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Who shoots a lot is not yet a shooter, who talks a lot is not yet a speaker

Confucius

With the help of speech, a person expresses thoughts, feelings and desires, referring to the feelings and minds of his listeners. Modern rhetoric is not just mastering the skills of correct speech, but also the ability to achieve a certain result through the use of speech means.

Thus, a rhetorical text must meet one important goal: to express thoughts and use facts in such a way as to bring listeners to the proper conclusion, for which the speech was actually delivered.

The manager, as, indeed, any speaker, must own the material of the speech. This is the key to oratory. It is known that communication between people can be fruitful and effective only when the words reach the heart of a person and get inside him.

Looking at the main stages in the formation of rhetoric, we can confidently say that this statement applies one hundred percent to public speech. It will be successful when it has its due effect in the mind and heart of the listener. But this requires hard work, speech must be worked out.

Having studied the basic laws of rhetoric, one can understand what shortcomings this or that speech is “gifted with”. These include:

• monotone;
• dryness;
• unconvincing;
• boring story.

Rhetoric as the art of eloquence is designed to serve people

This means that the methods of rhetorical influence should be legal and convince listeners, not coerce. Some people have a negative attitude towards rhetoric for the very reason that they consider it a servant of evil.After all, speech is a weapon, and it can be abused. But can the knowledge that it can be abused be a reason for neglecting speech? Of course not.

Harsh rhetoric is dangerous and unacceptable. The manager must adhere to rigor or strict observance of moral principles, each time rethinking how decent his views and attitude are. Rhetoric and ethics go hand in hand.

The manager is obliged to monitor his performance, in which lies and half-truths do not take place. The speech should not mislead listeners, the manager has no right to exaggerate information or give it unreliably. The purpose of rhetoric: everything that is said must be supported by convincing evidence.

The manager needs to understand for himself why rhetoric is needed, and, taking on the role of a speaker, enter the role of an intermediary between the listener and the subject of speech. There must be complete equality and respect for both sides, and no one of them can be neglected.

Therefore, it is important to approach the subject of a conversation, conversation, speech with a head, wisely. Rhetoric in modern world, as, indeed, in ancient times, and at all times it necessarily borders on decency, it has no right to neglect the framework of morality and ethics. No deliberate misinformation of the listener and misleading him.

The stages of development of rhetoric led the science of eloquence to a certain division of rhetorical speeches. Depending on the purpose and purpose, they are divided into:

• scientific reports, messages, stories about a business trip, etc.
• political speech;
• festive, thanksgiving speech;
• welcome address.

So the speaker manager can talk about any personal experiences, perhaps the purpose of the speech is to emphasize something, strengthen feelings, with the help of speech you can clarify the state of affairs, indicate any advantages in their understanding, the purpose of the speech may be to express an opinion, there is widespread debate and discussion in this regard. Here, non-verbal activity of the speaker can also serve well.

The gift of eloquence and the talent of brilliant speech is enhanced by the ability of the manager as a speaker to use memory during a speech. Therefore, the rhetoric workshop includes mandatory training and daily memory development exercises.

Actually, such training consists in the usual memorization of a poem or a newspaper article every day. But rhetoric as a science involves not just mechanical cramming, but the development and use of directed and functioning memory. It is not necessary to memorize large passages of texts or the entire book.

Developed directed memory acts by allowing the manager to know where, in what place to find the necessary information, in what literature, what source must be consulted in order to find the necessary data, facts, information. The information itself can be easily recorded so as not to overload memory with it.

A functioning memory is a great helper in discussions and negotiations. Memorization of certain events, their assessment, the relationship of details very often put the manager in a winning position in front of the audience, listeners and opponents.

Of course, it is impossible to remember everything, since a person’s memory still has a certain amount, which in turn is also limited. But that's the rhetoric that these are not ordinary trainings with a simple cramming of the material.

In rote learning, as a rule, thinking is not involved. While it is precisely thoughtful, thoughtful mastering when memorizing the material that allows the latter to firmly settle in memory. Thus, three elements contribute to the strengthening and training of the speaker's memory:

• concentration.
• associations.
• repetition.

Concentration allows you to increase the ability to perceive the material. It depends on several components. One of them is the manifestation of interest in the subject of memorization. The subject that is most interesting will be remembered more easily and quickly, it will be easier to focus on it and the level of concentration will be higher in this case.

The second factor is the ability to be distracted, to disconnect from the outside world. The more the manager will have this ability, the higher his concentration will be, and hence the ability to remember the necessary things will increase.

The development of speech is not possible without the development of memory

As a manager, as a person who seeks to own the audience and the attention of listeners, it is important to know how to develop the rhetoric of speech. And for this it is necessary to develop a short, or operational, memory, that is, the manager must be able to store information in memory for a short period of time.

Such a memory is necessary in order to quickly, when reading, grasp and memorize important key words and then develop formulations based on them throughout the subsequent speech. Memory should be developed taking into account personal characteristics. The manager may tend to have a good motor memory. Then, for memorization, it is better for him to use such a tool as writing down.

If acoustic memory is more developed, then when memorizing information will be better perceived by ear. When a manager has an excellent visual memory, for better memorization, he should use the designation of key words in the text, for example, color them in different colors or underline them.

It is very good in this case to use diagrams and drawings in order to strengthen memory. The manager's task is to learn not more, but better, that is, so that even small material is thoroughly imprinted in memory.

When training memory, the manager needs to use the associative mechanism of the human body. This happens through the creation of "memory bridges" or associative series. That is, keywords are remembered associatively, and sentences with the help of figurative links.

For example, the manager connects each keyword with an association. It is known that the material being learned is attached to something deeply fixed in the memory. So, for example, facts are combined with some personal feelings and thus contribute to the development of sensations, and sensations remain in memory.

Repetition is repeated repetition of what has been read or heard. It creates a good environment for memorization. In essence, being a means that can provide memorization. For this you should:

• read aloud - at the same time, vision is connected to hearing and, therefore, the material is absorbed faster and easier. It is not necessary to repeat large passages, you can reread any of the main points highlighted in the text;
• breaks - it is better to memorize for a short period of time than to load memory over a long time period (for example, one hour a day than two hours a day). It is known that during breaks the subconscious memory continues to process and fix the material in memory. And the sooner you start repeating, the faster the consolidation will occur. It is important to load memory into right time when she is fresh and free, not when she is tired;
• the use of combined repetition - memorization is faster when the subject areas have contact connections.

To memorize, it is enough for a manager to remember the beginning, end of the text and its basis of keywords in order to reproduce everything else on this frame with the help of causal relationships.

The art of rhetoric is properly developed breathing when speaking.

Breathing is an important part of human life. In the end, with the help of the air that enters when you inhale, sounds, speeches are made, songs are sung. Breathing occurs due to the movement of the respiratory muscles.

Proper breathing is ensured when the breath is taken through the nose. Otherwise, when inhaling through the mouth, the larynx dries up, the voice sits down. Therefore, the main tasks of rhetoric include mastering the technique of breathing. The manager, as a speaker, needs to watch his breath and constantly practice using diaphragmatic abdominal and lateral breathing.

Exercises

Thus, breathing will be deep, in which the entire volume of the lungs is involved. When using only upper breathing, spasms can occur, especially if the shoulders are raised.Breathing is considered correct when the abdominal wall is rounded, the sides are stretched.

To practice deep breathing, you should breathe fresh air more often, taking about 20 deep breaths. A good exercise is to inhale and hold a little, leave the air in a free state for a few seconds.

The next exercise is to pronounce the sounds “s”, “sh”, “f”, slowly or in jerks, gaining air. Each sound and word is pronounced slowly and very slowly.Another training is to keep the normal pace of speech as long as possible in one breath.

The science of rhetoric, the culture of speech implies the use of the basic rule when pronouncing speech: you should inhale air only in the place where you can pause in meaning. Proper breathing ensures rich and beautiful speech, so the manager should constantly monitor the breath. You can hone your breathing technique with the help of breathing exercises, for example, using materials from public universities.

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Moscow State University MESI

Tver branch of MESI

Department of Humanities and Socio-Economic Disciplines

Test

On the subject "General rhetoric"

Topic: "The role of rhetoric in modern society»

Work completed: student of group 38-MO-11

Mistrov A.S.

Checked by the teacher: Zharov V.A.

Tver, 2009

Content

• Introduction 2
• 3
• 5
• 10
• 13
• Conclusion 17
• Literature 18

Introduction

Rhetoric - the classical science of the expedient and appropriate word - is in demand today as a tool for managing and improving the life of society, shaping the personality through the word.

Rhetoric teaches to think, cultivates a sense of the word, forms a taste, establishes the integrity of the worldview. Through advice and recommendations, thoughtful and expressive texts, rhetorical education dictates the style of thought and life in modern society, giving a person confidence in today's and tomorrow's existence.

Rhetoric is the science of oratory and eloquence. The linguistic features of oral public speaking, bringing rhetoric closer to poetics, suggest the use of techniques in a rhetorical work designed to convince the listener, his expressive processing. Teaching public (oratory) speech involves the formation of various skills (linguistic, logical, psychological, etc.) aimed at developing the rhetorical competence of students, i.e. ability and willingness to communicate effectively.

1. What is rhetoric, or why are people given language, speech, and words?

The pathos of studies of the traditional domestic science of language is determined by the desire of scientists to describe the language from the point of view of its internal structure. The task of describing the language structure is noble and vital. However, with such an approach, a person, a person who perceives and generates speech, is left out.

The gift of the word is one of the greatest abilities of a person, elevating him above the world of all living things and making him a proper person. The word is a means of communication between people, a way of exchanging information, a tool for influencing the consciousness and actions of another person. Tatyana Zharinova Does Modern Society Need Rhetoric? // Magazine "Samizdat". - 2005

Gold rusts and steel rots.

The marble crumbles. Everything is ready for death.

The strongest on earth is sadness -

And more durable is the royal Word.

(A. Akhmatova)

Ownership of the word is valued very highly, but not everyone owns the word.

Moreover, the vast majority are hardly able to competently express their thoughts on paper, all the more they do not own rhetoric in its true understanding.

The ability to speak a word is an integral part of the general culture of a person, his education. For an intelligent person, noted A.P. Chekhov, "speaking badly should be considered as indecent as not being able to read and write ... All the best statesmen in the era of prosperity of states, the best philosophers, poets, reformers were at the same time the best speakers. "Flowers of eloquence" was the path to every career is strewn.

Since ancient times, people have sought to understand what is the secret of the impact of the living word, is it an innate gift or the result of long, painstaking learning and self-education? Rhetoric provides answers to these and other questions.

For most of our compatriots, the word rhetoric sounds mysterious, for others it means nothing, for still others it means pompous, outwardly beautiful, and even "meaningless speech." This word is often accompanied by such epithets as "manipulating" or "empty".

The most common definition is as follows: rhetoric is the theory, skill and art of eloquence. By eloquence, the ancients understood the art of the orator, and by rhetoric, the rules that serve to form orators.

The authority of this science in antiquity, its influence on the life of society and the state was so great that rhetoric was called "the art of controlling minds" (Plato) and put on a par with the art of a commander:

Words can kill

Words can save

Word can shelves

Lead the story!

Aristotle, the author of the first scientific development of oratory, defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuasion regarding any given subject."

In modern manuals and books on rhetoric, this science is often called the "science of persuasion." Aristotle would have been dissatisfied with such a formulation, would have considered it an obvious mistake. You say: what an insignificant difference! Is it really as important as saying: "the science of persuading" or "the science of finding ways to persuade." You need to immediately get used not only to the accuracy of the word, reflecting all the nuances, shades of thought, but also to the accuracy that conveys a clear semantic structure of speech.

In antiquity, rhetoric was called "the queen of all arts."

Currently, rhetoric is the theory of persuasive communication.

With free will and reason, we are responsible for our own actions. The science of rhetoric provides us with invaluable assistance in this: it allows us to evaluate the argumentation of any speech and make an independent decision. N. Voichenko. Orator's code of honor or On the art of public speaking. // Journalist. - No. 12. - 2008 - 38 p.

Since we live in a society, we need to take into account the opinions of other people, consult with them. To convince another means to substantiate your ideas in such a way that those who participate in the discussion agree with them and join them, become your allies.

It is possible and necessary to learn convincingly, to speak, if necessary, to argue, to convincingly defend one's point of view.

2. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality

Words burn like fire

Or freeze like stones

It depends

What did you give them?

What to them in their hour

touched by hands

And how much did he give them

Heartfelt warmth.

N. Rylenkov

Today, everything related to the concept is extremely relevant. "Culture" is a very ambiguous and capacious concept.

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by human society and characterizing a certain level of development of society.

