatible forces, tendencies; a contradiction that arises between people or teams in the course of their joint labor activity due to a misunderstanding or opposition of interests, lack of agreement between two or more parties.Conflict is based on a lack of agreement.

The conflict comes withbefore conflict situation , i.e. from the growth of tension in relations between potential subjects of the conflict due to certain contradictions.Also, the pre-conflict situation is characterized by an increase in distrust, the presentation of claims, a decrease in contacts, and the accumulation of grievances. In the future, there may be a destruction of the previous structures of interaction, a transition from mutual accusations to threats, an increase in aggressiveness, the formation of an “image of the enemy” and an attitude to fight it.The pre-conflict situation turns into an open conflict, but this requires an incident.

Incident - it is a trigger for conflict. An incident can be a rude phrase, ignoring the question of a colleague or patient, lack of heat in the ward, etc. An incident can be accidental, natural or provoked by one of the parties.

Reasons for conflicts:

1. Conflicting needs, desires, interests, goals or values ​​of individuals.

2. Relationship of duties.When one person or group is dependent on another person or group for a task, there is always the potential for conflict.

3. Poor communication.Poor transmission of information: did not hear, said quietly, etc.

4. Weak workplace ergonomics.This reason causes a conflict when the official function is not fully supported by the necessary means for its implementation: there is no necessary equipment, insufficient space, tightness, noise, heat, cold. As a result, fatigue, irritability increase, headaches, stress, and aggression occur.

5. Differences in behavior and life experience.

6. Insufficient level of professionalism.

Conflict is most often associated with aggression, threats, disputes, hostility. But this phenomenon haspositive features:completely or partially eliminates contradictions; reduces the degree of blind obedience; contributes to the formation of group solidarity; highlights weaknesses and unresolved issues; allows you to relieve emotional tension; shows psychological resistance to stress; serves as one of the means of self-assertion of personality.

Negative conflict functions:can lead to diseases; may be accompanied by stress or violence; often destroys the system of interpersonal relationships; forms the image of the "enemy", bias; may impair the quality of work/study; undermines trust; leads to less cooperation in the future.

The dynamics of the conflict includes the following stages: 1) pre-conflict situation; 2) conflict interaction; 3) conflict resolution.

We can conditionally distinguish several levels of manifestation of conflict in the sphere of services:

1. between client and manager;
2. between employees of the institution;
3. between clients.

By revising third issue should consider different classifications of conflicts.

constructive conflicts,not destructive, having positive sides and performance-enhancing features.

Destructive - leading to destructive actions, a sharp decrease in the efficiency of activities.

Conflicts: hidden and obvious.

Exist 4 main types of conflict:

interpersonal - clash of people with different interests, values, temperament, character, manners of behavior.

Conflict between the individual and the grouparises if a person takes a position that is different from the position of the group or the norms of group behavior.

Intergroup conflict.

intrapersonal conflictarises if conflicting demands are made on a person about what the result of his work should be or requirements that are not consistent with his personal values.

Intrapersonal conflicts manifest themselves in crises - events with an uncertain outcome and the risk of loss. Crisis - the internal state of a person who finds himself in a dead end, from his point of view, situation. There are main types of crisis:development crisesrequiring support and special methods of resolution; deprivation crisis refers to the loss of a person;

Revealing the third question concerningconflict resolution stylesit is important to reflect the whole variety of ways to resolve conflicts and conflict situations. There are 5 main conflict resolution styles - according to the Thomas-Kilmenn system. This system allows you to create for each person their own style of conflict resolution. Your style of behavior in a particular conflict is determined by the extent to which you want to satisfy your own interests (acting passively or actively) and the interests of the other party (acting jointly or individually).

1. Competition style. A person who uses competition (rivalry) is very active and prefers to resolve the conflict. in their own way. He is not interested in cooperation with others and is capable of strong-willed decisions. In the style of competition, a person tries to satisfy his own interests at the expense of the interests of other people.

This style is effective when:

You have a certain power, authority to make a decision;

You know that your decision or approach in a given situation is correct, and you have the opportunity to insist on it;

The outcome is very important to you, and you are betting heavily on your solution to the problem;

You feel like you have no other choice and nothing to lose.

Style is ineffective:

in personal and family relationships;

You want to get along with people.

2. Evasion Styleis realized when you do not defend your rights, do not cooperate with anyone, or simply avoid resolving the conflict, you do not make attempts to satisfy your or someone else's interests. You ignore the problem, shifting the responsibility for solving it to another person.

Style is effective if:

The problem involved is not so important to you, and you do not want to waste energy on it;

When you feel that you are in a hopeless situation;

Feeling wrong;

The opponent has more power, you cannot argue with him;

You do not own the information in full;

You want to get a delay to solve a problem, you want to buy time to get additional information or to enlist someone's support;

Emotional tension is very high, and you feel that you cannot add fuel to the fire.

