Undoubtedly, getting acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating, studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture, receives a huge spiritual wealth stored by the language being studied.
In particular, a Russian schoolboy, student, ordinary layman, learning a foreign language, in this case English, gets a highly effective opportunity to join the national culture and history of the people of Great Britain.
Phraseology, as an integral part and a kind of treasury of any language in the world, can especially contribute to this initiation.
Phraseological units and phraseological combinations reflect the centuries-old history of the English people, the originality of their culture, way of life and traditions. Therefore, phraseological units are highly informative units of the English language.
What is a phraseological unit? The work is devoted to clarifying this, as well as the types and reasons for the emergence and transformation of phraseological units.
The regional value of phraseological units consists of three components.
Firstly, phraseological units reflect the national culture dissectedly, by units of their composition. Some of these words are non-equivalent.
Secondly, English phraseological units reflect the national culture in an undivided, complex way, with all their elements taken together, that is, with their phraseological meanings.
Finally, thirdly, phraseological units reflect the national culture with their prototypes, since genetically free phrases described certain customs, traditions, features of life and culture, historical events, and much more.
For the most part, idiomatic expressions were created by the people, so they are closely related to the interests and daily activities of ordinary people.
Many phraseological units are associated with beliefs and traditions. However, most English phraseological units originated in professional speech.
Sport has always played an important role in the life of the people of Foggy Albion.
The British are proud that many sports originated in their country, and then spread throughout the world.
Football, cricket, horse racing, billiards are considered national British games.
Many phraseological units are associated with horse racing, cockfighting, boxing. They are characterized by humor, worldly wisdom, their content is our world, environment, and the atmosphere - shrewd, hard, unromantic common sense.
The focus is on luck and money. The satisfaction brought by wealth and success is expressed in many phraseological units.
Thus, English phraseological units can give us the key to the national character of the people of Great Britain, to its culture, history and political life.
The concept of phraseology
Phraseologism is a phraseological unit, an idiom, a stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figuratively), not derived from the meaning of the components that make up the phraseological unit.
This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.
There are phraseological units with a completely rethought composition and unmotivated meaning - phraseological fusions.
For example:
Back the wrong horse make a bad choice
Bite the bullet courageously endure with a motivated meaning - phraseological unity
For example:
The bottom line is the end result
Break the ice
Phraseological combinations that include a word or a range of words with a phraseologically related meaning
For example:
Deep silence
Iron nerves
Phraseological expressions are combinations of words with an unrethought, but constant composition and meaning.
There are other classifications that take as a basis for distinguishing the types of phraseological units the nature of restrictions in the choice of variable elements of their structure, the materially single or variable composition of words - components, the degree of stability of the structure and its elements, and more.
The totality of phraseological units of different nature and structure forms the phraseological composition of the language.
Phraseology - (Greek Phrases - expression + logos - teaching) - the science of complex language units that have a stable character: upside down, get into a mess, the cat cried.
Phraseology is also called the whole set of these stable combinations of complex composition - phraseological units.
Phraseologisms, unlike lexical units, have a number of characteristic features.
Phraseologisms are always complex in composition, they are formed by combining several components, which, as a rule, have a separate stress, but do not retain the meaning of independent words.
For example:
Hold one^s hand refrain from doing anything
Honest to God! God sees!
Phraseologisms are semantically indivisible, they usually have an undivided meaning that can be expressed in one word.
For example:
Lose one^s head
Lose one^s heart
Make a poor mouth
True, this feature is not characteristic of all phraseological units.
There are also those that equate to a whole descriptive expression.
For example:
Have a green thumb golden hands (about gardeners)
Have all one^s goods in the shop window
Have a lot on the ball
Such phraseological units arise as a result of figurative rethinking of free phrases.
3. Phraseologisms, unlike free phrases, characterize the constancy of the composition. One or another component of a phraseological unit cannot be replaced by a word with a similar meaning, while free phrases easily allow such a replacement.
For example:
Instead of a ladies^ man
You can't say a gentlemen^ women
Lady luck instead
Can't say man luck
In this case, free phrases can be compared
However, some phraseological units have variants
With all one^s heart
With all one^s soul
However, the existence of options does not mean. That in these phraseological units it is possible to arbitrarily update the composition.
Phraseological units are distinguished by reproducibility.
Unlike free phrases, which are built by us directly in speech, phraseological units are used in finished form, as they are fixed in the language, as our memory holds them.
So, having said “a bosom”, we will definitely say “friend” (not pal, aquitance, other).
This indicates the predictability of the components of phraseological units.
Most phraseological units are characterized by
impenetrability of the structure: no elements can be arbitrarily included in their composition.
So, when using phraseology
Lares and penates hearth
Can't say
Very lares and penates, etc.
The exception is phraseological units, which allow the insertion of some clarifying words.
For example:
To learn one^s lesson
To learn good lesson from something
The structural feature of individual phraseological units is the presence of a truncated form along with the full one.
For example:
A friend in need
A friend in need is a friend indeed
The reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit in such cases is explained by the desire to save speech means, but sometimes it leads to a complete rethinking and change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
6. Phraseological units are characterized by the stability of the grammatical form of their components: each member of the phraseological combination is reproduced in a certain grammatical form, which cannot be arbitrarily changed.
That is, you cannot replace the plural forms with the singular and vice versa, the comparative degrees of the adjective, and so on.
Only in special cases are variations of grammatical forms in the composition of individual phraseological units possible.
For example:
To gather up the thread(s)
To get into deep water
Most phraseological units are characterized by a strictly fixed word order.
For example:
A lay figure mannequin / not a figure lay
At the same time, phraseological units of the global type, that is, consisting of a verb and words dependent on it, allow for a rearrangement of components.
The heterogeneity of the structure of a number of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines a rather motley language material, and the boundaries of some phraseological units are not clearly outlined.
Classification of phraseological units
The study of phraseological units of the English language involves their classification according to a variety of criteria.
Davis Thompson proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistic science, based on varying degrees of idiomatic (unmotivated) components in the composition of a phraseological unit.
There are three types of phraseological units:
Phraseological unions
Stable combinations, the generalized-holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, that is, it is not motivated by them from the point of view of the current state of the vocabulary.
We sometimes do not think about the meaning of obsolete words and phrases, we do not understand the emergence of some obsolete grammatical forms, but the integral meaning of these phraseological units is clear to everyone.
Thus, the etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation of the semantics of modern phraseological fusion.
However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin.
Phraseological fusions can include obsolete words and grammatical forms, which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of phrases.