Today, humanization and democratization are declared as the main principles of the education system. Education itself is seen as a means of a safe and comfortable existence of the individual in the modern world, as a way of self-development of the individual. Under these conditions, there is a change of priorities in education, it becomes possible to strengthen its culture-forming role, a new ideal of a person educated in the form of a "man of culture", "a person of an ennobled image", possessing mental, ethical, aesthetic, socio-spiritual culture appears.

The means and condition for achieving this ideal, the very goal of education, is the communicative culture of the individual, which includes emotional and speech, informational and logical culture as components.

The Secondary School Reform Documents (1984) stated:

"Fluent knowledge of the Russian language should become the norm for young people graduating from secondary schools."

These attitudes are preserved in the latest documents on the restructuring of public education.

Why is the prestige of education falling so irresistibly? Why are the spiritual needs and demands of our yesterday's and today's students so frighteningly flawed? What will help stop the disastrously fading interest in knowledge and books? How to stop the devaluation of the national treasure - the native language, to revive the traditions of respect for the word, purity, richness of speech? All the above questions are connected with the problem of the spiritual state of society, with the speech culture of its members, the culture of their communication. It so happened that living in words and words, and not reality, accustomed to semantic unambiguity, people lost the ability to understand the different meanings of words, to see the degree of their correspondence to reality. It is curious that the ability to correlate the word with reality Academician I.P. Pavlov considered as the most important property of the mind.

Observing what Russia was going through, in 1918 he said in his public lecture: "Russian thought ... does not go behind the scenes of the word, does not like to look at the true reality. We are engaged in collecting words, not studying life." I.P. Pavlov "On the Russian mind" // "Literary newspaper". 1981, N 30. ,

The destructible tradition of an evaluative attitude to speech, the emerging (on the favorable soil of low culture) fetishization of the word led to an inability to foresee the consequences of the introduction of militarized vocabulary (arm, fight, form, forge) into educational problems.

Entering the pedagogical consciousness, this vocabulary predetermined the subordination of educational activities to the barracks laws, determined the command-directive forms of interaction, rigidly regulated models of relations.

All this dehumanized the education system, leaving no room for the implementation of its most important function - culture-forming, aimed at developing and improving the culture of the individual and society as a whole.

According to the results of the survey of students of different age groups, there is reason to believe that the developing potential of the school in terms of the formation of a culture of speech and a culture of communication is implemented weakly, inconsistently and purposefully. The culture of speech and the culture of communication, being the conditions and means for the development of students, the formation of their individual culture, should be considered as the goal, the result of the humanization and humanitarization of the education system. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality. - 2009

At present, the closest relationship between the economy, education, attitude to work and human culture is beginning to be realized. The most urgent problem today is the moral character, cultural values, since in solving economic, general social and cultural issues, the efforts of not only the team, but also each person are important.

The increased interest in moral issues in recent times is also caused by the awareness of a rather low culture in the field of communication.

Communication is a complex process that involves the pursuit of truth.

Communication is a complex process that involves the ability to hear and listen to another person.

Communication is a complex process that involves respect for the personality of the interlocutor with whom the dialogue is being conducted.

Truly human communication is built on respect for the dignity of another person, observance of the norms of morality developed by mankind.

In a broad sense, the concept of a culture of behavior includes all aspects of the internal and external culture of a person: etiquette, culture of life, organization of personal time, hygiene, aesthetic tastes in the choice of consumer goods, labor culture.

Particular attention should be paid to the culture of speech: the ability to speak and listen, to conduct a conversation is an important condition for mutual understanding, checking the truth or falsity of one's opinions and ideas.

Speech is the most meaningful, capacious and expressive means of communication.

A high speech culture implies a high culture of thinking, because immature thoughts cannot be expressed in a clear, accessible form.

The culture of speech is an integral part of the general culture of a person, the ability to accurately, expressively convey one's thoughts.

Language reflects the state of morality in society. Colloquial and jargon emphasize laziness of thinking, although, at first glance, they help communication, simplifying this process. Incorrect, interspersed with jargon, speech indicates a person’s poor upbringing.

In this regard, the thoughts of K. Paustovsky seem relevant that in relation to each person to his language, one can accurately judge not only his cultural level, but also his civic value. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. A person who is indifferent to his native language is a savage. He is inherently harmful, because his indifference to the language is explained by the uttermost indifference to the past, present and future of his people.

Language is not only a sensitive indicator of the intellectual, moral development of a person, his general culture, but also the best educator.

A clear expression of one's thoughts, the exact choice of words, the richness of speech form a person's thinking and his professional skills in all areas of human activity.

Academician D.S. Likhachev rightly notes that “sloppiness in clothes is disrespect for the people around you and for yourself. It’s not about being smartly dressed. is on the verge of ridiculous. You must be dressed cleanly and neatly, in the style that best suits you, and depending on age. To an even greater extent than clothing, language testifies to a person’s taste, his attitude to the world around him, to yourself."

Our language is an essential part of our overall behavior and life. And by the way a person speaks, we can immediately and easily judge who we are dealing with: we can determine the degree of intelligence of a person, the degree of his psychological balance, the degree of his possible complexes.

Our speech is the most important part not only of our behavior, but also of our soul, mind, our ability not to succumb to the influences of the environment.

Everything, no matter what we talk about, everything and always depends on the state of morality. The tongue senses it. In this saddle.

N.M. Karamzin said: "... Language and literature are ... the main ways of public education; the richness of language is the richness of thoughts, ... it serves as the first school for a young soul, imperceptibly, but all the more strongly impressing in it the concepts on which the most deep sciences...

3. The role of rhetoric in public life

The development of democracy, the spread of the ideas of individual freedom and the equality of people before the law determined the need of society for rhetoric, which would show how to convince an equal to an equal.

History shows that during periods of fundamental social change, rhetoric has always been in demand by life - we can recall the role and place of rhetoric in the life of Ancient Greece, ancient rome, in the era of the French Revolution, the period of the American Civil War, the role of revolutionary rhetoric after the overthrow of the autocracy and during the October Revolution and civil war in Russia. It is no coincidence that public speech played such a prominent role in ancient democracies and disappeared in the Middle Ages, when mainly theological and church rhetoric dominated.

At present, human rights are gradually becoming the most important aspect of the public life of developed countries. Under these conditions, it became necessary to convince people, moreover, people who are not equal to each other in terms of education and culture, but who require equal treatment. In democracies, persuading people has become essential in preparing for elections. A person is individually unique, not like others, and this makes communication difficult, necessitates learning to communicate. countries. NOT. Kamenskaya Problems of rhetoric in contemporary Russia. // Language as a means of communication: theory, practice, teaching methods. - 2008 - p. 195.

In Russia, as in any developed democratic country, public democratic discussion of various public problems is the most important condition for the very existence of a democratic state, the basis of its functioning, a guarantee of public approval of important decisions by the population. It cannot be argued that public discussions in modern Russia are completely absent. But on vital issues, when it is necessary to make an important decision at the state or local level, such discussions are carried out mainly by the administrative or legislative elite, and more often behind the scenes.

Such discussions are practiced in elected political bodies: in the State Duma, in local self-government bodies. There are talk shows on television. These programs reflect the society's need for a public discussion of problems and interest in such discussions. At the same time, it should be noted that minor problems are often discussed, many of the programs quickly disappear, which shows the instability of the public's interest in such programs.

Discussions in newspapers arouse the interest of readers, but have a limited resonance, since people often do not believe in the effectiveness of the newspaper word, they believe that discussions and compromising evidence are made to order and do not reflect the truth. It must be admitted that modern Russian society almost completely lacks the tradition and technique of a comprehensive democratic public discussion of problems of public interest in labor collectives, discussion clubs, educational institutions and, in general, at the level of ordinary citizens.

There is no experience of public discussions in Russian political practice, and generally accepted rules for holding such events, uniform requirements for the rules of speeches and for answering questions, and the distribution of the roles of participants in the discussion. There is no tradition of equal observance of the rules by all participants in such discussions, regardless of their official position, there is no experience of respectfully asking questions and respectfully answering substantive questions, there is no tradition of strict adherence to ethical and rhetorical norms of discussion.

At the same time, the public discussion of issues of public interest is of great importance for the formation of the mechanisms of democratic procedures, for everyday democratic practice. Without the skills and habit of public discussion of socially significant problems of both national and local importance by ordinary citizens of Russia, the formation and development of a democratic state is impossible.

Social progress in the XX century. significantly expanded the possibilities of rhetoric. Millions of people in Russia were drawn into the processes of political transformation: three revolutions, two world wars, the Cold War, the spread of democracy in the world, the collapse of the USSR affected the population of the country. Radio and television contributed to the influence of the word on the mindset of a huge audience.

The role and possibilities of oratory have greatly increased. End XX - beginning of XXI in. marked by the democratization of public life in Russia and the countries of the former socialist camp. The former Soviet republics became independent states. Democratic elections of presidents, parliamentarians, and self-government bodies involved millions of people in political life. Oratory is in demand again.

It is necessary in every possible way to encourage the development of oral public discussion of socially significant problems in Russian society, as well as to teach rhetorical skills, starting from school. The rhetorical education of Russian citizens is a very important task today.

4. The role of rhetoric in professional activity

Society is divided by differences in confessional rites. Society includes various professions and various forms of organization professional activity, various areas of law and management styles, physical culture requires targeting of ages and the nature of the physiology of individuals. Abstract thinking is determined by the difference between the sciences and the fields of technology. The difference in talents determines the difference in people's professional activities.

In this process speech activity plays a leading role. The fact is that any form of education requires speech actions in order for it to be established one way or another.

So, for teaching the arts, for introducing works of art into society (ordering, displaying, criticizing, interpreting a work by an artist, educating an artist), society uses speech actions. With the help of speech actions, the selection of the best (classical) works, their systematization, classification, codification and storage, and presentation of art to consumers are organized.

Any forecasting system requires interpretation of the current and predicted situation. Management only resorts to formalisms in order to present language information in a convenient form. At the center of the rite are language actions. The rules of the game are explained in language. Hence, the problem of the diversity and unity of society in vivid forms is concentrated in language actions and, in fact, is controlled by language actions.

When we talk about professional competence specialist, we mean, first of all, his knowledge of his specialty, but at the same time, we assume that professional knowledge is supported by the general humanitarian culture of a person, his ability to understand the world around him, and his ability to communicate. As we have already said, the ability to communicate for a number of professions, and economics in the first place, is an integral part of professional competence, a necessary condition for true professionalism. Professional speech competence should be taught, given the necessary knowledge, and basic skills should be formed. So what should be taught and taught? What does the concept of “professional communicative competence” include?

When we talk about the professional competence of a specialist, we mean, first of all, his knowledge of his specialty, but at the same time, we assume that professional knowledge is supported by the general humanitarian culture of a person, his ability to understand the world around him, and his ability to communicate. As we have already said, the ability to communicate for a number of professions, and economics in the first place, is an integral part of professional competence, a necessary condition for true professionalism.

In fact, the dissertation research of T.V. Mazur “Professionally oriented rhetorical training of law students at the university” [Mazur: 2001]. She writes: “Currently, the problem of speech competence of a lawyer is more acute than in previous years… there is a clear need to organize high-quality, professionally significant speech training for future specialists at a university…” [Mazur 2001: 3-4]. To form the speech competence of lawyers, it offers a whole block of disciplines, each of which provides a certain aspect of training (for example, “introduction to legal rhetoric”, “legal oratorio”, etc.) At the same time, the system of skills that provide professional speech training includes such as determining the strategy and tactics of speech behavior in professional activities, achieving the best fulfillment of communication goals, effectively delivering oral monologues and speaking with them in typical speech situations of professional activity, effectively building speech behavior in dialogical communication [ibid: 16, 17] , that is, we are talking about fluency in the repertoire of professional speech genres

O.Ya. Goykhman in the monograph “Scientific and practical problems of teaching non-philological students speech communication ...”, notes that in order to “achieve communicative competence in the social sphere, certain groups of skills are needed, including the skills to: communicate verbally and non-verbally, negotiate, act together” [ Goykhman 2000: 21-22]. The components of teaching professional communicative competence, according to the scientist, should be the culture of speech and elementary literacy of students, which leaves much to be desired among modern school graduates. One cannot but agree with these provisions.

At the same time, one should agree with N.K. Garbovsky and supplement the definition of professional speech as a system of speech genres regularly used in the process of professional-role interaction of communicants. Professional speech, in our opinion and in the opinion of such researchers of professional speech communication as T.A. Milekhina, N.I. Shevchenko, can act in different ways, depending on the composition of the communicators (specialist/non-specialist) and the situation of communication (official/informal), and depending on this, oral professional speech will be closer or further from the “ideal” professional speech, which we can observe only when communication of specialists in a formal setting. With whom you have to communicate, in what conditions the communication takes place, it will largely depend on which version of the “professional language” a professional economist should turn to in order to be correctly understood and ultimately complete the intended communicative task and achieve success.