Style is ineffective when:

It is necessary to satisfy your own interests or the interests of other people;

You do not want to avoid responsibility and "run away" from the problem.

3. Fixture stylemeans that you act together with another person, not trying to defend your own interests. The style is a bit similar to the avoidance style, but the main difference is that you act, participate in the situation and agree with what the other wants. In avoidance, you are not doing anything to serve the interests of the other person.

The outcome is very important to the other, but not essential to you;

You cannot win because the other has more power;

Realize that the truth is not on your side;

You want to give someone a useful lesson by believing that they are wrong.

Style is ineffective:

Don't want to fit in with someone;

You feel that the other person is not going to give in to you later, will not appreciate your sacrifice;

The outcome is very important to you.

4. Style of cooperation.You are actively involved in problem solvingand defend your interests by accepting the interests of another person. This style takes a lot of work compared to other approaches to conflict because you openly "put on the table" the needs, concerns, and interests of both parties, and then discuss them.

Style is effective if:

The parties have hidden needs;

There are misunderstandings in family relationships;

Solving the problem is important for both parties, and no one wants to get away from it;

There is time and desire to work on the problem that has arisen;

Both are able to state the essence of their interests and listen to each other.

The absence of one of these elements makes this approach ineffective. The collaborative style is the most difficult, but it allows for a solution that satisfies both parties in difficult situations of conflict.

5. Compromise stylecharacterized by the fact that you yield a little in your interests in order to partially satisfy them, and the other side does the same. Those. you converge on the partial satisfaction of your desire and the partial fulfillment of the desire of another person. You do this by trading concessions and weighing everything in order to develop a compromise solution that would suit both.Difference from cooperation:compromise is reached at a more superficial level; you yield and the other yields in some way, and as a result, you can come to a common decision; you are not looking for hidden needs and interests, talk only about desires.

Style is effective when:

Both parties have equal power and mutually exclusive interests;

You are satisfied with the temporary solution;

You want to solve something quickly, you do not have time for cooperation;

Other approaches have proven ineffective;

Literature.

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. M., 2013.
   1. Borozdina G.V. Psychology business communication. M., 2012.
   2. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. SPb., 2010.
   3. Psychology and ethics of business communication / ed. V.N. Lavrinenko. M., 2004.
   4. Ramendik D.M. Management psychology. M., 2006.
   5. Scott D.G. Conflicts and ways to overcome them. Kyiv, 1999.

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Introduction

1. The concept of communication and interpersonal relationships

1.1. Communication

1.2. Perception

1.3. Reflection

2. Personal qualities that affect communication processes

2.1. The psychological makeup of a person

2.2. Features of personality types

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

In psychology, communication is understood as the establishment and maintenance of purposeful, direct or indirect contact between people who are psychologically connected in one way or another.

Essential in this definition is the assertion of the social nature of communication. The process of establishing and maintaining contact between people is created by all its participants. Their activity and interest in the success of the contact may be different, but each participant in the communication is its subject. The productivity of communication, therefore, depends not only on its initiator. “Communication is not an addition, not an imposition of parallel developing activities on one another, but rather the interaction of subjects entering into it as partners” 2 .

The phenomenon of communication exists in its entirety, is determined by the values ​​and qualities of the subjects of communication, and has a normative character. The basis of this principle is the "law of the three-dimensionality of human existence", the essence of which is characterized by the unity, interconnection and interdependence of axiological, anthropological and normative dimensions.

In communication between these spheres, there are relations of harmonic correspondence, the essence of which lies in the internal (within the elements of the sphere) and in the external (between the elements of the spheres) their consonance.

The factor that unites all spheres of communication is the moral factor: it is he who determines the degree of harmony of their correspondence.

The moral choice of communication values ​​presupposes that the subjects of communication have appropriate moral qualities and adherence to such norms that could not contradict this choice.

The level of culture and ethics of communication is characterized by the degree of perfection and harmony of the spheres and their constituent elements.

If there is no harmony between the values, norms and qualities of the subjects of communication, then there is a potential possibility of conflict situations.

1. The concept of communication and interpersonal relationships

1.1. Communication

Communication is a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person (Brief psychological dictionary. M., 1985). From the definition of communication it follows that this is a complex process, which includes three components:

The communicative side of communication consists in the exchange of information between people;

interactive consists in organizing interaction between people (for example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions or influence the mood, behavior, beliefs of the interlocutor);

The perceptual side of communication consists in the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

Communication is a process of two-way exchange of information leading to mutual understanding. Communication in Latin means "common, shared with all." If mutual understanding is not reached, communication does not take place. To succeed in communication, you need to have feedback (how people understood you, how they perceive you, how they relate to the problem).