Phraseological units
Stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning.
For example:
Swim against the current
characteristic of others, to be in opposition to others
Such phraseological units can have “external homonyms”, that is, word combinations that coincide with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning.
For example:
It was very tiresome as I had to swim against the current
It was very tiring to swim against the current
Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological units are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes.
So, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons
To stick like a luch
metaphorical epithets
Mirtal grip iron, stranglehold
hyperbole
The gold mountain
Catch at a straw
There are also phraseological units, which are periphrases, that is, descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word
For example:
Broad shoulders
Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to a pun, a joke, which is their basis.
The hole of the bublik
The expressiveness of others is based on the game of antonyms
For example:
More or less more or less
on the clash of synonyms
For example:
Out of the frying pan into the fire
Phraseological units give speech a special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.
Phraseological combinations
Steady expressions, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: look down (head), there are no stable phrases in the language to put down the arm or leg.
The verb - to lower - in the meaning - to omit - has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words.
The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only under conditions of a strictly defined lexical environment.
We say The Indian summer, but we never say The Indian month, The Indian autumn, etc.
Phraseological combinations often vary.
For example:
Be in one^s blood = have something in one^s blood
Be (hit, operate, run) on all (four, six, etc.) cylinders
Be in great shape, work tirelessly
This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by highlighting the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they differ in semantic articulation.
For example:
To be or not to be
This group of phraseological units includes popular expressions, proverbs, sayings.
In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but whole sentences.
The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units proper encourages linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseologized combinations, phraseologized expressions.
Clarifying the concepts, sometimes it is suggested that not all proverbs and sayings be attributed to combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized figurative metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to phraseological units proper.
For example:
starry hour
Thus, in the allocation of the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not reached unity and certainty.
The differences are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the language units themselves, which are traditionally included in the phraseology.
Another classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features. At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units are proposed.
Types of phraseological units
Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:
a) combination of an adjective with a noun
vicious circle
The Indian summer
b) when translating into Russian, the combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case
Point of view
c) combination of the prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective.
Be on a good footing
combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition)
Come to one^s senses
Cock one^s nose
e) combination of verb and adverb
To see through somebody
Fly high be very ambitious
Get down to earth
combination of participle with a noun
One^s heart is bleeding
A typology based on the correspondence of the syntactic functions of phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced.
The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:
a) nominal phraseological units
swan song
In a sentence, they perform the functions of a subject, a predicate, an object; by the nature of the connections with other words, in combination, they can control any member and be controlled;
b) verb phraseological units
Hold one^s ground
In a sentence, they play the role of a predicate; in combination with other words, they can be consistent, manage and be managed;
c) adjective phraseological units
In blooming health blood and milk
They have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, act in a sentence in the function of defining or nominal part of the predicate;
d) adverbial or adverbial phraseological units
They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of the action and play the role of circumstances in the sentence;
e) interjectional phraseological units
good luck! Good time!
Like interjections, such phraseological units express will, feelings, acting as separate, undivided sentences.
Phraseological units can be systematized according to other features.
For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered according to their phonics and neutral ones.
The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization, with rhyming elements, with sound repetitions.
The classification of phraseological units according to their origin is interesting.
In this case, it is possible to distinguish the original British phraseological units
Fleet Street is a street in London where the editorial offices of the most popular
And phraseological units borrowed from other languages
Tête-à-tête from fr. in a personal meeting
Phraseological units borrowed from Latin.
Their source was Christian books (the Bible), subsequently translated into English.
Apple of discord
A significant part of phraseological units is what came into English from ancient mythology.
Augean stables
Some phraseological units are tracing papers - a literal translation from the source language.
Fr. Fuer le temps to kill the time
La lune de miel the honey moon
German Da ist der Hund begraben This is where the dog burned
The concept of phraseological system
The phraseology of the English language, like vocabulary, is a harmonious system.
It has autonomy, since phraseological units are fundamentally different, on the one hand, from individual words, on the other hand, from free phrases, and at the same time it is included in more complex system national language, being in certain relations with its different levels.
For example, like words, phraseological units consist of phonemes that perform a meaningful function; this determines the systemic connections of phraseology with the phonemic level of the language.
Phraseologisms correlate differently with different parts of speech, which characterizes their systemic connections at the morphological level.
Performing certain syntactic functions in a sentence, phraseological units are in systemic relations with other linguistic units at the syntactic level.
As part of the phraseological system of the English language, various paradigms (groups) of phraseological units are distinguished, united according to their characteristic features.
In addition to the already mentioned groups of phraseological units, a number of others can be considered, based on their own linguistic features: phraseological units are single-valued and polysemantic, homonymous, synonymous, antonymous and some others.
By stylistic features Phraseological units are distinguished stylistically marked and neutral, and the first ones make it possible to identify in their composition various layers that differ significantly in stylistic coloring and stylistic affiliation.
The syntagmatic relations of phraseological units are characterized by the possibilities of their compatibility with a certain range of lexical units.
Some phraseological units are characterized by very limited compatibility, for example, phraseological units into the public eyes
Combines with the verb to come, to be, but does not combine with the verbs to take, to become, etc.
Other phraseological units are characterized by a single, closed compatibility, they can be used with only one single word.
However, among the phraseological units there are many that have a variety of syntagmatic connections.
Let us dwell in more detail on the systemic connections of phraseological units, determined by linguistic features.
Synonymy of phraseological units
Phraseologisms that have close or identical meanings enter into synonymous relations.
For example;
To know one which side one bread is buttered.
To know what^s what.
To know how many beans make fire.
Like lexical units, such phraseological units form synonymous rows, which may include the corresponding lexical synonyms of one row;
For example;
Grasp all, lose all
If you run after to hares you will catch neither
The richness of phraseological as well as lexical synonyms creates huge expressive possibilities of the English language.
Phraseological synonyms may differ from each other in stylistic coloring.
For example:
far away vernacular
Where the devil lives colloquial
They may not have semantic differences, but may differ in shades of meaning.
Phraseological synonyms, like lexical ones, can also differ in the degree of intensity of the action, the manifestation of the attribute.
For example:
To cry over and over shed tears
To cry one^s eyes
To cry all through
Each subsequent synonym from this example calls a more intense action compared to the previous one.
Certain phraseological synonyms may have some components repeated (if phraseological units are based on different images, we have the right to call them synonyms).
Phraseological variants should be distinguished from phraseological synonyms, the structural differences of which do not violate the semantic identity of phraseological units.
For example:
To go in for sport
To take up some sport
Variants are distinguished by so-called “variant components”.