Conclusion

Rhetoric and culture of speech pervades all spheres of society. Language is a form of thought and a means of communication. Rhetoric is necessary for the formation of the cultural level of a person, his ability to establish relationships with society. A professional career is very dependent on the culture of communication and the use of professional language. The ability to build relationships with colleagues is essential for a productive professional activity.

It is necessary to promote in every possible way the idea of ​​oral public debate of socially significant problems, as well as to promote rhetorical norms and teach debating, starting from school. It seems that this is the most important social task of today, the solution of which will allow creating a truly democratic climate in society, will lead to the formation of civil responsibility of citizens for their country, for their own decision in elections or a referendum, will contribute to the formation of attention and interest in other people's opinion, the formation political and interpersonal tolerance, so necessary for our society.

Literature

N. Voichenko. “Code of honor of the speaker or On the art of public speaking. " // Journalist. - No. 12. - 2008 - 38 p.

O.Ya. Goykhman “Scientific and practical problems of teaching speech communication of non-philologist students…”. - 2000

Tatiana Zharinova. “Does Modern Society Need Rhetoric? » // Magazine «Samizdat». - 2005

NOT. Kamenskaya Problems of rhetoric in contemporary Russia. // Yazak as a means of communication: theory, practice, teaching methods. - 2008 - p. 195

T.V. Mazur, “Professionally oriented rhetorical training of law students at the university”. - 2001

I.P. Pavlov, "On the Russian mind" // "Literary newspaper". 1981 N30

The role of language in the formation of a person's personality. - 2009

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Yu.V. Christmas

§ 1. Classical and new rhetoric

Classical rhetoric developed in the conditions of the initial democracy - the Greek policies and the Roman Republic. In the East, in India and China, there was no rhetoric of the classical Mediterranean type. This does not mean that there was no theory of speech in the East. In India, according to F.I. Shcherbatsky, syllogistics was developed in Buddhism. The formation of syllogistics in India was due to the need for disputes of dogmatic content and served as a means of persuading opponents of the truths of religious teaching.

Indian logic was part of the theory of aesthetics. It was part of the "Treatise on Dance" Natyashastra. Logic was later supplemented by the doctrine of style in the treatises Kavyalankara (decorations of speech) and Dhvanyaloka (lit. light of dhvani, i.e. poetic metaphor). The teachings about plausible speech, i.e. not necessarily correct, but only plausible, did not arise.

In China, the general philosophical doctrine of the Logos - Tao was developed technically in the "Book of Changes", where there is a formal system for describing the world and prognostication with certain syntactic properties that allow one to think correctly. In the 6th century, the Chinese theory of literature was created, which provided rules and patterns for all types of literature used in China. The doctrine of plausible, and not only correct speech in China, as well as in India, did not arise. For ethical reasons, it was righteous speech, not plausible speech, that was required.

This was due to the nature of the state. For the implementation of the court, which strengthens the authority of the authorities, and for the correct decisions of a political and administrative nature, the monarchs and their representatives needed not plausibility, but truth. Teachings about speech were ethically oriented toward speaking the truth.

In Greece, the court of the pritanes and in Rome, litigation in the comitia were, as a rule, the satisfaction of civil claims. jurors speaking modern words dealt primarily with civil litigation. Both the plaintiff and the defendant could be punished. Not a single inhabitant could appeal to a higher authority than the opinion of fellow citizens.

Freedom of opinion and interests, the openness of private life to neighborly claims gave rise to an abundance of processes. The court, indefinite in the composition and legal training of judges, did not require logically rigorous evidence, but was satisfied with rhetorical technical evidence to determine opinions, because. non-technical (i.e. material) evidence of all kinds was not highly respected, as can be seen from Aristotle's treatise Rhetoric.

So, in the conditions of ancient democracy, it was only necessary to influence the opinion of judges, who actually leaned to one side or the other of opponents in the process under the influence of opinions. That is why the rhetoric of antiquity was defined by its creators as the doctrine of plausible speech, and not at all about finding the true truth. In this regard, the characterization given to rhetoricians by Plato in the Gorgias dialogue fully proves that rhetorical practice was governed mainly by self-interest and the desire for power for self-interest, and not by civil virtues or spiritual honesty and spiritual perfection. This was later confirmed by the skeptical philosopher Sextus Empiricus.

The best proof of the nature of rhetoric as the art of verisimilitude for the purpose of formulating the opinions of a group of people or a crowd (in a popular assembly) is the study of speech by Aristotle. Aristotle wrote "Analytics", "Poetics" and "Rhetoric" and thus divided the types of speech according to the conditions for their pronunciation. The "Analysts" contain the theory of scientific proof and rely in this respect on the treatise "Categories". They are applicable in the dialectical conversations of learned people and are not suitable for speeches at a court or in a national assembly. "Poetics" is based on mimesis - imitation, where the author imitates possible events and circumstances in his fiction. At the same time, the audience knows in advance that the drama played out in the theater is not a discussion of reality.

As for the "Rhetoric", it is a speech in the people's assembly and in court. Here the audience demands credibility, and the arguments are based on the meanings of proverbs as on large premises, while small premises are brought up with the help of enthymemes to turn the listeners' opinion in their favor, and not at all to preach the truth. But rhetoric is needed, because “If it is shameful not to be able to help oneself with the body, then it is even more shameful not to help oneself with the word.”

This shows that rhetoric is a forced art. It is a consequence of a democratic way of life, when the opinion of the crowd and public opinion in general decide the fate of the citizen and the layman.

Cicero, creating his treatises on rhetoric, demanded from the Roman orator a thorough knowledge of laws and legislation. This is due to the fact that the speaker does not call on listeners to "be witnesses of their own ignorance", because. Roman republican legislation and lawmaking was complex, as was the legal composition of the rights of different social groups (patricians, plebeians, clients, freedmen, pilgrims, slaves of various categories). But even under these conditions, civil eloquence was aimed at creating opinions, not knowledge, understanding benefits, not truth.

The work of Quintilian developed the doctrine of speech mainly in the direction of civil oratory. But under the conditions of the empire, when the power of consul, tribune and censor was combined in one person, rhetoric expanded its areas of application. This extension concerned the activities of magistrates in an empire whose parts were distinguished by legal, cultural and ethnic heterogeneity. Hence, the very preparation of a speech is more reminiscent of a scientific study of the circumstances of the case, and the execution of a speech requires special grace. Thus, in fact, the question was raised about truth and about style as a means of a clear presentation of truth.

These actually new settings came in handy at the next stage in the development of speech. All the main creators and disseminators of the Orthodox teaching, before starting their homiletic activities, were trained by pagan rhetoricians. Rhetoric thus played the role of pedagogical propaedeutics in the field of speech technology. It was suitable as the formation of a speech technique for solving higher problems - the preaching of the Christian dogma. Speech technique here means not just pronunciation skills, but also the technique of argumentation. The argumentation technique was no longer used to create momentary opinions of the crowd, but to spread the truth of the Christian faith and thus served the tasks of developing and establishing spiritual morality.

There is no solid information about how the Church Fathers were trained in rhetoric. Only a few names of their teachers of rhetoric are known, but not the creativity and methodology of these teachers. It is important to note that a new type of speech - homiletics - did not do without rhetorical preparation. The results of this preparation are visible in the argumentative, stylistic and aesthetic merits of the writings of the Church Fathers. Unfortunately, these works, which are now largely translated into Russian and make up a large layer of modern Russian literature, are not the subject of study, literary education at school. The figurative structure of homiletics, not to mention the ideological content, is an essential part of the content and verbal form of entertaining Russian literature of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, as well as the speech creativity of politicians and even journalists. One of the verbal and figurative foundations of the modern school anthology is not presented in the study - and therefore it is so difficult to teach the language and aesthetics of verbal art.

A.A. Potebnya, however, believed that ten centuries of Russian literature were prose and, as it were, were in vain for the Russian language.

Thus, in the first centuries of our reckoning, rhetoric was understood as a school discipline that provides technical mastery of oral and written speech in the process of psychophysical construction of the form and meaning of speech. As such, rhetoric formed part of the trivial education along with grammar and elementary theology. In this capacity, rhetoric introduced quadrivium subjects from mathematics to music.

In modern times, rhetoric, in addition to the tasks of speech education, was assigned new tasks - the tasks of creating and strengthening the style of speech, thought and interpersonal relationships. Rhetoric, from the 15th century to the 20th century, actually additionally assumed the functions of the philosophy of language. This was especially pronounced in the 18th century, when national schools of rhetoric finally took shape. In the famous work of Harris "Philosophy of Rhetoric", the role of language and speech as a tool for creating social relations and society as a whole was indicated. Language was assigned the role of the creator of society and a social person. These thoughts of Harris (late 18th century) still form the core of modern American philosophy of language.

Gottsched, the normalizer of the German literary language of the mid-18th century, - rhetoric directly put at the service scientific speech, because the invention of speech in this rhetoric must be carried on in accordance with the development of scientific, objective and positive knowledge. This is how Gottsched saw the tasks of rhetoric, as did Wolf, who, in turn, was a student of Leibniz.

Another student of Wolf - M.V. Lomonosov expanded and deepened the tasks of rhetoric, making it the main tool for the formation and normalization of the Russian literary language. M.V. Lomonosov developed the theory of the invention of speech in a new and original way. He created a peculiar technique for the invention of speech-thought, which is similar to a reasoning scheme in chemistry: first, take a speech expression and its meaning, composed of the meanings of words, then decompose this meaning into components and then form a new synthesis of words that make up new speech, by adding new words and common places by association with common places. This is how Lomonosov's language machine looks like, the correctness of actions of which is regulated by grammar.

Further, the Russian tradition vividly emphasized general and particular rhetoric. Private rhetoric resulted in a theory of literature, combining the philosophy of language and the system of speech forms. As a result of development, the theory of literature began to be called stylistics (in the system of V.V. Vinogradov - functional stylistics).

Stylistic problems were solved in turn, and in their own way, by the French, English, and American schools of rhetoric.

The service-pedagogical role of rhetoric made it a precedent empirical knowledge. The rules of rhetoric were derived from the best examples, as they were selected by the teacher, based on public opinion and the interpretation of a promising lifestyle and speech. In the 20th century, the methods of rhetoric became different. She began to turn into scientific discipline began to apply quantitative methods and serve as a tool for the analysis of social problems.

§ 2. American scientific rhetoric

Scientific rhetoric began in the United States at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when content analysis was invented. Content analysis had predecessors in the form of a statistical analysis of speech works, when the works of one or several authors were compared in court or for scientific purposes in order to examine whether a speech work belongs to one or another author. It was noted that the personality of the author is reflected in the frequency of use of words and forms, and these frequency characteristics constitute, as it were, a speech portrait of the author. The method of statistical examination of the text could be used not only to establish authorship, but also to establish the general meaning of speech works. The frequency characteristics of words and terms reflect, first of all, the semantic area of ​​the examined texts. If we make different words (or their synonyms) as sampling units, then we can make a “portrait” of the content of the text by establishing statistical correlations of the frequencies of occurrence of different words in a particular text or group of texts.

The statistical method of examining texts can be turned into abstracts that accurately convey the content of a large array of texts that cannot be described after direct reading, because there are too many texts. For the reliability of such abstracts, based on the rules for the formation of statistical samples, it is possible to create a reliable statistical portrait of the content of the entire array of texts. This portrait-abstract reflects the content of the entire array of texts more reliably than with sequential reading and subjective perception and presentation of the content.

Statistical correlations of the frequency of the study of meaning-bearing units of the text can become a tool for a directed study of the movement of content in large arrays of texts. If you are interested in what and how they say about any subject, then the sample can be made in a targeted manner, choosing from a statistically reliable array of topics of interest to the researcher.

This method of tracking the development of meanings in society has given rise to a special kind of commercial activity - content analysis, which is of great use in marketing and politics.

The next step was the compilation of questionnaire texts in order to establish public opinion. By distributing questionnaires among different categories of the population and statistically studying the content of the answers, they began to receive abstracts of public opinion. In this capacity, content analysis is also used by us. Its other possibilities, for example, the study of methods of forming public opinion, are represented by fragmented studies.

Content analysis, when applied correctly and extensively, can solve a variety of tasks: the tasks of reading texts and evaluating their content; tasks of registration and forecasts of stylistic movements; tasks of determining the interests of society and their distribution by population groups; tasks of fluctuating public opinion and more.

The main direction of content analysis in practice is the study and evaluation of the audience formed by speech.