Communicative competence is the ability to establish and maintain the necessary contacts with other people. Effective communication is characterized by: achieving mutual understanding of partners, a better understanding of the situation and the subject of communication (achieving greater certainty in understanding the situation contributes to solving problems, ensures the achievement of goals with the optimal use of resources). Communicative competence is considered as a system of internal resources necessary to build effective communication in a certain range of situations of interpersonal interaction.

Poor communication can be caused by:

stereotypes - simplified opinions about individuals or situations; as a result, there is no objective analysis and understanding of people, situations, problems;

· "preconceived ideas" - the tendency to reject everything that contradicts one's own views, everything that is new, unusual ("We believe what we want to believe"). We rarely realize that another person's interpretation of events is just as legitimate as our own;

bad relations between people, because if a person's attitude is hostile, it is difficult to convince him of the justice of our view;

lack of attention and interest of the interlocutor, and interest arises when a person realizes the importance of information for himself: with the help of this information, you can get what you want or prevent an undesirable development of events;

disregard for facts, that is, the habit of drawing conclusions-conclusions in the absence of a sufficient number of facts;

errors in the construction of statements: the wrong choice of words, the complexity of communication, weak persuasiveness, illogicality;

Wrong choice of strategy and tactics of communication.

The transfer of any information is possible through various sign systems. Usually, a distinction is made between verbal (speech is used as a sign system) and non-verbal (various non-speech sign systems) communication.

The structure of speech communication includes:

The meaning and meaning of words, phrases (“The mind of a person is manifested in the clarity of his speech”). The accuracy of the use of the word, its expressiveness and accessibility, the correct construction of the phrase and its intelligibility, the correct pronunciation of sounds, words, the expressiveness and meaning of intonation play an important role;

Speech sound phenomena: speech rate (fast, medium, slow), voice pitch modulation (smooth, sharp), voice tonality (high and low), rhythm (uniform, intermittent), timbre (rolling, hoarse, creaky), intonation, diction of speech. Observations show that the most attractive in communication is a smooth, calm, measured manner of speech;

characteristic specific sounds that occur during communication: laughter, crying, whispering, sighing, as well as separating sounds (coughing); zero sounds - pauses.

Studies show that in the daily act of human communication, words make up 7%, intonation sounds - 38%, non-speech interaction - 53%.

In turn, non-verbal communication also has several forms: kinetics (optical-kinetic system, including gestures, facial expressions, pantomime); paralinguistics (system of voice vocalization, pauses, coughing, etc.); proxemics (norms of organization of space and time in communication); visual communication (eye contact system).

Information about what a person is experiencing can be given by facial expressions - the movement of the muscles of the face, reflecting the internal emotional condition. Mimic expressions carry more than 70% of information, that is, the eyes, look, face of a person can say more than spoken words. So, it is noticed that a person tries to hide his information (or lies) if his eyes meet the eyes of a partner for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.

A lot of information in communication is carried by gestures, in sign language, as in speech, there are words, sentences.

The interactive side of communication is a term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. For its participants, it is extremely important not only to exchange information, but also to organize the exchange of actions and plan them. Communication is organized in the course of joint activities.

The most common is the division of all interactions into two opposite types: cooperation and competition. In addition to cooperation and competition, they also speak of agreement and conflict, opportunism and opposition, association and dissociation. Behind all these concepts, the principle of distinguishing different types of interaction is clearly visible. In the first case, such manifestations are analyzed that contribute to the organization of joint activities, are “positive” from this point of view. The second group includes interactions that in one way or another "shatter" joint activity, representing a certain kind of obstacle.

1.2. Perception

The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and constitutes what is called perception. Since a person always enters into communication as a person, to the extent that he is perceived by another person - a communication partner - also as a person. On the basis of the external side of behavior, we seem to “read” another person, decipher the meaning of his external data. The impressions that arise in this case play an important regulatory role in the process of communication: firstly, because, knowing the other, the knowing individual himself is formed; secondly, because the success of organizing concerted actions with him depends on the degree of accuracy of "reading" another person.

The idea of ​​another person is closely related to the level of one's own self-consciousness: the more fully the other person is revealed (in greater numbers and deeper characteristics), the more complete the idea of ​​oneself becomes. In the course of knowing another person, several processes are simultaneously carried out: an emotional assessment of this other person, and an attempt to understand the structure of his actions, and building a strategy for his behavior.

However, at least two people are involved in these processes, and each of them is an active subject. Consequently, comparing oneself with others is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens himself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives, attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands my needs, motives, attitudes. All this leads to the fact that the analysis of self-awareness through another includes two sides: identification and reflection.