Phraseological units that are similar in meaning, but differ in compatibility and therefore are used in different contexts, are not synonymous.
For example:
As fast as a hear
Both mean "very quickly", but are used differently in speech: the first is combined with the verb run, and the second - go, resume, run, etc.
Antonymy of phraseological units
Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymic ones. Antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms.
For example:
To be down and out
To be all health feel great
Antonymous phraseological units are distinguished into a special group, partially coinciding in composition, but having components that are opposed in meaning.
For example:
With light heart
With heavy heart
Heart of a gold heart of gold
Heart of a stone
Components that give such phraseological units opposite meaning, are often lexical antonyms (light - heavy), but can get the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units.
Polysemy of phraseological units
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable.
For example:
From the first look
To daydream
But there are phraseological units that have several meanings.
For example:
To do nothing
act foolishly, fool around
do stupid things
Polysemy usually occurs in phraseological units that have retained a partial motivation of meanings in the language.
Moreover, ambiguity develops more easily in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning and are correlative in their structure with phrases.
The modern language is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meaning in terminological combinations:
specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, lead to common denominator and the like.
Homonymy of phraseological units
Homonymous relations of phraseological units arise when phraseological units of the same composition appear in completely different meanings.
For example:
1. dried
2. boring, uninteresting
3. mortal boredom, green melancholy
The end of the line
1. dead end, end of career, sad ending
2. outdated, obsolete model
1. seriously ill (in the last stage)
2. crazy, crazy
3. heavily drunk, dead drunk
4. dilapidated, in need of repair
5. far advanced in something
Homonymous phraseological units can appear in the language if figurative expressions are based on different features of the same concept.
For example:
As fast as a hear (based on a hare that runs fast).
Such homonymy is the result of a random coincidence of the components that form phraseological turns.
In other cases, the source of phraseological homonyms is the final gap in the meanings of polysemantic phraseological units.
For example, the meaning of the idiom tip-toe - to walk on tiptoe - "to walk on the tips of your toes" served as the basis for the appearance of its figurative homonym to walk on tiptoe - "to fawn, to please someone in every possible way."
In such cases, it is difficult to draw a line between the phenomenon of polysemy of a phraseological unit and the homonymy of two phraseological units.
Special mention should be made of the so-called “external homonymy” of phraseological units and free phrases.
For example, the phraseological unit to break the ice - “to break through the ice” means “to take the first step, to destroy the tension in relations”, and the semantics of the free combination to break the ice is fully motivated by the meanings of its components.
For example:
It^s necessary to break the ice to walk easily.
You have to break the ice to make walking easy.
However, since free phrases are fundamentally different from phraseological units, there is no reason to talk about the homonymy of such expressions in the exact meaning of the term: this is a random coincidence of linguistic units of a different order.
Stylistic stratification of English phraseology
English phraseology is distinguished by a wealth of functional-stylistic and emotionally-expressive synonyms.
The stylistic coloring of phraseological units, as well as words, determines their consolidation in a certain style of speech.
At the same time, two groups of phraseological units are distinguished in the phraseology:
commonly used phraseological units that do not have a permanent connection with one or another functional style
functionally fixed phraseological units.
The first ones include, for example:
From time to time
Far and away much, much, much
They are used both in book and colloquial speech.
Unlike common vocabulary, which represents a very significant part of the English language and vocabulary, common phraseology occupies a modest place in the entire mass of English phraseological units in terms of the number of units.
Functionally fixed phraseological units are stylistically heterogeneous: their paradigms differ in the degree of expressiveness, expressiveness of emotional properties, etc.
The largest stylistic layer of phraseology is colloquial phraseology, which is used mainly in oral communication, and in writing - in fiction:
For example:
Up one^s sleeves
To live in clover like buttered cheese
Phraseological units belonging to it are often given in explanatory dictionaries without stylistic marks, however, they still stand out against the background of commonly used phraseological units with a bright colloquial coloring, a slightly reduced, familiar shade in sound.
Colloquial phraseological units, as a rule, are figurative, which gives them a special expression, liveliness, brightness.
Their use in speech serves as a kind of counteraction to speech clichés, clericalism.
Colloquial phraseology, which is generally close to colloquial, is more reduced.
For example:
To peek up one^s nose
Rough-colloquial phraseology sounds even sharper.
It consists of swearing stable combinations, representing a gross violation of the language norm.
Book phraseology forms another stylistic layer.
It is used in book functional styles, mainly in writing.
In the composition of book phraseology stands out
scientific, which is a compound terms:
center of gravity
thyroid gland
school-leaving certificate
journalistic
people of good will
official business
take place
presumption of innocence
put into operation
Book phraseological units in English language much less than colloquial (out of 5000 phraseological units given in the “Phraseological Dictionary of the English Language” edited by John Blackmore, only 60 are marked “book”.)
Among them are not only phraseological units proper, but also phraseological expressions from scientific, terminological and professional systems, used in a figurative sense:
Bring to naught/nothing
Lay it on thick
Phraseologisms that came into the language from the socio-political, publicistic and fiction:
Spirit of the law
The stylistic characteristic of phraseological means from the point of view of emotional and expressive deserves special attention.
All phraseology is divided into two groups:
neutral - not having connotative meanings.
expressively colored
There are few neutral phraseological units:
Open meeting
new year
Each other
And similar
They are part of the commonly used phraseology, which is not functionally fixed.
In addition, special phraseological units (scientific, official business), which have a clear functional attachment, are also devoid of additional connotative meanings:
Adam^s apple
Punctuation marks
Length of service
The metaphorical use of many terminological combinations, which is accompanied by their determinology, changes their stylistic quality: they become expressive, like all figurative expressions:
If speaking about success in this region it is not a proper time to draw a line.
A large stylistic layer is made up of phraseological units with bright emotional and expressive coloring, which is due to their metaphorical nature, the use of various expressive means in them.
Phraseologisms of colloquial style are painted in familiar, playful, ironic, contemptuous tones:
Like a bolt from the blue
Chicken-heart wet chicken
Book phraseological units are characterized by a sublime, solemn sound:
To live this world
leave the mortal world
To blow up the bridge
The use of English phraseological units in speech
The use of phraseological units gives speech liveliness and figurativeness.
That is why phraseological units are used not only in lively colloquial speech, but often serve as a means of expressing the thoughts of journalists, writers, comedians, satirists.
The creative transformation of phraseological units deserves more detailed consideration.
Let us dwell on some methods of phraseological innovation of journalists and writers.