From the study of the audience, scientific rhetoric in the United States has moved to the study of the effectiveness and efficiency of speech. In this direction, the discipline of communication theory has developed. The theory of communications proceeds from the concept of the connection between the creator and the recipient of speech through a verbal text. This starting position can be examined both linguistically and rhetorically.

If the formula "speaker - speech - listener" is considered from the point of view of the language code, which is the same for the listener and the speaker, then we have linguistics. If, under the condition of a single code, interference occurs in communication, then this is a rhetorical study that involves the task of how to bring the content of the speech to its recipient with maximum completeness in the conditions of the unity of the language code. With such a formulation of the problem, they resort to factor analysis: what factors of a physical, psychological or psychophysical nature cause misunderstanding, misunderstanding or misunderstanding of the content of speech. Observations on speech acts, setting up experiments of a psychological nature make it possible to identify a number of factors, such as the ambiguity of a speech signal, psychological unwillingness to perceive speech (lack of attention, distraction, and the like), the conditions of the environment through which the speech signal passes, the composition of background knowledge, communication etiquette, etc. Factor analysis allows you to adjust the conditions of speech communication: in communication technology, in organizing a speech audience, in the forms and meanings of speech construction, in relation to its semantic intelligibility. Experimental psychological technique also involves statistical verification of the validity of findings.

The mutual rhetorical relationship between speakers and audiences in American rhetoric was ethically meaningful. This comprehension was interpreted as a series of choices: first, the choice of the topic of speech by its creator, depending on his preferences and the direction of future activity; secondly, the choice of an audience that agrees to perceive his speech and which speech can influence; thirdly, an honest presentation of alternatives to one's proposal (under the conditions of a deliberative speech).

At the same time, new subjects appeared in American education. Together with the lessons of "composition" - an analogue of our school essays and recitation - an analogue of our " expressive reading”, as well as the school theater, designed to improve the pronunciation of students, the subject “Speech” - “Speech” appears. This course includes teaching how to write and deliver speeches, as well as debating and debating management. For a while, there were discussions between the Association of Speech Teachers and those involved in the theory of communication about the harmonization of both subjects in school education. Then a general program "Speech communication" was developed - speech communication.

In addition to these subjects of general education, American universities are developing training in certain speech professions: public relations (PR), journalism, and management. Along with this, fiction is studied in philological specialties, and students of all specialties undergo serious training in writing scientific and business texts. Books have been written on the history of rhetoric that present the American nation as an ideal condition for the development of rhetorical practice.

§ 3. Japanese rhetorical theory

Japanese rhetorical theory, called by its authors "Language Existence" (Gengo sekatsu), is currently widely developed both in science and in teaching, and mainly in practical application.

The emergence of this broad discipline was justified in the 50s as follows:

Japan fundamentally refused to acquire territories by military means.

Japan has no sources of raw materials for industry and very little land for agriculture.

The population of Japan is large and the population density is high.

The only resource for economic development is culture and intellect.

For the development of intelligence, a reform is needed in the field of speech activity and language.

It is necessary to concentrate the spiritual efforts of the people around this program and revive patriotism. For these purposes, the following actions were taken.

Politeness reform. This reform consisted in the fact that in place of class forms of politeness, national non-class forms of politeness were introduced, which, however, were sustained in the Japanese tradition, although they implied some simplification of feudal forms of politeness. The reformers sought by this to create a situation of spiritual comfort for every Japanese and for the Japanese people as a whole. (Something similar happened with us after 1918, when the title of military and officials was abolished, the address “comrade” was introduced and a new communication etiquette was proposed. But this speech reform in Russia did not aim to create spiritual comfort. Therefore, roughly familiar types spread among us speech, rude abuse and impolite treatment were often used.). The Japanese believe that proper etiquette, contributing to peace of mind, increases labor enthusiasm and productivity.

Language reform mass media assumed: firstly, the elimination of rare hieroglyphs. The number of hieroglyphs in the media was limited for the intelligibility of media texts. The spoken language of radio and television must be intelligible to all. For this purpose, journalists should not use such words and expressions of written speech that are understandable in the written language thanks to the hieroglyphs, but not quite understandable by ear. Freedom of expression must be contained within a certain lexical framework, allowing to unite the Japanese nation in the linguistic and moral sense of the word.

There was increased attention to research into the history of the Japanese language. Historical dictionaries of the Japanese language have been and continue to be actively compiled. Such a dictionary, compiled in an automated mode, consistently describes all the texts of the Japanese language (religious, business, academic, artistic). The Japanese language in this dictionary is a historical collection of Japanese vocabulary and as such is a reference tool for Japanese culture, primarily for the needs of education, but also for any other need to improve speech communication.

Local sayings are described and dictionaries of local sayings are compiled. This has the same purpose as the dictionary generalization of literary texts.

– The general process of verbal communication is being studied. The process of verbal communication is considered as a waste of time for one or another type of speech. The most difficult part here is the accounting of oral speech, considered both in lexical and temporal terms. Once a year, 200,000 volunteers tape record all their speech actions during the day. These data are then summarized and published. The situation is simpler with the analysis of written forms of speech, which are analyzed according to methods close to those of content analysis. This is how the picture of speech in society as a general population is formed.

- A special subject is the study of the speech of individuals. Firstly, the categories of such expenses are singled out as part of the daily waste of time: sleep, rest, work, speech actions. On the basis of sociologically substantiated samples, the nature of time wasted by different categories of the population is examined.

- Separately allocated time spent on speech is analyzed from the point of view of active (speaking and writing) and passive (reading, listening) speech actions, and then the time spent on the media, documents, fiction, conversations, etc. is analyzed. A kind of mapping of society is formed in terms of the typology of speech actions and time spent on one or another type of speech, both among different categories of people and in society as a whole. This makes it possible to draw up balances between different types of speech.

- Measures are being taken to enhance speech activity. These measures concern first of all meetings of workers at their place of work. Meetings have different purposes, usually these are production meetings with the aim of improving labor and organizing activities, submitting and discussing rationalization proposals, and relationships in labor collectives. Such meetings also have the goal of creating comradely relations in collectives, establishing relations with management of such a kind that the honor and dignity of employees are preserved and supported.

– Various forms of maintaining relationships are being developed, standard forms postcards and letters and other forms of maintaining business, family and other relationships.

– The theory of linguistic existence pays special attention to documents and documentary forms in order to improve the ways of presenting the necessary information. The information in the documents should be complete and easy to read. For this purpose, each type and type of document must contain comprehensive information on the case, not contain unnecessary information and be easy to read so that no extra time is spent reading the document. Therefore, text documents are being reduced and such documentary forms as questionnaires, tables, histograms, diagrams, graphs, charts, etc. are being distributed.

– The theory of linguistic existence pays a lot of attention to book publishing, libraries, library catalogs, automation of library services and accessibility of library services.

- Amateur literary and artistic creativity is encouraged in various ways through the school, through the trade unions.

- Particular attention is paid to the media. Analyzed and adjusted depending on the analysis of the television broadcast program (some large companies consider it necessary to contain scientific institutes serving these television companies). Journalists call for covering as many facts as possible that are novel and educational for media recipients. The widest selection of television and radio programs has been created, and the publication of newspapers and magazines is encouraged.

– The theory of linguistic existence pays special attention to the school. In the late 1970s, a thesaurus dictionary of terms for school subjects was created. The thesaurus takes into account the number of concepts that a student should know. For each term in this dictionary-thesaurus, full and comprehensive information is given. The dictionary exists in two forms: for the whole school, i.e. for 12 years of study, and by class. Accordingly, the level of presentation of information varies. The thesaurus dictionary plays the role of an optimal standard for general education. But the thesaurus dictionary is not actually a teaching aid or textbook. The dictionary is a methodological material for the creativity of the teacher. With a dictionary orientation, textbooks and teaching aids are compiled, where the methodological creativity of teachers and individual teachers is implemented. A very significant percentage of young people, probably the largest in the world, are pursuing higher education. There are public and private universities. Both enjoy strong financial support from the state and large private companies. This support is ongoing. A significant number of students study for free. Some of them receive a scholarship and a hostel. Higher education received great prestige and in many respects became non-class and independent of the level of well-being of families.

– Early childhood education has a strong support of television in the form of cartoons. These cartoons are not aggressive in content, they develop the sentimental qualities of a person, and are created, as a rule, by means of computer animation. A network of preschool children's institutions of various kinds has been developed.

– Japanese society pays considerable attention to computerization. The element base of Japanese computers is apparently the best in the world. Computer peripherals are constantly updated with new inventions and new modifications, with better properties. Until the early 1990s, computer science and distribution computer technology were also the best in the world. But since the beginning of the 90s, the Japanese began to yield to the United States in the style of programming. Therefore, the US software product has become more and more widely used. The pace of economic growth slowed down. One might think that this slowdown in economic growth is due to lagging behind the United States in the field of software.

– The Japanese theory of linguistic existence is connected with the propaganda of Japanese patriotism. Patriotism is conceived not as a military advantage, but as the superiority of the Japanese intellect, the moral qualities of the people, internal order and diligence. Thanks to this type of competitiveness, Japan extended its influence to the countries of Southeast Asia and became the second world power in terms of production and trade.

§ 4. Induction and deduction in rhetoric

Obviously, the development of speech in society is the key to the success and prosperity of society. The implementation of this guarantee lies in the fact that the very development of speech is governed by sound and promising laws on speech, and the content of speech has the right ethical orientation and helps to strengthen society through the development of dialogic relations in society and mutual understanding. Dialogue relationships and mutual understanding are based on national and common culture.

Unlike the United States and Japan, modern Russian society pays very little attention to its language. If we turn to the successes of socialist construction, then with all the mistakes domestic policy they nevertheless took place and brought the USSR to second place in the world, and in a number of areas, such as space research, the creation of military technologies, the civil infrastructure of cities, the intensity of the operation of railway lines, the development of new lands for agriculture, the creation of a unified energy system, the creation of a nuclear industry, the unprecedented growth of cities, the development of a professional infrastructure for natural and applied sciences, the creation of a powerful system of secondary and higher education and others - in the first place.

At the same time, there was a backlog in the following group of sectors of the economy: 1) postal communications, telephone wire communications and the telephone network, fiber-optic communications, satellite radio communications - all types of communications lagged far behind the needs; 2) the production of computers, especially personal ones, could not be adjusted to the scale of existing needs; 3) televisions were produced of poor quality, and the production of video recorders was not started at all; 4) copying equipment of all kinds (printing, office, personal-family) has lagged behind; 5) the production of paper in terms of volume and quality did not meet the needs of society, there was a paper famine, the distribution of paper was limited; 6) optical equipment (cameras, movie cameras) were either not produced or were of poor quality and were not improved; 7) tape recorder technology developed slowly and was of poor quality; 8) scientific and medical instrumentation developed, in fact, only in single samples.

From a comparison of the successes and shortcomings of development, it can be seen that the planning of the economy was posed one-sidedly. Everything developed except semiotic technique. Semiotic technique and the mental labor associated with it were not equipped with technology. Books, articles, magazines were published in poor printing quality. Their own style of programming actually died out, they used a foreign software product without any licensing. The number of radio stations was obviously not enough, there were few television programs of central and local television, there were not enough television channels to meet the needs of society. As it turned out now, even theatrical productions and theaters were not enough.

This disproportion between non-semiotic and semiotic production can only be explained ideologically. The leadership of the society, i.e. the leadership of the CPSU, until the end of the 80s, did not allow dissent into society and demanded the ideological integrity and ideological unitarity of society. This attitude is evident even from the fact that the leadership has poorly developed the production of passenger cars, although the passenger car ends with the "idiocy of village life", develops the road network, forms the technical skills of the population, and ultimately modernizes the organizational structures of agriculture.

The 1990s showed how great was the need for semiotic technology and for the passenger car industry. These disproportions, disregard for the role of semiotics and language needs, led to the fact that the CPSU as the ruling party was dissolved and huge expenses were incurred for the purchase of all types of semiotic equipment and cars. The situation of spiritual stagnation, created by such unsuccessful planning, fundamentally contradicted V.I. Lenin when creating a socialist state. Lenin demanded the advanced development of technology, radio, cinema, the press, copying equipment, paper, and so on. This is clearly seen from his works, especially those created by him before his illness.

The new style of life proclaimed by the Bolsheviks and won over to their side the thinking strata of the whole world consisted in freedom of thought and the provision of material means of its expression. The mustiness of the atmosphere that developed in the 1960s and 70s showed that the means of speech control through oral speech, documents, and the unitary press did not meet the requirements of society. But even under these conditions, the speech organization of society, which was based on speech in the assembly, was such a powerful driving force that could turn a backward country, destroyed by wars, which had lost a significant part of its active population, into the most powerful second power in the world.