The main mechanisms of mutual understanding in the process of communication are identification, empathy and reflection.

The term "identification" is social psychology multiple values. In the problem of communication, identification is a mental process of likening oneself to a communication partner in order to know and understand his thoughts and ideas.

Empathy is also understood as the mental process of likening oneself to another person, but with the aim of “understanding” the experiences and feelings of the person being known. The word "understanding" is used here in a metaphorical sense - empathy is "affective understanding".

As can be seen from the definitions, identification and empathy are very close in content and often in the psychological literature the term "empathy" has a broad interpretation - it includes the processes of understanding both the thoughts and feelings of a communication partner. At the same time, speaking about the process of empathy, one must also keep in mind, of course, a positive attitude towards the individual.

This means two things: a) acceptance of the person's personality in integrity; b) own emotional neutrality, the absence of value judgments about the perceived.

1.3. Reflection

Reflection in the problem of understanding each other is an individual's understanding of how he is perceived and understood by a communication partner. In the course of mutual reflection of the participants in communication, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation and strategy of the behavior of the subjects of communication, the correction of their understanding of the features of each other's inner world.

As noted earlier, the content of interpersonal perception depends on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception, because any perception is also a certain interaction of two participants in this process, and an interaction that has two sides: evaluating each other and changing some characteristics of each other due to the very fact of their presence. In the first case, the interaction can be stated by the fact that each of the participants, evaluating the other, seeks to build a certain system of behavior. If each person always had full information about the people with whom he enters into communication, then he could build tactics of interaction with them quite accurately. However, in everyday life, the individual, as a rule, does not have such accurate information, which forces him to attribute to others the reasons for their actions and actions. A causal explanation of the actions of another person by “attributing” feelings, intentions, thoughts and motives of behavior to him is called causal attribution (from Latin “causa” - reason, “attribution” - attribution). "Attributing" is carried out on the basis of the similarity of behavior with some other patterns that were in the past experience of the subject of perception, or on the basis of an analysis of one's own motives, assumed in a similar situation (in this case, the identification mechanism may operate).

2. Personal qualities that affect communication processes

2.3. The psychological makeup of a person

Communication processes are impossible without the participation of a person, since it is a person who is the main and main subject of communication. And this factor essentially determines the form and content of communication. How nature made a man, and what he himself did with this nature - all this, one might say, determines the "human" dimensions of communication. A lot depends on what kind of person enters into communication: the motives for communication, the perception of a partner, the choice of communication style, etc.

The process of communication is regulated, first of all, by moral values, ideals, principles and norms. Legal regulation cannot cover all the subtleties, all the nuances, all the diversity, all the depth of this mysterious "world of communication". Undoubtedly, communication is determined and regulated not only by moral imperatives, but also by psychological, social, aesthetic, and even physiological and medical factors. However, as experience shows, it is the moral principles that ultimately determine the direction, spiritual coloring, value orientation of all real aspects in the field of communication: it is impossible to imagine a single phenomenon of communication without a “moral component”.

The psychological appearance of a person is very diverse and is determined both by innate properties and acquired in the process of education, training, mastering the material and spiritual culture of society. Through individuality, the following are revealed: the originality of the personality, its abilities, the preferred field of activity.

In the individuality of a person, basic properties are distinguished - her self-esteem, personality type, temperament, human abilities. It is the basic properties that represent the fusion of its innate and acquired traits in the process of upbringing and socialization that form a certain style of behavior and activity of the individual.

A personality has individual traits and qualities - intellectual, moral, emotional, strong-willed, formed under the influence of society as a whole, as well as in the process of family, labor, social, cultural life of a person. In communication great importance acquires knowledge and consideration of the most typical features of human behavior, properties of their character and moral qualities. Business communication should be built on the basis of such moral qualities of a person and categories of ethics as honesty, truthfulness, modesty, generosity, duty, conscience, dignity, honor, which give business relations a moral character.

2.4. Features of personality types

Almost any of the known personality typologies also includes such features of personality types that are manifested in communication.

So, people differ from each other in the strength of their response to environmental influences, including other people's appeals to them, in the energy they show, in the pace and speed of mental processes. Such psychic differences, which stand out under otherwise equal conditions, form an individually unique, biologically conditioned set of dynamic and emotional manifestations of the psyche, which is called temperament.

Traditionally, four types of temperament are distinguished: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic.

Sanguine is cheerful, energetic, initiative, receptive to new things, quickly converges with people. Easily controls his emotions and switches from one activity to another.

The phlegmatic is balanced, slow, hard to adapt to new activities and new surroundings. He thinks about a new business for a long time, but having started its implementation, he usually brings it to the end. The mood is usually even, calm.