A tried and tested stylistic device for updating the semantics of phraseological units is a change in the number of components in them. It is expressed in expanding the composition of a phraseological unit through the use of words with one or another component, which can change the phraseological unit beyond recognition, giving it a new figurative form.
For example:
To foam at the mouth
I^ve never seen him so angry. He foamed, white-foamed at the mouth. - increased stylistic coloring
In other cases, there is a reduction (reduction) in the composition of the phraseological unit, which is also associated with its rethinking.
For example:
Not be beauty but e born happy
Don't be born beautiful, but be born happy
In speech, the cut off first part of this phraseological unit is often used, which creates a new aphorism “beauty is the source of unhappiness”.
The replacement of vocabulary components of phraseological units is also used for their ironic rethinking.
Such a transformation of phraseological expressions leads to a radical change in their meaning, which creates an acutely satirical effect.
A peculiar stylistic device in the use of phraseological units is the contamination of several expressions (the use of two phraseological units of different meaning in one sentence).
Such a “crossing” returns the original phraseological components lexical meaning, and the phraseological units themselves are involved in a new figurative system.
This gives a special semantic capacity and expressiveness to such puns.
One of the most striking stylistic devices for updating phraseological units is the destruction of their figurative meaning.
At the same time, outwardly the phraseological unit does not change, does not lose its metaphorical meaning and is perceived literally.
For example:
The opened letter was received by the writer Brown. It turned out that is was his chief who made his letters opened.
In such situations, puns arise, built on the so-called external homonymy of phraseological units and free combinations of words.
The use of phraseological units in speech creates certain difficulties, since the language norm requires their exact reproduction, which is not always taken into account by speakers.
So, in non-standardized speech, combinations of a pleonastic nature are quite often found, formed from phraseological units and redundant definitions for their components.
For example:
The heavy Thsiph^s labor
The expansion of the phraseological unit in such cases is not justified.
There is also an unjustified reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit as a result of missing one or another of its components.
The replacement of components in the composition of a phraseological unit, the distortion of its composition, the replacement of grammatical forms of dictionary components is also unacceptable.
Often the erroneous use of phraseological units is associated with the contamination of several (usually two) phrases.
To play a meaning - to have a role
Instead it matters - it plays a role
The use of phraseological units without taking into account their semantics and
etymology fundamentally distorts the meaning of the statement
Summing up the above, it should be said that despite the complexity and versatility of the meanings and forms of phraseological units and the presence of some difficulties in using phraseological units in live colloquial speech, they are perhaps the most striking tool for expressing human emotions of feelings.
The percentage of the presence of phraseological units in the language is closely related to the indicator of the development of the culture of a particular people, since phraseological units and their etymology are an expression of this very culture.
Traditions and customs are considered the unspoken founders of the emergence of phraseological units in speech.
But one cannot continue to use all phraseological units without exception in live colloquial speech. Many of them become obsolete over time and their use may seem ridiculous. This is especially true for those who study a foreign language.
The English language, in terms of the presence of phraseological units and phraseological units in its extensive system, is perhaps one of the richest. Phraseologisms occupy a huge layer in its structure. All events taking place in the UK are reflected in phraseology: political life, sports, cultural events, everyday life - this is just an incomplete list of topics reflected in English phraseological units. Many become obsolete, but they are invariably replaced by new, lively, bright and witty ones. So, we can say with confidence that the phraseological system of the English language will develop every day, acquire new shapes, enrich itself and enrich the inner world of every individual inhabitant of Foggy Albion.
Bibliography
D. Rosenthal Phraseologisms and their use in speech
I. Koval Some facts from the life of phraseological units
D. Morrison Phraseological system of the English language
N. Khodina New in English Phraseology Part 1
N. Khodina New in English Phraseology Part 2
A. Popov The role of phraseological units in modern oral and written speech
V. Bonch Stylistic devices
Phraseological Dictionary, ed. Kunina
Phraseological Dictionary, ed. Stevenson
S. Volkov Phraseologisms in oral American speech
Y. Kenningsberg Unusual language
Yu. Kenningsberg Methods of constructing speech
Synonymic Dictionary, ed. Kunina
English-Russian Dictionary of Phraseological Units, ed. Smirnova
S. King Gold Star
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.monax.ru were used.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"TOMSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"
Faculty of Foreign Languages
Department of Translation and Translation Studies
Admit to the protection of the SAC
_____________ (Bykonya V.V.)
Head cafe Pip
Doctor of Philology, prof. V.V. Bykonya
"___" _______________2010
FEATURES OF TRANSLATION
PHRASEOLOGICAL TURNS FROM ENGLISH TO RUSSIAN
Graduation qualification (thesis) work
Scientific adviser:
Art. teacher of the department Pip
Golubev S. N.
Qualifying work protected
"___" ______________________ 2010
Grade: ____________________
Chairman of the SAC ___________
Tomsk 2010
CONTENT
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
Chapter 1. The main aspects of phraseological units in the English language………………………………………………………………………………….71.1. The concept and classification of phraseological units……………………..7
1.2. Phenomenon of phraseological meaning………… …………………………….12
1.3. Characteristic features of phraseological units……………………………….16
1.4. Comparative phraseological units and their main characteristics………..19
1.5. Semantic features of comparative phraseological units………….25
1.6. Grammatical features of comparative phraseological units………...31
1.7. Euphonic means…………………………………………………….. 34
1.8. About the first union as……………………………………………………………..36
Conclusions on chapter 1………………………………………………………………….37
Chapter 2. Features of the translation of phraseological units…………………..39
2.1. Classification of phraseological units translation techniques……………………...39
2.2 Features of the translation of English phraseological units……………………...43
2.3. Translation of figurative and non-figurative phraseological units .......................................................45
2.4. Difficulties in translating comparative phraseological units…………………...47
Conclusions on Chapter 2………………………………………………………………….49
Chapter 3
3.1. Analysis of the translation of comparative phraseological units……………50
Conclusions on chapter 3………………………………………………………………….58
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….59
List of abbreviations……………………………………………………………...61
References…………………………………………………………………62
INTRODUCTION
Phraseology is the most lively, bright and original part of the vocabulary of any language. The vast majority of phraseology in Russian and English belongs to various functional styles and has an expressive coloring. All phraseological units are distinguished by their national identity and can acquire an expressive meaning in the context. Therefore, there is every reason to consider phraseology as one of the expressive means of the language and consider it from a stylistic point of view.