Understanding the role of speech as the main instrument of social development was hampered by the stagnation of philological ideas. Philological science and philological education were reduced to the study of a narrow circle of literary and artistic works and the examination of the language system. Both were carefully studied, commented on to the smallest detail both in Russian and in the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. The abundance of these studies and tutorials is astounding. However, the study of oral prose speech: civil, judicial and solemn oratory, in fact, was not done. Even the oratorical skill of the founders of the Soviet state was not carefully and critically studied. Propaganda speech - the basis of Soviet ideology - was subjected to only fragmentary study. Church homiletics was delayed in its development due to the destruction of the church. Pedagogical skill was mixed with the method of studying subjects. AT Soviet time The document has undergone many changes. Historians have studied it, but not philologists. Practically without the participation of scientific philology, the so-called EGSD (Unified State Documentation System) was formed, which, in fact, remained a dead weight, because. did not take into account the variety of applications of documents and reasons for compiling documents.

The language of scientific literature and the genres of scientific speech were not sufficiently comprehended either in Russian or in the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. Work on terminology was carried out inefficiently, and the terminological discipline was weak due to the lack of understanding of the diversity in the methods and forms of termination and the unity of the terminological economy.

The language and rhetoric of the press, television and radio were standardized within departmental approaches, but without understanding their role on the scale of the entire set of speech actions.

In short, there was no place for rhetoric either in education or in academic science. It is impossible to name specific persons who would be to blame for this. Such was the style of the philological intelligentsia and the type of philosophical thinking.

Under these conditions, the construction of systematic rhetoric, its teaching and the use of rhetorical theory to normalize the life of society are difficult. A particular difficulty is that, unlike the United States and Japan, speech in the USSR and Russia was practically not subjected to systematic research, and therefore its nature, speech empiricism is not sufficiently represented in the actual data. Therefore, it is necessary to build modern Russian rhetoric purely theoretically, deductively, on the basis of knowledge about the factual side of speech in other countries and using deduction. To construct a deductive system, it is necessary to formulate the basic concepts that can play the role of axiomatic propositions.

Classical rhetoric was and remains the theory of monologue speech. It is not a deductive science, since it is guided by the analysis of specially selected successful monologues and the experience of rhetoricians who have created empirical analyzes of successful monologues. The principle of its construction is inductive, coming from the empirical practice of oratory.

The changes that took place in the theory of monologue speech were associated with a change in social style as a whole, manifested in people's behavior and, especially, in semiotic behavior. From this we can conclude that monologue speech depends on the lifestyle and style of speech works.

§ 5. Theory of literature

The theory of literature dealt with the stylistics of the general, and especially speech. The universal theory of literature was called "general philology", because. it considers the experience of not one speech culture, in particular Russian, but all speech cultures of the world and codifies speech works as the result of a comparison of different speech cultures.

In accordance with the data of general philology, the main milestones in the development of speech style and lifestyle are associated with the creation of new speech materials and new speech tools corresponding to them. The creation of new materials and tools of speech leads to the emergence of new types and varieties of speech products in such a way that the possibilities of new materials and tools of speech are fully used.

The formation of new tools and materials of speech, i.e. new texture of speech, forms the possibility of creating a new lifestyle and, accordingly, a new style of speech. The formation of a new lifestyle is associated with new opportunities for speech communication that changes the living conditions of people. At the same time, speech highlights its material side, its texture and its semantic side, its spiritual content.

Since speech is leading social activity people, this activity must be organized by rules. Rules must be created separately for the texture of speech and its derivative types of literature and for the laws of constructing meaning. The rules for the texture of speech and its derivatives are called the external rules of literature, because. they control the use of speech texture and do not determine the construction of speech content. They are external to the content. The construction of the content of speech is determined by the internal rules of literature. The internal rules of literature, roughly speaking, determine which words to use, in what forms and order to make speech out of them.

External and internal rules are interconnected. This connection is style. Accordingly, stylistics is divided into functional, which determines the use and composition of texts in different types of literature, and grammatical-rhetorical - the doctrine of tropes and figures of speech, which are universal for any type of literature, and their use is determined by the tasks of constructing a given work and the taste of its creator. Rhetoric formulates the internal rules of literature. It is related to grammar (linguistics) and stylistics. Grammar (linguistics) suggests that the speaker and listener, the creator and recipient of speech, must achieve a common perception and understanding of speech - have the same code that encrypts and decrypts speech messages. But at the same time, a complete, unified understanding does not arise, but only an understanding of the meanings of words and forms. These combined meanings are an abstraction made by the linguist in any use of words and forms in any kind of literature. Therefore, linguistic concepts have such a degree of abstraction that they allow a wide interpretation, and from a linguistic point of view, in any act of speech there is understanding and misunderstanding at the same time.

In order to eliminate this uncertainty, resort to rhetoric. With the help of the rules of rhetoric, it is possible to convey the content of a speech message to the person who perceives it with appropriate completeness and specificity. Rhetoric is designed to eliminate misunderstandings.

In this, rhetoric is complemented by the study of style, since one of the factors of misunderstanding is style. Knowledge of the stylistic means of style by both participants in the speech act provides opportunities for understanding (not all), and ignorance leads to misunderstanding. Thus, stylistics, as one of the internal rules of literature, is also addressed to linguistics.

The basis of modern rhetoric is dialogue. The dialogue might look like this:

(O - speaker, → speech, O? - listener).

There are at least two phases of speech: a monologue and another monologue, when the speaker becomes the listener. From this arise the following new categories of rhetoric:

A) The conditions that the listener imposes on the speaker is ethos.

B) The intention of the speaker and the realization of the intention to tell something to the listener - pathos.

C) Understanding of this speech by the listener, subject to the unity of the language code and the unity of interpretation of the categories of style - logos.

Ethos - is implemented in laws and rules, such as etiquette, assembly rules, procedural code (in court), censorship rules, etc.

Paphos - is realized under the influence and the need to establish joint activities.

Logos - is realized in the formation of common places through dialogue: the widest (morality) and the narrowest (family tradition or the direction of a particular organization).

Ethos, pathos and logos are related to each other as follows:

Ethos, pathos and logos are the starting concepts of rhetoric, its “beginning”, i.e. axiomatic provisions, thanks to which it is possible to build a deductive system of rhetoric concepts, correlating the results obtained with speech practice, its successes and failures.

§ 6. Laws of dialogue

Dialogue is an elementary unit of social management. The general laws of dialogue look like this:

1. If a dialogue on one topic in one type of literature continues for a long time, its meaning is reduced and disappears.

If the dialogue is conducted on one topic and is conducted in different types of literature, its meaning grows.

2. If a dialogue on one topic is conducted in a large or unlimitedly large audience without changing the types of literature, its meaning is reduced and disappears.

3. If the dialogue is conducted on this topic in a fully competent audience, then there will be no result. If the dialogue is conducted on this topic in an incompletely competent audience, then the result is possible in the form of increasing knowledge, educating feelings and actions.

The first law is the law of types of speech, the second is the law of the breadth of the audience, the third is the law of the quality of the audience.

The rules for conducting dialogue in accordance with these laws are as follows:

Rule a). If you want to reduce an unpleasant topic to zero and do away with it, continue the dialogue in one form of literature or expand the audience.

Rule b). If you want to succeed in managing a team, limit the time of the dialogue, its audience and the number of participants, and change the types of literature.

Rule c). If you want to succeed in management, be afraid of a fully competent or self-important audience and shape the audience yourself so that new information is new to the audience. Emphasize and highlight novelty.

These three rules may be called the rules of debate.

Debating rules are the art of organizing a dialogue under specific conditions. It is impossible to enter into a dialogue, and even more so to organize a dialogue, when the conditions for debating are not understood and organized. Debating is organized according to the nature of substantive actions in connection with the task of solving a specific issue in the sphere of knowledge, feelings and substantive activity.

The ethos of the dialogues is divided into three categories: dialectics, eristics and sophistry.

Dialectics is a condition for conducting a dialogue, in which the parties agreed to jointly seek the truth and act in the common interest. Example: scholarly dispute, organization of a campaign.

Eristic is a condition for conducting a dialogue in which all parties seek only personal benefit. Example: the dispute of the parties in court, the conduct of propaganda.

Sophistry is a condition for conducting a dialogue, in which the parties resort to dialectical arguments, but have in mind their own benefit. Example: debates in parliament, discussion of the terms of a loan in a bank.

The conditions of dialectics, eristics, and sophistry are either predetermined, or tacitly implied (for example, trade in the bazaar), or carried out according to an established tradition.

Figures of dialectics are known. This is logic.

The figures of eristics are calculated by me in the book "Theory of Rhetoric" (M., 1999, pp. 209 - 213).

The figures of sophistry are based on different interpretations of the meanings of words and expressions.

From the point of view of the ethos of dialogue, the types of literature are distributed as follows:

The pathos of the dialogues is as follows:

The names of the types of dialogues are conditional. Dialogues are defined by goals, i.e. on the pathos of the debate and its organization.

The convention of the name is significant. It is given by type of activity, where the pathos of this type is presented most clearly.

Family dialogue is an indefinite pathos that combines all types of pathos.

The domineering dialogue consists of:

1. Formulating the need to do something;

2. Formation of proposals on the conditions in which the fulfillment of the plan is possible;

3. In the consent of all to the proposed conditions.

The military dialogue consists of:

1. Determining the success criteria for a certain action;

2. Determination of the action plan;

3. Bringing the plan to the performers.

The diplomatic dialogue (“the art of living”) consists of:

1. Maintaining relationships through verbal contacts;

2. Non-interference in the actions and speeches of other individuals and groups;

3. Avoid interference in your plans and actions.

The intelligence dialogue consists of:

1. Establishing common ideals and goals that guarantee the security of the parties;

2. Questioning on a topic of interest;

3. Messages of information on a topic of interest.

The investigative and judicial dialogue consists of:

1. Detection of the true state or event in the past;

2. Interpretations of the causes and factors of a past state or event;

3. Conclusions about the nature of the past state or event as a lesson for the future.

The financial dialogue consists of:

1. Establishing the interests of the parties;

2. Estimates of measures of labor in terms of volume and complexity;

3. Establishing a monetary equivalent for labor costs.

The administrative dialogue consists of:

1. Determining the optimal structure of collective activity;

2. Order on the powers of persons, the beginning and termination of actions;

3. Report on the results of activities with their analysis.

The educational dialogue consists of:

1. Messages of the amount of knowledge or information;

2. Repetition and reproduction of knowledge and information;

3. Assessing the assimilation of knowledge and information.

Dialogue scientist consists of:

1. Messages of provisions on the nature of the subject;

2. Criticism of the message;

3. Advances of a new position.

The business dialogue consists of:

1. Formulation of observations of the interesting side of the life of objects;

2. Making decisions on activities;

3. Definitions and constitution of the structure of activity.

The ritual dialogue consists of:

1. Epideictic (demonstrative) speech;

2. Repetitions of the provisions of epideictic speech;

3. Changes in the internal state of a person and society through internal speech (soliloquy).

All twelve types of pathos divide the dialogues into genres. Genres of dialogues form the completeness of the speech life of society. The lack of any genre leads to indignation in society, respectively:

1. Familylessness and a drop in the birth rate;

2. Lawlessness and criminality;

3. Inactivity;

4. Personal insecurity and loneliness;

5. The situation of lack of information, i.e. lack of publicity;

6. Lack of culture;

7. Defects monetary circulation, injustice;

8. Structurelessness and disorder in society;

9. Falling education;

10. Non-development of knowledge and opinions;

11. Stagnation of life;

12. Lack of spirituality.

Whoever is at the head of a society or a collective must organize debate in all genres of dialogue, depending on what kind of indignation is currently presented.

The logos in the dialogues is presented as follows:

Common places emerge as the knowledge of the participants. Common places are constantly evolving and constitute the mental and spiritual heritage of society in terms of the breadth of representation of common places. Common places or topoi can be private, professional, or specialized and generalized-personal.

Private common places arise as a result of agreement in small groups (for example: the distribution of roles in the family, the philosophy of the enterprise, etc.). Professional, or specialized, are formed in the history of any type of activity (for example: the starting points of science or the foundations of law in a particular state - the provisions of constitutional law). Generalized-personal are general knowledge that is not criticized (for example: morality, the "symbolic umbrella" of the mass media).

Common places undergo cultural screening: some of them are forgotten, some remain forever, obeying the following laws of culture:

What is forbidden cannot be allowed.

Any prohibition must develop activity.

From the point of view of the cultural significance of common places, science and morality are of the greatest importance. The common places of science are those starting points that make up its axiomatic part and to which any scientific developments should be logically built - both supported by scientific observations and experiments, and deductively derived (as in mathematics).