The choleric is active, enterprising, has a great capacity for work, perseverance in overcoming difficulties, but is subject to sudden mood swings, emotional breakdowns, and depression. In communication it is sharp, not restrained in expressions.

The melancholic is impressionable, highly emotional, and more prone to negative emotions. In difficult situations, he tends to show confusion, lose self-control. Little predisposed to active communication. In a favorable environment, he can cope well with his duties.

In the 1920s and 1930s, the doctrine of types was more fully substantiated. nervous system. IP Pavlov identified three main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of the excitatory and inhibitory processes. The strength of the nervous system is the most important indicator of the type: the performance of the cells of the cerebral cortex and their endurance depend on this property. Mobility is the rate of change of one nervous process by another. Balance - the degree of balance between the excitatory and inhibitory processes. Each type includes components, which I. P. Pavlov gave the following characteristics.

Strong. A person maintains a high level of efficiency during long and hard work, quickly restores strength. In a difficult, unexpected situation, he keeps himself in control, does not lose vigor, emotional tone. He does not pay attention to small, distracting influences, we are not vulnerable.

Balanced. This person behaves calmly and collectedly in the most exciting environment. Easily suppresses unnecessary and inadequate desires, expels extraneous thoughts. Works evenly, without random ups and downs.

Mobile. A person has the ability to quickly and adequately respond to changes in a situation, easily abandons stereotypes that have been developed, but are no longer suitable, and quickly acquires new skills, habits for new conditions and people. Effortlessly passes from rest to activity and from one activity to another. Emotions quickly arise and are clearly manifested. Capable of instant memorization, accelerated pace of activity and speech.

The combination of these personality traits serves as an explanation for the classification of temperaments, which has been known since ancient times. Namely: sanguine temperament corresponds to a strong, balanced, fast type of nervous system; phlegmatic temperament - strong, balanced, slow type; choleric temperament - a strong, unbalanced, mobile type; melancholic temperament - a weak type of nervous system.

The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung divided personalities into extroverts and introverts. The extravented type of people is characterized by a focus on interaction with the outside world, a craving for new experiences, impulsiveness, and sociability. Introverts, on the contrary, are focused on their inner world and are prone to introspection, isolation, they are characterized by inhibition of movements and speech.

Personal typology, developed by O. Kroeger and M. Tewson in line with socionics, considers the following types.

Introvert. Thinks through what he wants to say and expects it from others, likes to be left to himself, is considered a "good listener", does not like to interrupt others and be interrupted in conversation, tends to be alone, etc.

Sensory. Prefers precise answers and precise questions, concentrates on this moment, likes to deal with numbers and facts and clear instructions, perceives details more easily than the whole picture, understands everything very literally, etc.

Intuitive. Has a habit of thinking about several things at once and can be considered distracted; neglects details, preferring the big picture, fantasizes, the motive for many actions is pure curiosity.

Thinking. He does not lose his composure in difficult situations, seeks the truth in a dispute, is proud of his objectivity, remembers numbers and numbers more easily than faces and names.

Feeling. Considers a good decision that takes into account the feelings of other people, tends to help others even to the detriment of himself, does not tolerate conflicts and seeks to resolve them.

Decisive. Accurate and never late, plans his day and expects it from others, does not like surprises and makes it clear to others, always brings the work to the end.

Receptive. Scattered, can easily get lost, does not set himself tasks and waits for everything to become clear, immediacy and creativity prefer accuracy, does not like to be obligated, has nothing against uncertainty.

The most common form of business communication is dialogue communication, i.e. such verbal communication, in which the moral qualities of the personality and character traits are most fully manifested, according to which this or that individual is correlated with a certain type of temperament.

The behavior of representatives of any of the above types in the process of communication, if typological features have an extreme form of expression, can lead to difficulties in mutual understanding. When communicating, one must take into account not only the strengths of each type, but also strive to balance its extreme manifestations, looking closely at the qualities of their antipodes and demonstrating the opposite type of behavior.

Conclusion

There are no two absolutely identical people. This is true for both physical and psychological characteristics. Some people are calm, others are quick-tempered, some are able to work long and hard to achieve a result, others put all their strength into one “jerk”. Psychological differences between people are objective - they are explained by the physiological characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system. From these features to a large extent (although not completely - the most important role is played by the upbringing of the personality) depends on the character of the individual, his success or failure in a particular professional activity, the style of interpersonal communication, interaction with other people in the professional and personal spheres.

Knowledge of individual personal characteristics hidden from external observation, teachers, managers, consultants, is of great importance for the success of training, education and professional activities.

Depending on the type of temperament, the nature of the course of nervous processes, character accentuations, the level of anxiety and psycho-emotional stability, the practice of communication or organization of work should be built in different ways, sometimes by opposite methods.