At the same time, phraseology is the least developed of all linguistic sections. But the intensive development of phraseology over the past decades has put forward a variety of problems. On the one hand, the task of philologists is to describe the phraseological material of all languages with an emphasis on their specific features, on the other hand, the comparison of the study of phraseological systems of different languages is becoming increasingly important.
If we talk about the comparative aspect of studying the phraseological material of two or more languages, then there is a very noticeable lag behind theoretical studies. That is why the comparative aspect is of great interest, both for the development of a general theory of phraseology, and for the study of general and hallmarks studied languages. The first serious comparative studies of phraseological material appeared in our country only in the mid-60s of the XX century.
Until now, among linguists there is no common understanding of the object of phraseology and, as a result, the disorder of phraseological terminology.
The search for clear criteria to combine different types of phraseological units has always been a difficult problem, which is why such well-known phraseological criteria in phraseology as reproducibility, stability, semantic uniqueness, and others have appeared. Phraseological fund units are a special, specific layer of vocabulary, which has a diverse structure, performs different functions in speech and is endowed with a special semantic solidarity. The semantics of phraseological units is very closely related to the context and, as a rule, is endowed with an expressive component of meaning.
The object of study of this work is the phraseological units of the English and Russian languages. Moreover, not the entire phraseological fund is studied, but only comparative phraseological units. These units are examined for structural, semantic and grammatical features, as well as their translation and matching in another language.
The relevance of the study of comparative phraseological units (hereinafter referred to as CFU) is due to the fact that when analyzing them, a scientific search involves a whole range of interrelated theoretical issues, each of which needs to be carefully studied: the definition of a phraseological unit in a language, the concept and boundaries of a phraseological context, signs of comparative idioms and their classification and others. The translation of phraseological units has received a lot of attention in theoretical works, in translation manuals, and in many publications on comparative linguistics.
The results of the research indicate that the study of the entire phraseological system can be successful only with a thorough analysis of its individual subsystems, which have common and specific features inherent in the entire system as a whole. With this in mind, a numerous subsystem of comparative phraseological units was selected for analysis.
The purpose of this work: to explore the comparative phraseological units of English and Russian languages in terms of grammatical, semantic and structural features, as well as methods of translation and matching in English and Russian.
The goal is to solve the following tasks:
1) Carry out an analysis of phraseological comparatives in English and Russian.
2) Subject phraseological units with the same type of components, with the same type of structure and function to a comparative study.
3) Subject to a detailed analysis of the structural, semantic, grammatical features of comparative phraseological units.
4) Determine the features of the translation of comparative phraseological units.
5) Construct conclusions on the study.
To achieve the set goal and solve problems, the following research methods were chosen: descriptive, comparative and structural analyzes of the phraseological fund of the English and Russian languages. This formed the structure of this work. This final qualifying work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
In the introduction, the purpose of this work is indicated, tasks are set and research methods are determined, the relevance of the research being performed is described, and the structure of the work is briefly described.
The first chapter defines the concept of phraseology; their classification based on semantic, grammatical, stylistic and other features is revealed. There are 3 main groups of phraseological units: phraseological units, phraseological unions and phraseological combinations. Also in the first chapter, comparative phraseological units are considered, their most important characteristics, semantic and grammatical features are identified.
The second chapter deals with the classification of phraseological unit translation techniques and highlights the main types of translations. Translation techniques are also considered, with the help of which phraseological units can be translated. The features and difficulties of translating these phraseological units are also revealed.
The third chapter deals with comparative phraseological units of the English language from the point of view of their translation into Russian. There are 3 main aspects on which these comparatives should be considered: semantic, structural-grammatical and component. Taking into account the marked levels, the following types of interlingual relations are distinguished: phraseological equivalents; phraseological analogues and non-equivalent phraseological units. The relationship between phraseological units of the English language and their translations into Russian is also considered.
Analysis in progress theoretical aspects studies of comparative phraseological units.
In conclusion, the main conclusions are formulated, based on the purpose and objectives, and the results of this work are summarized.
The list of references includes 20 sources in Russian and English.
CHAPTER 1. MAIN ASPECTS OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1.1. The concept and classification of phraseological units
The study of the phraseological richness of the language is widely covered in the works of domestic and foreign linguists. First of all, let's define the concept of a phraseological unit (PU). According to A. V. Kunin, phraseological units are stable combinations of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning. [BUT. V. Kunin, 1972: 160]. Most common features PU are called "linguistic stability, semantic integrity and separate design" [I. W. Arnold, 1973: 160].
Scientists have not developed a single principle for the classification of phraseological units. According to the classification, phraseology consists of three sections: idiomatics, ideo-phraseomatics and phraseomatics [A. V. Kunin, 1972: 162]. The section of idioms includes phraseological units proper, or idioms, that is, stable combinations of lexemes with a partially or completely rethought meaning. From a translation point of view, A. V. Kunin suggests dividing English phraseological units into two groups:
1) phraseological units that have equivalents in Russian;
2) non-equivalent phraseological units.
On the basis of the contextual method of analysis, “unique” formations of the English language (“idioms” and “phrases”) are distinguished, as well as various types of serial combinations and modeled set phrases that the author deduces beyond phraseology [N. N. Amosova, 1966: 123].
According to Davis Thompson's classification, all phraseological units can be divided into three groups: phraseological combinations, phraseological units and phraseological fusions.
Thompson proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistic science, based on varying degrees of idiomatic (non-motivated) components in the phraseological unit. There are three types of phraseological units:
A) phraseological fusions are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, that is, it is not motivated by them from the point of view of the current state of the vocabulary.
Commenting on this group of idioms, it should be noted that phraseological fusions are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words:
kick the bucket(colloquial) - “to bend, to die”; "stretch your legs";
send smb. To Coventry– “boycott someone”, “stop communication with someone”;
at bay– “driven, in a hopeless situation”;
be at smb.`s beck and call– “to be always ready for service”; "be at beck and call";
to rain cats and dogs- “pouring like a bucket” (about rain);
be all thumbs– “to be awkward, clumsy”;
Kilkenny cats- Deadly Enemies.
Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:
1) they may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion, are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of the modern language;
2) the composition of adhesions may include archaisms;
3) they are syntactically indecomposable;
4) in them it is impossible in most cases to rearrange the components;
5) they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.
B) phraseological units are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning.
For example: Swim against the current- "swim against the current", that is, to do what is not characteristic of others, to be in opposition to others.
Such phraseological units can have "external homonyms", that is, phrases that coincide with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning.
For example: It was very tiresome as I had to swim against the current - “It was very tiring to swim against the current”.
Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological units are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes.
So, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons:
To stick like a ray- “like a bath sheet”;
metaphorical epithets:
Mirtal grip– “iron, stranglehold”;
hyperbole:
The gold mountain- "golden mountains";
pitots:
Catch at a straw- "to get hooked."
There are also phraseological units, which are periphrases, that is, descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word.
For example: broad shoulders- "oblique fathom in the shoulders."
Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to the pun or joke on which they are based:
The hole of the bublik- "donut hole".
The expressiveness of others is based on the play of antonyms.
For example: More or less- "More or less';
on the clash of synonyms.
For example: Out of the frying pan into the fire- "out of the frying pan into the fire".
Phraseological units give speech a special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.
C) Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: “down your eyes” (head), there are no stable phrases in the language – “down your hand” or “down your foot”.
The verb - "to lower" - in the meaning - "to lower" - has a phraseologically related meaning and does not combine with other words. The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only under conditions of a strictly defined lexical environment.
We are speaking The Indian summer but never say The Indian month, The Indian autumn, etc.
Phraseological combinations often vary.
For example:
Be in one's blood = have something in one's blood– “to be hereditary”;
Be (hit, operate, run) on all (four, six, etc.) cylinders– “be in great shape”; "work tirelessly".
This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by highlighting the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they differ in semantic articulation.
For example:
To be or not to be- "to be or not to be".
This group of phraseological units includes popular expressions, proverbs, sayings.
Many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but whole sentences.
In the selection of the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not reached unity and certainty. The differences are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the language units themselves, which are traditionally included in the phraseology.
There are other classifications of phraseological units, which are based on their general grammatical features.
At the same time, the traditional classifications of phraseological units, when distinguishing subclasses, absolutely do not take into account the connection of some idioms with the situation of communication.
Neither motivational nor purely structural characteristics (the division of idioms into idioms-sentences, idioms-phrases, etc.) do not provide any meaningful information about the functional properties of idioms in a speech act. On the other hand, the classes of idioms such as "denoting emotions", "wealth - poverty", "truth - lies", etc. they also ignore the connection of the units under consideration with the situation of communication, or with what is often called the pragmatic parameters of the situation. Thus, one of the most important functions of idioms is discursive.
Analysis of the discursive function of idioms involves understanding the phenomenon inherent in phraseological units: the phenomenon of meaning. [BUT. V. Kunin, 1972: 170].
1.2. The Phenomenon of Phraseological Meaning
In accordance with the proposed classifications of phraseological units, there are three main varieties of phraseological meaning: idiomatic, phraseomatic and ideo-phraseological. [BUT. V. Kunin, 1986: 122-123]. Phraseological units of terminological origin fall into the class of ideo-phraseomatisms (if, along with a phraseological unit in the field of terminology, there is a term combination - a prototype) or idioms. Ideo-phraseomatisms and idioms are characterized by a rethought meaning.
The term "phraseological meaning" was proposed in 1964 by A. V. Kunin and V. L. Arkhangelsky independently of each other.
V. L. Arkhangelsky put forward the thesis that phraseological meaning has a special quality, differs from lexical meaning and represents a special linguistic category. This term was adopted by many phraseologists and served as an impetus for an in-depth and intensive study of the problem of phraseological meaning.
Most of the phraseologists of the school of V.V. Vinogradov proceed from the comparison of the meaning of idioms and the free combination of words. With this approach, a difference is established between the content side of two entities that coincide in lexical and grammatical composition - between a free combination of words and a reinterpreted one. This difference is treated as a value. In other words, operations with the content plan are carried out through a comparison of the semantic content that falls on the share of words - components of idioms and the meaning of words - components of a free combination of words, and determining the specifics of the idiom content plan depends entirely on the manipulation of these components.
According to the theory of equivalence, phraseological units are assigned a lexical meaning, since, apart from their separate form, they do not differ in any way from the word in the lexico-semantic sense or have a meaning in all respects similar to the lexical meaning of the word [Molotkov, 1965: 78-79].
Proponents of the phraseological meaning believe that the recognition of the lexical meaning of phraseological units leads to a complete disregard for the structure of the expression [Kunin, 1970: 307-309].
Phraseological meaning differs from the lexical meaning of a word by the originality of the reflection of objects, phenomena, properties of the surrounding reality, the peculiarities of motivating its meaning, the nature of the participation of components in the formation of the integral meaning of a phraseological unit [Zhukov, 1978: 52].
Thus, we can agree with A. V. Kunin and V. L. Arkhangelsky and single out the phraseological meaning, which is understood as “the invariant of information expressed by semantically complicated, separately designed language units that are not formed according to generating structural-semantic models of variable combinations of words” [Kunin, 1986: 122].
Phraseological rethinking, in turn, involves the definition of the concept of phraseological nomination.
By "nomination" is meant "the process and result of naming, in which linguistic elements are correlated with the objects they designate" [Gak, 1977: 237]. Secondary lexical nomination V. G. Gak and V. N. Teliya consider the use of nominative means already available in the language in the new function of the adverb. In their opinion, in the language “such secondary names are fixed, which are the most natural for the system of this language, ways of naming and make up for the missing nominative means” [Telia, 1977: 192].
Phraseological nomination has a number of features compared to lexical nomination. The most important types of rethinking are metaphor and metonymy.
By “metaphor” is meant “a speech mechanism consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object included in another class of objects, similar to this one in any respect” [Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary , 1980].
The phraseological unit transmits information by “compressed means”, expressing in an internal form the characteristic features of a certain situation fixed in the linguistic consciousness of native speakers of a given language and arising in the form of an image when pronouncing the sound shell [Telia, 1996: 60].
The mechanism of metonymic rethinking is the transfer of the names of phenomena, objects and their attributes according to their connection in space and time [Arutyunova, 1990: 30].
Along with metaphorical and metonymic rethinking, the concept of internal form plays an important role in understanding phraseological meaning.
W. Von Humboldt considers the inner form to be a multifaceted phenomenon. Some scholars single out the inner form as the closest etymological meaning of linguistic units [Potebnya, 1958; Gvozdarev, 1977]. Others consider the internal form to be "a contrasting feature that connects the name with its source" [Gak, 1977: 46]. According to V. V. Vinogradov, “the inner form of a word – the image underlying the meaning and use of the word, may decrease against the background of that material and spiritual culture, that system of language, in the context of which a given word or combination of words arose or was transformed” [ Vinogradov, 1972: 17-18].
The internal form is aimed at recreating some significant connection for the purpose of secondary nomination or transmission of a system of connections (an integral situation), it also contributes to the emergence of associative connections in the mind [Latin, 1991: 137].