The most important part of the common places are the provisions of morality. The provisions of morality are fixed in the texts, as well as the common places of sciences in the classical writings of the founders of a particular science. Common places of morality are fixed in the texts depending on the development of the genres of literature. Common places of practical morality are recorded in folklore (in a lapidary way in proverbs), common places of spiritual morality - in the texts of sacred scriptures, common places of professional morality - in professional oaths and oaths. The common places of morality in the society of the 20th century have not yet been fully determined. They still have to be determined on the basis of the experience of the social movements of the 20th century and not in contradiction with the provisions of practical, spiritual and professional morality.

§ 7. Speech management of society

The speech structure of society is given, on the one hand, as the types of literature that characterize this society, on the other hand, as a system of classes of speech workers. The types of literature are given in the theory of literature (see Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky. General Philology. M .: The New Millennium Foundation, 1996). Classes of speech workers are called groups of people, defined in relation to the types of literature, for example: folklore - divides people into dialect and language groups; written speech - divides people into literate and illiterate; printed speech divides the literate into readers, booksellers, publishers, and authors. A more detailed division by types of literature divides speech workers into more fractional subclasses. The classes of speech workers, distributed in relation to the genera and types of literature and in relation to the nature of physical labor, look like this:

1. Manual laborers.

2. Trade workers, military, doctors.

3. Financial workers.

4. Managers.

5. Entertainment workers.

6. Inventors.

7. Information workers (archive, library, museum).

8. Education workers.

The degree of involvement in speech work is expressed by a histogram.

The greater the degree of involvement in speech work, the greater the measure of the cultural and historical depth of texts required for this category of workers, and the more number time spent on speech labor in comparison with other time costs.

Optimizing the life of society comes down to optimizing the time spent on each type of speech and non-speech labor. This is proved by the Japanese system of linguistic existence of speech communications.

The ethos of speech communications is an organized influence by means of morality, administrative measures and legal regulations on the administration of speech actions:

1. Folklore speech - speech etiquette.

2. Judicial speech - speech etiquette and procedural code.

3. Consultative speech - speech etiquette and rules of the meeting;

4. Demonstrative speech - speech etiquette and ritual.

5. Educational speech - etiquette and school rules.

6. Sermon - etiquette, liturgy, canon law.

7. Propaganda speech - etiquette, civil law, administrative regulations.

8. Documentary speech - etiquette, clerical rules, administrative norms, archival rules.

9. Letter - etiquette, postal rules.

10. Handwritten book speech - etiquette, spiritual morality, rules for the execution of manuscripts.

12. Mass information - etiquette, censorship rules, copyright, license law, labor law.

13. Informatics - etiquette, censorship rules, copyright, labor law.

The ethos of speech communications forms systems.

The basic rule for managing speech communications is to improve the system of ethos. If the system is imperfect, then serious social excesses arise, the origin of which is unclear to people and, in the eyes of people, has, as it were, a spontaneous character.

Paphos in speech communications is the effect that can be achieved by one or another type of literature (see table).

The management of society, its moods, and activities is determined by how powerfully this type of literature is represented in relation to other types of literature. A society can be directed towards practical activity if dialogue, the exchange of letters and documents, and mass communication occupy a large place in it.

A society can be passive if these types of speech are weakened in relation to the word, to rumor, folklore, judicial and deliberative speeches, all types of homiletics and all types of literature. Stagnation in the USSR was associated with a preference for ineffective types of speech (“The spirit played, but there were few things”).

The right balance of volumes different types speech gives optimization of all types of speech. Hence the widespread demand for publicity. Glasnost is ensured by all types of effectively constructed ethos of speech communications.

Logos in speech communications from the point of view of the development of dialogues is represented, first of all, by the common places of morality (see the table below).

Genera and types of literature	Areas of Speech Effectiveness
	Emotion	Attention	Knowledge	Skills	intentions	Actions
Dialog	+	+	+	+	+	+
Rumor	+	+	-	-	-	-
Folklore	+	-	+	+	-	-
court speech	+	-	-	-	+	-
deliberative speech	+	–	–	–	+	–
demonstration speech	+	+	+	–	–	–
Sermon	+	+	+	+	–	–
Educational speech	+	+	+	+
Propaganda	+	+	+	+	–	–
Letters	+	+	+	+	+	+
The documents	+	+	+	+	+	+
handwritten essays	+	+	+	+	–	–
Arts, literature	+	+	–	–	–	–
Scientific literature	–	+	+	+	–	–
Journalism	+	+	+	+	+	–
Mass Information	+	+	–	–	+	+
Informatics	–	–	+	+	+	+
Advertising	+	+	–	–	+	+

Moral rules as commonplaces are not canceled, tk. constitute the heritage of culture, but are layered with the development of speech communications and line up in complex system requiring skillful application of different moral rules in relation to emerging situations. The more complex morality, the more skill in moral judgments is required from members of society.

With the development of speech communications, the asymmetry between the creator of speech and the recipient of speech deepens. Symmetry exists only in oral home dialogue and its everyday counterpart.

PM – practical morality, DM – spiritual morality, PMP – professional morality, NEM – new ecological morality.

Written handwriting makes the position of the owner written language advantage over the illiterate. Printing makes the position of a small group of people - authors, publishers and booksellers - actually dominating all the literate and through them over the illiterate. The mass media and advertising own the widest possible audience, and the people who make up this audience are actually deprived of the opportunity to enter into a dialogue with the collectives, creators of the media, and only computers through systems such as the Internet, as it were, regain control over the creators of texts by direct remarks via E - mail . However, the mass nature of Internet users makes communication chaotic. This is how totalitarianism develops in the creation of texts.

The recipients of the texts respond to this by developing oral and written exchanges, and by developing "rhetoric for the listeners" (recipients of the texts). This rhetoric for the recipients of the texts becomes the basis for the criticism of the texts. The art of rhetorical criticism becomes the leading trend in rhetoric. It allows you not to commit rash acts under the influence of all the power of collectively created and equipped with powerful technology creators of texts.

§ 8. Speech ethics and speech law

Speech ethics under the dominance of powerful technical means of creating and distributing speech brings to the fore the ethical requirements for the creator of speech. Plato in the dialogue "Cratylus" even at the time of orators-demagogues rejected unethical speech, contrasting them with teaching and dialectical, scientific speech. With this, Plato imposed a ban on the content of speech: speech outside morality should not be created. Morality, according to Plato, is the main criterion for the dignity of a speech work.

This ban, in principle, is still in force today, but with the development of fiction and, especially with the development of the media, moral prohibitions on the field of speech ethics have weakened. Aesthetics in any of its forms, including in artistic speech, does not recognize the obligatory nature of moral criteria. For artwork it is important to attract attention, bring a variety of emotions to the audience. To solve this problem, especially in market conditions (since the formation of the book market), it is no longer so essential moral standards.

At first, society fought against immorality in printed matter through censorship. The task of censorship was to protect the reader and his interests. Censorship laws protected citizens from defamation, from violation of morality and maintained civil order in society. These censorship regulations, organized in different ways in different countries (different forms of preventive and punitive censorship), nevertheless supported rhetorical ethics through legislative measures. However, no law and no measures for its observance can prevent other creators of speech from circumventing the law in various forms. Examples of how the Great French Revolution of the 18th century was prepared and carried out. and the Great October Revolution of the 20th century. in Russia show that law is powerless against the ingenuity of authors and their influence on society.

In the 20th century, the creation of the media as a collective and global text made legal control over the content of texts virtually impossible. The media gradually contributed to the spread of the unlimited possibility of defamation of not only individuals, but also entire social groups, institutions, countries, products; shattered family foundations, agitated for the destruction of civil order in society. Moreover, de - jure censorship laws are still preserved in various forms and are aimed at preventing the development of an all-permissive society.

Despite the futility of the efforts of the law, their actual limitation in relation to the media by licensing rights, there are opportunities to resist the unethical actions of collegiate and collective authors. These opportunities are hidden in the competition in the book market and competition in the field of mass media and computer science.

This competition (with regard to speech ethics) consists in the struggle for ideas and ideological influence. One book in its content can be opposed to another, one mass media body to another, one style of programming information systems to another. This is how a dialogue between different collegiate and collective speech workers can be formulated. But this is not a direct dialogue, although it can also take place as a polemic. This is a dialogue theater in which the audience evaluates the speeches of the parties, and the audience assessment can be an assessment of both ethical and political.

Ethical assessment consists in the fact that each collective and collegial speech creator is considered by the audience from the point of view of morality. The political assessment is that different parts of the audience separate the creators of the speech depending on their interests. Thus, the assessment of the audience is that, from an ethical point of view, this assessment is basically the same, because the ethical requirements of the audience are basically the same, but political assessments, on the contrary, are different.

Thus, dialogue-theater leads to both connection and division of opinions. These ratios fluctuate constantly. If differences of opinion become sharp, different parts of society find an ethical justification for their political views, building their own scheme of moral judgments. If moral judgments differ greatly depending on the political orientation of each part of the audience, then the audience moves from words to deeds: strikes, demonstrations, disruption of work, disruption of the economy, and even armed uprisings.

The principle of publicity, i.e. the maximum awareness of the audience, which is especially necessary at the present time, is dangerous in economic conditions if political opinions are not given a common ethical interpretation. But a general ethical interpretation, regardless of moral judgments caused by political bias, can only be given when moral norms have developed to encompass and streamline the current situation in the field of speech communications. Modern life can correct its vices: ecological, political, moral - only by developing a new layer of morality and thereby streamlining moral judgments.

So far, law is limited in its grounds to the so-called sources of law and value. At the same time, no one can say what the “sources” of law really are and what the vague concept of “value” is.

At the same time, the public discussion of issues of public interest is of great importance for the formation of the mechanisms of democratic procedures, for everyday democratic practice. Without the skills and habit of public discussion of socially significant problems of both national and local importance by ordinary citizens of Russia, the formation and development of a democratic state is impossible.

There is no experience of public discussions in Russian political practice, and generally accepted rules for holding such events, uniform requirements for the rules of speeches and for answering questions, and the distribution of the roles of participants in the discussion. There is no tradition of equal observance of the rules by all participants in such discussions, regardless of their official position, there is no experience of respectfully asking questions and respectfully answering substantive questions, there is no tradition of strict adherence to ethical and rhetorical norms of discussion.

Discussions in newspapers arouse the interest of readers, but have a limited resonance, since people often do not believe in the effectiveness of the newspaper word, they believe that discussions and compromising evidence are made to order and do not reflect the truth. It must be admitted that modern Russian society almost completely lacks the tradition and technique of a comprehensive democratic public discussion of problems of public interest in labor collectives, discussion clubs, educational institutions and, in general, at the level of ordinary citizens.

At present, human rights are gradually becoming the most important aspect of the public life of developed countries. Under these conditions, it became necessary to convince people, moreover, people who are not equal to each other in terms of education and culture, but who require equal treatment. In democracies, persuading people has become essential in preparing for elections. A person is individually unique, not like others, and this makes communication difficult, necessitates learning to communicate.

History shows that during periods of fundamental social change, rhetoric has always been in demand by life - one can recall the role and place of rhetoric in the life of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, in the era of the Great French Revolution, the period of the Civil War in the United States, the role of revolutionary rhetoric after the overthrow of the autocracy and in the period October Revolution and Civil War in Russia. It is no coincidence that public speech played such a prominent role in ancient democracies and disappeared in the Middle Ages, when mainly theological and church rhetoric dominated.

The development of democracy, the spread of the ideas of individual freedom and the equality of people before the law determined the need of society for rhetoric, which would show how to convince an equal to an equal.

The role of rhetoric in public life

Rhetoric is the science of oratory and eloquence. The linguistic features of oral public speaking, bringing rhetoric closer to poetics, suggest the use of techniques in a rhetorical work designed to convince the listener, his expressive processing. Teaching public (oratory) speech involves the formation of various skills (linguistic, logical, psychological, etc.) aimed at developing the rhetorical competence of students, i.e. ability and willingness to communicate effectively.

Definition of modern rhetoric as a discipline. The relevance of rhetoric in modern Russian society.

Samples of student essays

Samples of students' essays on the discipline can be found at the Department of Philosophy, History and Sociology of the Belarusian State Technical University (room A23).

Rhetoric is the science of oratory and eloquence. The ability to speak a word is an integral part of the general culture of a person, his education. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality. Reflection of the state of morality in society through language.

Rhetoric - the classical science of the expedient and appropriate word - is in demand today as a tool for managing and improving the life of society, shaping the personality through the word.

Rhetoric teaches to think, cultivates a sense of the word, forms a taste, establishes the integrity of the worldview. Through advice and recommendations, thoughtful and expressive texts, rhetorical education dictates the style of thought and life in modern society, giving a person confidence in today's and tomorrow's existence.