It is equally important to take into account individual personal characteristics for optimizing professional activities. Knowledge of individual personal characteristics has a great influence on the effectiveness of business communication and communication in general.

Bibliography

1. Andreeva IV Ethics of business relations. - St. Petersburg: Vector, 2006. - 160 p.

2. Asmolov A.G. Personality as a subject of psychological research, M., 1984.

3. Kronik A.A. Interpersonal assessment in groups. Kyiv, 1982.

4. Maslyaev O. Psychology of personality. – Donetsk, 1997.

5. General psychology / ed. V. V. Bogoslovsky, A. G. Kovalev, A. A. Stepanov. - M., 1981.

In the process of business communication, a variety of techniques are used to help convince a partner of something, get his consent, and encourage him to take certain actions. All the variety of these tactics is based on the fundamental psychological principles underlying human behavior. Let us briefly characterize these principles.

1. The principle of contrast. Its essence lies in the fact that if the second object is clearly different from the first, we will be inclined to exaggerate their difference. This principle is practically applicable to all types of perception.

In psychology laboratories, the following demonstration of perceptual contrast is sometimes performed. Each student takes turns sitting in front of three buckets of water - one cold, another room temperature water, and a third hot. After the student has dipped his hand into cold water and the other into hot water, he is asked to simultaneously place both hands in water at room temperature. The look of astonished confusion speaks for itself: although both hands are in the same bucket, the hand that was previously in cold water feels as if it is now in hot water, while the hand that was in hot water, feels like being in cold water now. The fact is that the same thing - in this case, water at room temperature - may seem different depending on the previous situation.

A significant advantage of this principle is that its application is practically undetectable. Therefore, sellers of various goods are quite willing to use it (they offer the buyer first very expensive goods, and then those that really plan to sell; first, large items, for example, a suit, coat, and then accessories for them), real estate agents (showing potential purchases begins from a couple of unsuitable houses with a clearly overpriced price), car dealers (they first agree on the price of a new car, and only after that they offer a choice of additional items), etc.

2. The principle of mutual exchange. People usually try to repay what the other person has given them. If they do not do this, they can cause public disapproval, incur social sanctions (for example, negative labels - ungrateful, greedy, stingy, etc.). Therefore, many try to avoid a situation in which they could be considered ungrateful. This is what the “compliance professionals” use, whose tactic is to give a person something before asking him for a favor in return.

This rule is universal, its influence often exceeds the influence of other factors that usually determine compliance (for example, a feeling of sympathy).

People we don't like - unattractive or intrusive salesmen, people with a difficult temper, representatives of strange or unpopular organizations - can force us to do what they want, just by doing us a little favor before they make their requests, claims. .

The rule of reciprocity finds wide application in various spheres of society, including in the trade area. An example is the provision of free product samples. Experienced presenters offer potential buyers to try the product, try on the product, use it for a while, give it to them as a gift trial options etc. As a result, many people feel obligated to buy something.

The reciprocity rule also applies when an unsolicited favor is rendered to us. This is the basis of the method of collecting donations of many charitable organizations. A greeting card is sent, a small souvenir is presented, and then a request is made to make an appropriate contribution for one purpose or another.

The reciprocity rule can also provoke an unequal exchange. In order not to feel obliged to anyone, a person goes to a more serious service than the one that was rendered to him.

“In order to best defend against the pressure of the reciprocity rule, one should not systematically refuse proposals made by other people,” wrote Robert Cialdini. - It is necessary to accept the favors or concessions of others with sincere gratitude, but at the same time be ready to regard them as clever tricks if they appear so later. As soon as concessions or services are determined in this way, we will no longer consider ourselves obliged to respond to them with our own service or concession.

3. The principle of social proof. According to this principle, people, determining for themselves how to act in a given situation, are guided by the behavior of other people in similar circumstances. Therefore, in order to obtain the consent of a person, to encourage him to fulfill the requirements, they apply the principle of social proof - they inform him that many famous people (specific names are called) have already agreed with the demand put forward, will take part in something, etc. In the election campaign, influential persons who support the nominated candidate are necessarily named. During charitable events, people who have already made large contributions are certainly listed. At presentations, they try to emphasize who constantly uses the services of this company, the products on display, etc.

The principle of social proof works best when two factors are present. One of them is insecurity. When people doubt something, when the situation seems incomprehensible and uncertain to them, they tend to pay attention to the behavior of other people and consider it correct. It is interesting to explain the causes of apathy among outside observers of the accident. According to the researchers, observers do not help more because they are not sure about the need for assistance, and not because they are callous by nature. People do not help because they do not know if their help is really needed and if they need to do something. When people feel responsible for what is happening, they become very responsive.