Under the “internal form of a phraseological unit” it is customary to understand “the diachronic connection between the phraseological meaning of a phrase and its etymological meaning [Kunin, 1974: 42]. Undoubtedly, the internal form of phraseologism is also an element of the content side in the synchronous aspect of semantics" [Varina, 1974: 22].
Along with the concept of "internal form" for the formation of phraseological meaning, the concept of "phraseological imagery" is also important. According to A. A. Koralova, a linguistic image is a two-dimensional image created by means of language, based on the expression of one object through another [Koralova, 1978: 130].
In the phraseological meaning itself, there are two sides: the “plan of content” (designant), in which the significative, denotative and connotative aspects should be distinguished, and the “plan of expression”, that is, the material shell of the phraseological unit. This two-dimensional nature of meaning is a unity of content and form. [Kunin, 1970: 310].
The denotative component of meaning is understood as a part of the sign, reflecting in a generalized form objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality. The denotative component is basically a concept that characterizes an extralinguistic object. [Sternin, 1984: 48].
The significative component of the meaning correlates with the complex of features that directly constitute the content of the concept. [Arsenyeva, 1989: 38].
The connotative aspect is “the stylistic coloring of phraseological units, their emotional and expressive side, that is, the attitude of a native speaker to extralinguistic entities, or the strengthening of the effectiveness of linguistic influence, devoid of an evaluative element.” The connotative aspect is especially important for phraseological semantics, which is explained by the two-dimensionality of the semantic structure of all phraseological units built on figurative rethinking [Kunin, 1970: 310].
At present, it is customary to note such an important function of phraseological meaning as connotative-culturological. The content of the latter is the relationship that exists between the figuratively motivated form of linguistic units and the culturally significant association included in it [Telia, 1996: 233]. The allocation of this function is associated with the understanding of phraseological units as "folk stereotypes". “Phraseologisms arise in national languages on the basis of such a figurative representation of reality, which reflects the everyday-imperial, historical or spiritual experience of the language community, which, of course, is associated with its cultural traditions, because the subject of nomination and speech activity is always the subject of national culture” [Telia, 1981: 13].
In general, phraseological meaning is an extremely complex phenomenon; it cannot be considered as a mechanical sum of its components. The semantic structure of phraseological units can be represented as a microsystem, all elements of which are closely connected and interact with each other.
1.3. Characteristic features of phraseological units
Many authors divide phraseological units into figurative and non-figurative - the division that goes through all the main categories of stable units is closely related to the methods of their translation
Non-figurative phraseology is usually translated by equivalents, for the most part not allowing for tracing. Such phraseology does not present any particular difficulties for the translator.
The translation of figurative phraseology is much more difficult, since the translator needs to decide: to convey or not to convey metaphor; whether it is necessary to preserve the stylistic and connotative features of the translated unit, without losing sight of its semantics. In the event of the inevitability of losses, the translator must correctly decide what to sacrifice - the image or the content of the phraseological unit. In this regard, in a number of manuals, translation techniques are considered precisely taking into account the presence or absence of metaphor in these phraseological units.
On the characteristic features of the figurative phraseology of L.P. Sobolev wrote: “The most common type of figurative expressions both in colloquial use and in literature are paths that have lost their specificity, but retained some traces of it. Although you don’t see, you don’t feel the “belts” in the idiom “plug in the belt”,
it is much more expressive than the abstract word "surpass". So, on the one hand, there is an image, on the other, it would seem that there is no image, and we believe that for the implementation of a masterful translation, the most important thing is to establish the degree of “erased” or “liveness” of this trope for native speakers of the source language and the ability to find that path between complete loss of metaphor and unjustified "revival" of the image. Only this path will lead to the fact that the impression received by the reader of the translation will not differ from the impression received by the reader of the original.
Another division of phraseological units is the division into units of proverbial and non-proverbial type. A number of authors generally exclude proverbs from the number of phraseological units. Usually they are reluctantly included in phraseological dictionaries. All this gives reason to consider them separately.
Proverbs, winged expressions, aphorisms are different:
1) its syntactic structure: a proverb is always a clearly defined expression;
2) by the fact that proverbial units express a judgment, a generalized thought, morality, etc. unlike other phraseological units denoting a common concept or object.
Despite significant differences in terms of content and in terms of expression, these boundaries can hardly be guided in terms of translation. Both those and other phraseological units can be figurative and non-figurative; may have a greater or lesser motivation value. As for the form, then, despite the usual desire to translate a proverb by a proverb, there is no obstacle to translation in the context of units of one type by units of another.
Nevertheless, between both types of phraseological units - proverbs and "non-proverbs" - from the point of view of translation, there is a difference in the sense that, unlike units of a non-proverb type, which we strive to translate with phraseological equivalents and analogues, when translating proverbs, two ways are outlined, depending mainly from the nature of the proverb itself and from the context:
1) transfer by an independent equivalent or analogue;
2) a common expression, similar to the translation of a literary text.
The second way needs some explanation. A proverb, as a concise expression of judgment, thought, edification, is a miniature work of art, which is best conveyed precisely as a work, and not as a reproduced unit.
Translation techniques are partly related both to the language source of phraseological units and to the correspondences between the source language and the target language. The proximity of the expression plan between two correlative phraseological units of a given pair of languages does not always determine the proximity of the content plan. In other words, in this group of phraseological units one can also meet “false friends of the translator”
In contrast to this concept in vocabulary, here "falsity" is less often in interlingual homonymy, and more often in a discrepancy between literal and phraseological translation.
1.4. Comparative phraseological units and their main characteristics
The essence and place of the comparative in the system of linguistic categories are not clear enough, which causes many difficulties in the analysis of linguistic material. The comparative as a morphological form of feature words is associated, first of all, with understanding the content plan and means of expressing the category of degree in general, with understanding the intensity of the feature, in particular.
The degree category is associated with the process of changing an indefinite value in one or more similar qualitative objects and can characterize, using various linguistic means, the degree of manifestation of a particular feature, which is represented by the value of an abstract, associative value (high, taller, rather tall, very high, etc. .).
The degree of a trait is associated, first of all, with a measure, and it reveals the superiority of a quantitative trait of a certain quality over an indefinite measure. The formation of a subjectively indefinite, associative value is based on the idea of some subjectively established average value, some average standard, and then the measure acts as the idea of correlation with this average value, the idea of correspondence, superiority, equality. These standards constitute the content of the measure (cf.: small, medium, large). The content of the degree is superiority over the standard, that is, over the measure.