In Russia, as in any developed democratic country, public democratic discussion of various social problems is the most important condition for the very existence of a democratic state, the basis for its functioning, a guarantee of public approval of important decisions by the population. It cannot be argued that public discussions in modern Russia are completely absent. But on vital issues, when it is necessary to make an important decision at the state or local level, such discussions are carried out mainly by the administrative or legislative elite, and more often behind the scenes.

Such discussions are practiced in elected political bodies: in the State Duma, in local self-government bodies. There are talk shows on television. These programs reflect the society's need for a public discussion of problems and interest in such discussions. At the same time, it should be noted that minor problems are often discussed, many of the programs quickly disappear, which shows the instability of the public's interest in such programs.

Social progress in the XX century. significantly expanded the possibilities of rhetoric. Millions of people in Russia were drawn into the processes of political transformation: three revolutions, two world wars, the Cold War, the spread of democracy in the world, the collapse of the USSR affected the population of the country. Radio and television contributed to the influence of the word on the mindset of a huge audience.

The role and possibilities of oratory have greatly increased. The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI century. marked by the democratization of public life in Russia and the countries of the former socialist camp. The former Soviet republics became independent states. Democratic elections of presidents, parliamentarians, and self-government bodies involved millions of people in political life. Oratory is in demand again.

It is necessary in every possible way to encourage the development of oral public discussion of socially significant problems in Russian society, as well as to teach rhetorical skills, starting from school. The rhetorical education of Russian citizens is a very important task today.

2. In the science of rhetoric, scientists distinguish two areas: general rhetoric and private. The subject of general rhetoric is general patterns speech behavior (in various situations) and the practical possibilities of using them in order to make speech effective.

The general rhetoric contains the following sections:

1. rhetorical canon;

2. public speaking (oratorio);

3. dispute management;

4. conducting a conversation;

5. rhetoric of everyday communication;

6. ethno-rhetoric.

Let's take a brief look at each section.

Rhetorical canon- This is a system of special signs and rules that originate in ancient rhetoric. Following these rules, you can find answers to the following questions: what to say? in what order? how(what words)? In other words, the rhetorical canon traces the path from thought to word, describing three stages: content invention, location invented in the right order and verbal in expressions e.

Oratorio, or the theory and practice of public speech - a special section of rhetoric, a very important section. After all, fluency in the word is mandatory for a person who wants to defend his point of view in public, to persuade the audience to his side. Recall that rhetoric is a "child of democracy." And the great attention that is being paid to it today shows that our society is oriented towards democratic positions.

Theory and Art of Arguing This is also the realm of rhetoric. In a democratic society, there are many opinions on issues that affect the life of an individual and society as a whole. Learning to behave with dignity in a dispute, to be able to direct it in such a way that it becomes a work to achieve the truth, and not an empty bickering, is always important, and especially today.

Conversation also studies general rhetoric. For those who want to know the reasons why people do not understand each other, learn the factors of success, who want to learn how to correctly determine the strategy and tactics of a conversation (any conversation, both secular and business), rhetoric will give the necessary practical recommendations.

The rhetoric of everyday communication gives knowledge about the speech behavior of people in their everyday, everyday, "home" life. It will help you find answers to the following questions: how do friendships arise and perish? family relationships? What role do the features of speech behavior play in their formation and development?

Regarding the rhetoric of everyday communication, it must be said that some experts classify it as private rhetoric, while others consider it one of the areas of general rhetoric. The latter, in defense of their point of view, give the following arguments: this rhetoric “concerns such an area of ​​human life in which everyone participates and very general laws of speech interaction operate” (21, 37). One way or another, but the rhetoric of everyday communication exists and can have practical help to anyone.

Ethno-rhetoric studies national and cultural differences in people's speech behavior. Rhetorical knowledge will help to avoid situations of misunderstanding between people of different nationalities both in the field of business communication and in areas related to spiritual values. Thus, a rhetorically educated person will understand why the Americans believe that when negotiating our business people do not state their position clearly and definitely, and why the Japanese see the Russians as excessively categorical in their judgments. Once again, it's all about difference. national cultures and understanding this will help avoid communication errors.

Private rhetoric study special areas, which are called areas of "increased speech responsibility", because in them the responsibility of a person for his speech behavior, for the ability or inability to master the word is extremely high. These are diplomacy, medicine, pedagogy, administrative and organizational activities, etc. Here is what the author of the textbook "Rhetoric" N. A. Mikhailichenko is burning about this:

“Probably, there are no such professions where a skillful command of the word would not come in handy. But in some areas of human activity, it becomes simply necessary, it is a prerequisite for effective work. Lawyer, teacher, social worker, manager, politician, preacher must master the art of speech if they want to reach the top in their profession. After all, they constantly have to communicate with people, talk, advise, instruct, speak publicly, in an official setting. And in order to make a public speech, it’s not enough to know what to say, you also need to know how to say it, you need to imagine the features of oratorical speech, take into account many factors that affect the speaker and listeners, and master the technique of speaking” (20, 6).

In our country, "Pedagogical Rhetoric" by A. K. Mikhalskaya, "Business Rhetoric" by L. A. Vvedenskaya and L. G. Pavlova have already been published, and other textbooks are being developed. In this manual, addressed primarily to future managers, we will also turn to private rhetoricians, although the main emphasis is on the laws of general rhetoric, which provide a key to any of its areas.

3 . The origin of rhetoric: socio-political prerequisites for its formation.

The objective basis for the emergence of oratory as a social phenomenon was the urgent need for public discussion and resolution of issues of social significance. History shows that the most important condition for the manifestation and development of oratory, the free exchange of opinions on vital issues, the driving force behind critical thought are democratic forms of government, the active participation of free citizens in the political life of the country.

Rhetoric as a systematic discipline developed in ancient Greece during the era of Athenian democracy. During this period, the ability to speak in public was considered a necessary quality of every full citizen. As a result, the Athenian democracy can be called the first rhetorical republic. Separate elements of rhetoric (for example, fragments of the doctrine of figures, forms of argumentation) arose even earlier in ancient india and in Ancient China, but they were not brought together in a single system and did not play such an important role in society.

So, eloquence became an art under the conditions of the slave system, which created certain opportunities for direct influence on the mind and will of fellow citizens with the help of the speaker's living word.

The flowering of rhetoric coincided with the flowering of ancient democracy, when three institutions began to play the leading role in the state: the people's assembly, the people's court, and the Council of Five Hundred. Political issues were publicly decided, courts were held. In order to win over the people (demos), it was necessary to present their ideas in the most attractive way. Under these conditions, eloquence becomes necessary for every person.

Sophists. Their role in the development of rhetoric

A sophist is a person who knows how to hide the main thing behind subtleties and details, knows how to prove the truth of what corresponds to his goals. The course of such reasoning and the art of subtly proving what is necessary, but not necessarily true, are called sophistry. Sophism is understood as a logically or in detail correct, but in its essence not a true judgment. Rhetoric is scornfully called an empty verbal embellishment that leads away from the main thing. The appearance of a second meaning in these words, bearing a negative assessment, is associated with the peculiarities of the worldview of the sophists. For sophists, everything in the world is relative, everything is subjective, and life itself is colorful, changeable and infinitely diverse. What was beautiful for a person yesterday becomes ugly tomorrow. It all depends on his mood, age, etc. “So what is there to talk about? asks the sophist Protagoras. “I said that I would prove the identity of the ugly and the beautiful…”

The rhetorical ideal of the Sophists had the following features:

1) It was “manipulating” rhetoric, monologue. For the speaker, the addressee is more of a passive object of influence than an active subject. His mind can be manipulated.

2) The rhetoric of the sophists is agonal (from the Greek agon - struggle, competition), i.e. the rhetoric of a verbal dispute, competitions that are aimed at the victory of one and the defeat of the other.

3) The rhetoric of the Sophists was the rhetoric of relativity. Not the truth was the goal of their disputes, but victory, because, in their opinion, there is no truth, but there is only what they managed to prove.

Known in Ancient Russia and diplomatic eloquence. One of the first serious diplomatic actions dates back to the 10th century, when, after the famous victory of Prince Oleg near Constantinople, the princely ambassadors concluded the "Treaty between the Russians and the Greeks."

Military eloquence was presented in a worthy manner in Ancient Russia - an appeal to the army to show stamina and courage. Another type of eloquence is solemn. Feasts, funeral feasts, meetings of the winners could not do without corresponding speeches. After the adoption of Christianity by Russia, homiletics develops - solemn and instructive eloquence. Formed as a literary genre in Byzantium, it was widely known in Russia in the "words" and teachings of the Church Fathers, synthesized in itself the primordial traditions of oral folk art and achievements of Eastern Christian preaching.

In the XII century. Kirill Turovsky, the greatest thinker of Ancient Russia, was widely known. He had no equal among his contemporaries either in terms of the volume of the literary heritage left behind, or in terms of popularity and authority. He was called "Chrysostom, who more than all shone to us in Russia." The most popular were the "words" of Turovsky, intended for reading in the church on religious holidays. In them, the author manifests himself as a real orator, who is fluent in oratory: he then addresses the audience. sometimes he describes a gospel story or a complex theological concept with the help of colorful allegories, then he questions and answers himself, he argues with himself in front of the audience, he proves to himself. The work of Turovsky testifies to the fact that ancient Russian orators were fluent in all the variety of techniques developed by ancient rhetoric. This influenced the dissemination of relevant knowledge in a secular environment.

There are examples of quite secular public eloquence in the Lay of Igor's Campaign. Suffice it to recall the appeal to the princes of Svyatoslav.

The term "rhetoric" in Russian first appears in the translation of the Greek manuscript "On Images" in 1073. And the earliest of the Russian manuals, The Rhetoric of Macarius, appeared at the beginning of the 17th century.

4. Rhetoric is one of the most ancient philological sciences. It took shape in the 4th century BC. in Greece. The word ρητορική means "oratory or the doctrine of oratory", but the main content of rhetoric already at that time was the theory of argumentation in public speech. The great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC) defined this science as “the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject”1.

The task of rhetoric, as conceived by Aristotle, was to make the moral principles on which social life should be based become more convincing than selfish and material-practical considerations: “Rhetoric is useful because truth and justice are inherently stronger than their opposites, and if decisions are not properly delivered, then truth and justice are necessarily overcome by their opposites, which is reprehensible.

Science was divided in antiquity into three areas: physics, knowledge about nature; ethics - knowledge of social institutions; logic - knowledge about the word as an instrument of thinking and activity.

Education is based precisely on the logical sciences, or organon, as they were called in antiquity and the Middle Ages, since, first of all, a method must be mastered, on the basis of which theoretical knowledge and practical activity are possible.

The organon included the trivium and quadrivium, the seven liberal arts. The trivium included grammar, dialectics, rhetoric. Grammar is the science of the general rules for constructing meaningful speech. Poetics was adjacent to grammar as the science of the artistic word - a kind of "laboratory of language". Dialectics is the science of methods for discussing and solving problems and the technique of scientific proof. Rhetoric is the science of argumentation in public speech, which is necessary when discussing practical issues. The quadrivium, which completed general education, included mathematical sciences: arithmetic and music, geometry and astronomy.

The founders of rhetoric were the classical sophists of the 5th century. BC. highly appreciating the word and the power of his conviction.

It is customary to trace the beginning of rhetoric to the 460s BC. and associate with the activities of the senior sophists Corax, Tisias, Protagoras and Gorgias.

Corax allegedly wrote the textbook The Art of Persuasion, which has not come down to us, and Tisias opened one of the first schools for teaching eloquence. It should be noted that the attitude towards sophistry and sophists was ambivalent and contradictory, which was reflected even in the understanding of the word "sophist": at first it meant a sage, a talented, capable, experienced person in any art; then, gradually, the unscrupulousness of the sophists, their virtuosity in defending directly opposite points of view led to the fact that the word "sophist" acquired a negative connotation and began to be understood as a false sage, charlatan, cunning.

The theory of rhetoric was actively developed by the sophist philosopher Protagoras (481-411 BC) from Abdera in Thrace. He was one of the first to use the dialogical form of presentation, in which two interlocutors express opposite views. Paid teachers appear - sophists, who not only taught practical eloquence, but also composed speeches for the needs of citizens. Sophists constantly emphasized the power of the word, carried out verbal battles between exponents of different views, competed in virtuosity in mastering the living word.