The second factor, in the presence of which the principle of social proof has the greatest influence, is similarity. People tend to follow the example of individuals similar to them.

Robert Cialdini describes a case from his life: “My driver and I had a serious accident. We both received serious injuries: the driver lost consciousness, and I, covered in blood, managed to get out of the car. It happened at a crossroads, at a traffic light, in full view of several people. Cars drove by, drivers stared at me, but no one stopped.

I remember thinking, “Oh yes, everything is just like in the studies. They're all passing by!" Fortunately, as a social psychologist, I knew what to do. Stretching out so that I could be seen better, I pointed to the driver of one of the cars and instructed him: “Call the police!”. To the second and third drivers, also pointing directly at them, I said: "Drive to the edge of the road, we need your help." The reaction of these people was instantaneous. They immediately called the police and an ambulance, they wiped the blood from my face with their handkerchiefs, they put my jacket under my head, they volunteered to give a statement to the police, and one of them even offered to go with me to the hospital.

Help was provided to me quickly and thoughtfully. Plus, she was infectious. After the drivers driving in the other direction saw the cars stopped because of me, they also stopped and began to take care of another victim. Now the principle of social proof worked for us. Once the reaction started, I relaxed and let the genuinely concerned bystanders and the natural momentum of social proof do the rest.”

4. The principle of benevolence. People are more willing to comply with the demands of those they know and like. Numerous studies have made it possible to identify the main factors influencing the attitude of others towards the individual. It is primarily physical attractiveness. Experiments have shown that we automatically attribute to individuals who have a pleasant appearance, such positive qualities as talent, kindness, honesty, intelligence. Outwardly attractive people seem more convincing. They need to spend less effort in order to change the opinions of other people and get the desired result. Therefore, they try to hire attractive young people to work in fashion stores, cafes, restaurants, sales agents are taught to dress well and behave properly, presentations are often offered to people with an attractive appearance, etc.

In order to achieve location, this or that concession, they also use such a factor as similarity (similarity of origin, lifestyles, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, personal qualities, etc.) Sophisticated communicators necessarily hint at any similarity with the interlocutor (we in the same school, are fond of the same sport, visited the same countries, etc.)

Scientists note that our benevolence is quite often caused by people who lavish praise on us. We love compliments and are influenced by them. This is also used by those who wish to achieve something from us. The disposition of people towards each other can also be influenced by associations with something good or bad. Often we begin to experience unkind feelings towards the person who told us unpleasant information. And vice versa: positive associations help win people over and encourage them to make concessions.

We turn to the principle of association mainly when our social image is damaged, we experience an increased desire to restore our authority by demonstrating our connections with successful members of society. At the same time, we tend to hide our ties to people who have failed.

Another aspect of interest is related to the association rule. In the 1930s The well-known psychologist Gregory Razran developed the so-called lunch method. He found that while eating, the subjects had an improved attitude to the interlocutors and to what they said. Therefore, during various events at which important decisions must be made, the organizers necessarily provide for a meal, lunch in nature, dinner or a buffet table, etc. Cafes, restaurants, country cottages are often the place for business meetings. Using a good mood during meals, business partners can quickly come to an agreement.

5. The principle of authority. Many people have a deeply rooted awareness of the need to obey authority. This behavior is traditionally considered correct and often presented to people as a rational way to solve problems. Indeed, following the instructions of authoritative persons, we get real practical advantages - we allow ourselves to be automatically obedient and mechanically, without hesitation, to fulfill the requirements of authority (boss, boss, leader, parents, senior comrade, recognized expert, scientist, etc.).

In many situations, it does not make sense to resist the opinion of an authority figure, especially if he is actually an expert in some field. The danger of such behavior lies in the fact that in most cases people are not able to critically evaluate the orders of recognized authorities, do not question obviously erroneous orders, and begin to blindly carry out what is required of them. Often they react not to authority as such, but to its symbols, which are considered to be titles, clothing, personal items, car brand, etc. As a rule, people around them treat persons with some kind of symbol of authority with great respect, although without any benefits.

An experiment was conducted in five classes at an Australian college. A certain person was introduced as a guest from England working at the University of Cambridge. But his status in each class was presented differently. In one class, he was named a student, in another class, a laboratory assistant, in the third class, a lecturer, in the fourth class, a senior lecturer, and, finally, in the fifth class, a professor. After the person left the classroom, the students were asked to rate their height. It was found that with each promotion, the "English Guest" grew in the eyes of students by an average of half an inch, so that as a "professor" he looked two and a half inches taller than as a "student".

Researchers advise in difficult situations to ask yourself two questions: “Is this authority really an expert in this field?” and “How true, in our opinion, will this authority be in this particular case?” It is clear that even the most authoritative and respected person cannot be an expert in all fields of knowledge and understand the intricacies of any business.

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Lecture 4 Place of communication among other socio-psychological phenomena

in one of his works, A.A. Leontiev wrote: “Communication should be understood as a social phenomenon; its subject should be considered not an isolated individual, but a social group or society as a whole. Analyzing this point of view, B.F. Lomov noted: “In our opinion, the opposition between the social and the interindividual is unjustified, the relationship between them is the relationship between the phenomenon and the essence, the individual and the general. The social essence of communication as a universal form of relationships between people is manifested (along with other forms) in separate, single interpersonal interactions. Moreover, psychology (unlike, for example, sociology) is primarily interested in this form of manifestation of communication. It considers communication at the level of individual human being. Therefore, we will analyze various types of interactions as relatively independent types of communication in its integral structure.

Communication and personality

BUT- impersonal functional-role communication, mass communication.

B- interpersonal communication, communicative state and communicative activity of the individual.

IN- mental properties, processes and states of the individual.

Zone A. Here, specific components of the concept of “communication” are obvious, which are not included in the content of the phenomenon of personality. They are associated with such forms of communication that are predominantly impersonal or transpersonal in nature (business, functional-role interaction of people), that is, those who communicate perceive each other as carriers of certain functions. For example, it is not the personal qualities of the driver that are important to the passenger, but only his professionalism.

Zone B. Here there is a coincidence of the content of communication with the life of the individual. Communication is manifested in the form of interpersonal contact and interaction, as well as in various forms of communicative activity of the individual ( communicative behavior, communicative activity, mental state in a communication situation, various options for leadership roles). Here it is legitimate to talk about various individual characteristics (for example, temperament), mental states and human behavior in a situation of both interpersonal and group communication.

Zone B. This part of the content of the concept of personality goes beyond the scope of communication, if it is not directly communicative in nature, activities, mental states, consciousness and the experience of one's involvement with one or another community.

Thus, communication and personality can be considered in relation to each other as mutually influencing factors.

The impact of communication on personality

Communication is a need of a person, through which it fulfills itself, expresses itself and asserts itself. A necessary condition is the attention of other people, their understanding and support of initiative and activity. The degree of significance of communication is different for everyone; it is due to the level of introversion and extroversion, the degree of psychological tightness (closedness) of the personality (autism), etc. The lack of communication is a negative factor, but it can also be compensated by a more powerful development of internal dialogue as a form of communication.

Communication and features of human behavior. In addition to the fact that communication determines the nature of a person, his formation, historical development and conditions of life, it also has a huge impact on the characteristics of everyday human behavior. Being among people (in a large mass or small group), a person feels, perceives, experiences and behaves somewhat differently than alone with himself, therefore, such aspects of neuropsychic activity are manifested that are not found in individual life. And here we come to another feature, or side, of communication.

Situation in communication and behavior of people. The range of deviations characterizing the behavior of an individual in a group is quite large. It fluctuates depending on the specific features of group relations and the situation in which the person is (at a lecture, rally, concert, theater, stadium). At the lecture - restrained, correct reaction. In the theater, the audience is more active ( emotional reaction). Sports fans have the effect of psychological infection (increased nervous reactivity).

But regardless of the differences in the characteristics of behavior, there are patterns behavior in an environment of collective activity: among like-minded people or friends, a person feels more confident, experiences an upsurge.

Inconsistency of behavioral effects under the influence of group communication. joint group activity has a tonic effect on the mental properties and abilities of the individual: the processes of thinking and will are activated, sensations and perception are aggravated (positive influence). If the value orientations of the individual and the group do not coincide, then the collective often suppresses or paralyzes the initiative and will of the individual. But even in the case of a coincidence of value orientations, such mechanisms of socio-psychological interaction can affect, which, in essence, are directed against the individuality and independence of the individual. This is a false sense of collective responsibility, an atmosphere of mutual inflation (the company of teenagers), that is, conformist behavior.

By its nature, the mechanism of conformist behavior is associated with the effect of group pressure, including through the sanctions of a negative emotional attitude. This effect is extremely effective, since a person is inclined in one way or another to experience dislike or a negative attitude towards himself from other people. The effect of conformity was established and described in the experiments of the American social psychologist Sasha.

Conformism should be distinguished as a strategic (as opposed to tactical) line of behavior, which is the dominant in the structure of the value orientations of the individual and is rigidly programmed in behavior. In this case, conformism acts as a type of social orientation of the individual and most often has an uncritical character. But conformism can also be of a less global nature and manifest itself in separate moments that are not so significant for the individual, for the sake of which it is not worth going to aggravate relations with the reference group.

In such cases, conforming behavior is accompanied by a critical attitude of the individual to the situation where this behavior takes place.