Gorgias (480-380 BC) was a student of Corax and Thissia. He is considered the founder or at least the discoverer of figures as one of the main objects of rhetoric. He himself actively used figures of speech (parallelism, homeoteleuton, i.e. uniform endings, etc.), tropes (metaphors and comparisons), as well as rhythmically constructed phrases. Gorgias narrowed down the subject of rhetoric, which was too vague for him: unlike other sophists, he claimed that he did not teach virtue and wisdom, but only oratory. Gorgias was the first to teach rhetoric in Athens. Undertaking to teach everyone to speak beautifully and being, by the way, a virtuoso of brevity, Gorgias taught everyone who wanted to speak rhetoric so that they could conquer people, “make them their slaves of their own free will, and not under duress.” By the strength of his conviction, he forced the sick to drink such bitter medicines and undergo such operations that even doctors could not force them to do. Gorgias defined rhetoric as the art of speaking.

Lysias (415-380 BC) is considered the creator of judicial speech as a special type of eloquence. His presentation was distinguished by brevity, simplicity, logic and expressiveness, symmetrical construction of phrases.

Isocrates (436-388 BC) is considered the founder of "literary" rhetoric - the first rhetorician who paid primary attention to writing. He was one of the first to introduce the concept of the composition of an oratorical work. The features of his style are complex periods, which, however, have a clear and precise construction and therefore are easily accessible for understanding, rhythmic articulation of speech and an abundance of decorative elements. The rich embellishment made Isocrates' speeches somewhat ponderous to hear.

Classical Greek rhetoric was crowned with the truly tragic figure of the political and judicial orator Demosthenes (384-322 BC). Nature did not endow him with any of the qualities necessary for an orator. A sickly child, cared for by a widowed mother, he received a poor education. Demosthenes had an indistinct, lisping accent, rapid breathing, and a nervous tic; a lot of shortcomings that prevent him from becoming a speaker. At the cost of enormous efforts, constant and hard work, he achieved the recognition of his contemporaries. Circumstances forced him to become an orator: he was ruined by unscrupulous guardians. Actively taking up the defense of his own rights through the courts, he began to take lessons from the well-known specialist Isei, work on getting rid of his shortcomings and eventually won the process. But when he first appeared in public, he was ridiculed and booed. From this moment, overcoming begins - the most feature in the fate and personality of Demosthenes.

To make the diction clear, he took pebbles in his mouth and so read passages from the works of poets from memory; he also practiced pronouncing phrases while running or climbing a steep mountain; I tried to learn to say several verses in a row or some long phrase without taking a breath. He studied acting "play", which gives harmony and beauty to speech; to get rid of twitching his shoulder while speaking, he hung a sharp sword in such a way that he pricked his shoulder and so got rid of this habit. He turned any meeting, conversation into a pretext and a subject for hard work: left alone, he set out all the circumstances of the case along with the arguments related to each of them; memorizing speeches, then he restored the course of reasoning, repeated the words spoken by others, came up with all sorts of corrections and ways to express the same thought differently. He sculpted himself, bringing to perfection what nature so casually fulfilled.

The main means of Demosthenes the orator is his ability to captivate the audience with the emotional excitement that he himself experienced when speaking about the position of his native policy in the Hellenic world. Using a question-answer technique, he skillfully dramatized his speech. Demosthenes sometimes supplemented the dialogical form of his speeches with stories, in the pathetic places of his speeches he recited poems by Sophocles, Euripides and other famous poets. ancient world. In general, Demosthenes's thinking is characterized by irony, sparkling and interrupting at the most pathetic moments of his speeches; actively used antithesis (opposition), rhetorical questions; its syllable is characterized by euphony, the predominance of long syllables, which evoked a feeling of smoothness. Demosthenes preferred logical stress to all methods of emphasizing meaning, so he put the keyword in the first or last place in the period; the use of several, most often a pair, synonyms denoting an action also serves as a means of semantic highlighting: let him speak and advise; rejoice and have fun; cry and shed tears. He often used hyperbole, metaphors, mythological images and historical parallels. Speeches are reasoned, clear in presentation. The main opponent of Demosthenes was the Macedonian king Philip - Demosthenes wrote eight "Philippics", in which he explained to the Athenians the meaning of the aggressive policy of the Macedonian. When Philip received one of the texts of Demosthenes' speech, he said that if he had heard this speech, he would have voted for war against himself. The result of the convincing performances of Demosthenes was the creation of an anti-Macedonian coalition of Greek policies. Having lost the war with the heirs of Alexander the Great, the Athenians were forced to sign very difficult peace conditions and pronounced death sentences on orators who urged them to war against Macedonia. Demosthenes took refuge in the temple of Poseidon, but he was overtaken there too. Then he asked to give him some time to leave a written order at home and drank poison from a reed stick, which the ancient Greeks used to write. Thus ended the days of the greatest master of ancient Greek eloquence, whom the Greeks called simply "orator", as Homer was called simply "poet". However, the glory of Demosthenes did not die with him. The ancients carefully preserved more than 60 of his speeches; Plutarch compiled his extensive biography, comparing his biography with the life of the outstanding orator of Rome, Mark Tullius Cicero. The best epitaph for Demosthenes could be his own words: “It is not the word and the sound of the voice that are valuable in an orator, but that he strives for the same thing that the people strive for and that he hates or loves those whom the homeland hates or loves.”

On the basis of the developing oratory, attempts were made to theoretically comprehend the principles and methods of oratory. Thus was born the theory of eloquence - rhetoric. The greatest contribution to the theory of eloquence was made by Socrates (470-399 BC), Plato (428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC).

Plato (427-347 BC) rejected the value relativism of the sophists and noted that the main thing for a rhetor is not copying other people's thoughts, but his own comprehension of the truth, finding his own path in oratory. Plato noted that the main task of oratory is persuasion, meaning, above all, emotional persuasion. He emphasized the importance of a harmonious composition of speech, the speaker's ability to separate the paramount from the unimportant and take this into account in speech.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) completed the transformation of rhetoric into a scientific discipline. He established an inextricable link between rhetoric, logic and dialectics, and among the most important features of rhetoric he singled out its "special dynamic expressiveness and approach to the reality of the possible and probabilistic." In the main works devoted to rhetoric (“Rhetoric”, “Topeka” and “On Sophistic Refutations”), Aristotle indicated the place of rhetoric in the system of sciences of antiquity and described in detail everything that formed the core of rhetorical teaching over the following centuries (types of arguments, categories listeners, types of rhetorical speeches and their communicative goals, ethos, logos and pathos, style requirements, tropes, synonyms and homonyms, compositional blocks of speech, methods of proof and refutation, rules of dispute, etc.). Some of these questions after Aristotle were either perceived dogmatically, or were generally removed from rhetorical teaching. Their development was continued only by representatives of the new rhetoric starting from the middle of the 20th century.

The rhetorical ideal of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle can be defined as:

1) dialogical: not manipulating people, but inciting their thoughts - this is the goal of verbal communication and the activity of the speaker;

2) harmonizing: the main objective conversation - not a victory at any cost, but the unification of the forces of the participants in communication to reach agreement;

3) semantic: the purpose of a conversation between people, as well as the purpose of speech, is the search and discovery of truth.

rhetoric art eloquence

SUB-SECTION 6 Language, speech, speech communication

Zdorikova Yu.N.

Associate Professor, Candidate of Philological Sciences

Ivanovo State University of Chemical Technology

RHETORIC IN THE MODERN WORLD

In the modern scientific and educational space, rhetoric is one of the most relevant and sought-after sciences, which is constantly being improved and finds its application in new and diverse forms. Today, numerous rhetorical conferences, master classes, schools, trainings and many others are held. Interest in this science is not accidental: knowledge of rhetoric allows you to achieve effective communication, persuade you to your point of view, avoid speech manipulation, etc. Modern rhetoric is based on a powerful arsenal of research accumulated since antiquity. At all times, great importance was attached to working with the word, namely word played a dominant role for thousands of years. Even Protagoras wrote: “Work, work, training, education and wisdom form a crown of glory, which is woven from the flowers of eloquence and placed on the head of those who love it. It is true that language is difficult, but its flowers are rich and always new, and spectators applaud and teachers rejoice when students make progress, and fools get angry - or maybe (sometimes) they are not angry, because they are not insightful enough ” .

In the modern sense, rhetoric is defined not only as theory, skill and the art of eloquence. Based on the accumulated experience, researchers note that when defining the concept of “rhetoric”, it is important to take into account three components: thought, moral feeling and beauty. And therefore, the modern rhetorical ideal of eloquence "retains the features that have determined it since antiquity, and is still built on the triune harmony of thought, beauty and goodness." It is no coincidence that one of the requirements for the speaker's personality is that the speaker must be a highly moral person, he must be known to society, he must be trusted.

There are many unresolved problems and questions in modern rhetoric. Prof. writes in detail about this. IN AND. Annushkin in the article "Controversial issues of rhetorical education". One of these questions is Is rhetoric a private science, private knowledge, or does its problematic extend to many sciences and is it universal? This question has importance in teaching practice, since "the science and art of persuasive and expedient speech in the field of humanitarian knowledge are especially in demand, since any intellectual profession is associated with speech skills." The next problem of V.I. Annushkin means: Are there postulates of speech (rhetorical) pedagogy as a theory and art of teaching effective speech? If yes, what are they? This question arises because "our practice of teaching speech … did not prepare for a critical assessment of the real and diverse world of communications in which modern man lives. We find a description of the laws of rhetoric, for example, in the work of A.K. Michalskaya. This is the law of dialogic speech, the law of the proximity of the content of speech to the interests and life of the addressee, the law of the concreteness of speech, the law of movement, the law of emotionality, the law of aesthetic pleasure.

A number of issues are related to school and university rhetoric: What is the scope of the subject of modern school rhetoric? What is the difference between the traditional course« speech development» from rhetoric? How does school and university rhetoric contribute to the formation of a student's linguistic personality? Rhetoric allows you to achieve successful verbal communication. Therefore, it is advisable in the course of university rhetoric to form students such skills as: 1) learn how to prepare for public speaking, 2) when building a speech, be able to use rhetorical techniques aimed at achieving the task (depending on the type of oratory), 3) practice giving speeches in front of fellow students and a wide audience, 4) learn to analyze the speech of another person.

One of the forms of work in rhetoric classes is rhetorical training. Many well-known speakers have written about the benefits of speech training. Rhetorical training today is one of the innovative forms of education. By its very name [training] "it affirms the priority of new forms over the old 'conservative' forms, which could simply be called a seminar or 'two-day study'" . The speech technique includes the rules of articulation, breathing, work on diction, familiarity with the rules of logical reading, speech tempo. A well-placed voice makes it possible to convey the smallest semantic shades in the sounding word, creates a certain emotional mood that facilitates perception. How expressive the voice is in its coloring depends on the ease of perception by the listeners of the meaning of the statement. Each speaker should be able to tone the speech, give it a melodic variety and avoid the monotony of speech. For the speaker, it is important to correctly set the breath - to breathe deeply, to be able to control your breathing, sparingly distributing the exhalation. Work on sayings and tongue twisters is very useful for the development of speech technique.

Variety of rhetorical forms and genres, scientific research allow us to conclude that today rhetoric is one of the most demanded and constantly developing sciences, the study of the rules and laws of this science will lead to the success of a specialist in any field of knowledge, since it is rhetoric that teaches effective communication.

Literature

1. Annushkin V.I. Controversial issues of rhetorical education // Proceedings of the XIV International Scientific Conference "Rhetoric and culture of speech: science, education, practice" , February 1-3, 2010 / Ed. G.G. Glinin. - Astrakhan: Astrakhan University Publishing House, 2010. - P. 3-8.

2. Report by V.I. Annushkin at the XIV International Conference on Rhetoric and Culture of Speech // http://www.rhetor.ru/sites/default/files/ 1.%20 Annushkin_Report_on_14_conf.%2014%20 February%20for%20site.doc.

3. Zdorikova Yu.N. Speech training of students as one of the forms of improving the culture of speech // Rhetoric as a subject and means of teaching: Proceedings of the XV International Scientific Conference / Ed. Yu.V. Shcherbinina, M.R. Savvova. - M.: MPGU, 2011. - S. 156-160.

4. Kolesnikova L.N. Professional culture teacher-rhetor // Proceedings of the XIII International scientific-practical conference "Rhetoric and culture of communication in the public and educational space", January 21-23, 2009 / Ed. IN AND. Annushkin. - M.: State. IRA them. A.S. Pushkin, 2009. - P.201.

5. Kolesnikova L.N. Rhetoric and moral education of the individual // Rhetorical culture in modern society: Abstracts of the IV International. conf. by rhetoric. - M., 2000. - S. 15-16.

6. Losev A.F. History of ancient aesthetics: Sophists. Socrates. Plato. - M.-L.: Nauka, 1969.

7. Mikhalskaya A.K. Fundamentals of rhetoric: Thought and word. - M., 2001.

8. Mikhalskaya A.K. Russian Socrates: Lectures on comparative historical rhetoric: Tutorial for students of humanitarian faculties. - M.: Publishing center "Academia", 1996.