Analyzing the category of degree, we use the term intensive attribute, since this term is the content essence of this category. [Belovolskaya 1999].
An intensive qualitative attribute is named in any qualitatively defined object, attribute of an object, attribute of an action, action or state, denoted by a verb or verb forms. This sign is static if it is in the content of non-comparable units. It outwardly characterizes qualitatively defined units of the language. This feature is revealed most clearly in the systemic relations of language units:
in antonyms: high Low; heat - cold; good bad; increase - decrease;
synonymous: huge - tiny, cold - cool - warm - hot, etc.
The content and expression of an intensive attribute is associated with modal logic, which is composed of the logic of absolute assessments, usually formulated using the concepts of “good”, “bad”, and “evaluatively indifferent”, and the logic of comparative assessments, which use the concepts of “better”, “ worse", "equal". [Ivin 1976: 25].
The comparative degree in its content, formation and functioning is distinguished by a number of features that in one way or another attracted the attention of linguists. It is noted that the semantics of the comparative degree has two meanings: “greater” and “more or less”, which depend on its form: a simple comparative degree has only the meaning “more”, and a complex form has the meaning “more or less”, thanks to the semantics of auxiliary words, and it is important at what language level questions about the semantics of the members of the comparative degree paradigm are resolved. [Chesnokova 1992: 146].
In science, there are several definitions of the comparative degree, or comparative:
1) The comparative is the form of the adjective, denoting that the qualitative feature it has named is presented to a greater extent than the same feature, called the form of a positive degree. [Grammar of the Russian language 1980: 562].
2) Comparative - a grammatical category of qualitative adjectives and adverbs, expressing the relative difference or superiority in quality inherent in objects or actions. [Rosenthal, Telenkova 1985: 341].
3) Comparative - a grammatical category of adjectives and adverbs, denoting a greater degree of manifestation of a feature compared to the same feature, named in a positive degree. [Ozhegov, Shvedova 1999: 288].
Analysis of the results of studies of a number of works in the field of word formation [Zhavoronkova, 1965; Sergeeva, 1966; Airapetova, 1978; Dzhamasheva, 1989], as well as the analysis of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (hereinafter LDCE), allows us to conclude that in modern English there is a system of various word-building means for expressing the meaning of comparative.
A significant part of the comparatives are additions denoting color: “snow white” - snow white, "blood red" - blood red, “coal black” – coal black etc. Color is perhaps the most striking visual quality perceived by a person and is of paramount importance to him.
In modern English there is a group of unmarked root words that express the meaning of comparative implicitly: champion, elite, patriarch.
There are a number of nouns that have the seme "difference" or "opposition" in the structure of their meaning. The meaning of similarity or complete correspondence is conveyed by such nouns as similarity, identity.
As the meaning of the word is abstracted from subject-oriented features, it is included in associative links. Associations arise in consciousness due to the action of analogy, which switches associative connections into an alien sphere [Teliya, 1981: 239].
Names based on adherent associations have abstract semantics. For example: dog-poor- "beggar", lit. "poor as a dog"; stone-deaf-“completely deaf”, lit. "deaf as a stone"
Note that compound adjectives with such semantics are almost never found in Russian. This semantic scheme is implemented at the level of other lexical or syntactic units, such as phraseological units: “goal like a falcon” (a beggar), “deaf like a stump”, “deaf like a black grouse”. The range of objects for interpreting signs of deaf, blind, old, ancient, cheap differs significantly in language systems.
The study of comparative phrases is legitimate both from the point of view of the variety of formal means of expressing comparison, and from the point of view of synonymic variation in the semantics of comparison. This kind of research in the language was carried out, and more than once. However, phraseological units with a comparative meaning remained in the shadows.
The comparative degree has not only a syntactic, morphological, but also a phraseological manifestation, since for objective reality and the language system it does not matter which unit is chosen for a communicative act: word-formation, lexical, lexico-grammatical, syntactic or phraseological, it is important that this unit reflects a certain semantic content and implements the communicative task of the utterance.
Following this logic, comparative idioms can be considered as a special type of phraseological units, which have a rich system of means of expressing degree and comparison, which allows them to act as an effective means of speech influence in the discourse system.
Comparative phraseological units with the meaning of amplification, syntactic idioms, phraseological intensifiers have been the subject of study by many Russian linguists.
For the first time, the issue of intensity in the phraseology of the English language was raised in the work of Logan P. Spit "English Idioms". Smith states the fact of the presence in the language of a small group of phraseological units - comparative phrases with the meaning of intensity and lists them. The English scientist gives a list of 23 comparative phraseological units. Some of them can be cited as examples: as dull as ditch water, as good as gold, as large as life, as mad as March hare, as pleased as Punch, as cool as cucumber, as cross as two sticks and others [Smith, 1959: 283].
So, A.F. Artemova, studying the meaning of phraseological units and their pragmatic potential, points to the fact that the intensity of phraseological units, as a means of influencing the listener, is not associated with any quantitative qualification of the phenomenon, but only with one that demonstrates a deviation from norms [A. F. Artemova, 1991]. The author explains this statement with the following example:
Women jump to the conclusion that men do not.
Expression jump to conclusion characterizes, according to A.F. Artemova, one of the traits inherent in women, who, unlike men, do not always come to the right conclusions and do not always think about the action being performed, often succumbing to any impulses.
/Wed To come to a conclusion FE jump to conclusion can be interpreted in terms of the degree of measure as to come to a conclusion – very quickly[BUT. F. Artemova, 1991:75].
However, phraseologism, according to A.F. Artemova, actualizes not so much the action “come to a conclusion”, as its high degree, and not so much the real action “come to a conclusion very quickly”, but the idea of such an action. In other words, meaning moves from the world of observation and indication to the world of imagination and experience.
I. I. Turansky touches upon the issue of comparative PU (CFU) that perform the function of amplification, and proposes to classify them according to three principles:
I. According to the semantic content, he divides them into four groups:
1. Structures in which the basis for comparison is the physical properties of inanimate objects : as light as gossamer.
2. Comparative structures based on comparison with natural phenomena: as free as the wind.
3. Structures that include the names of representatives of the fauna, when the most typical features, habits, lifestyle, dominant physical qualities serve as the basis for comparison: as slow as a tortoise, as obstinate/ stubborn as a mule.
4. Allusions associated with biblical, mythological subjects and historical figures: as rich as Croesus.
II. Depending on the use or absence of alliteration, the class of comparative phraseological units is divided into:
1. CFU, in the structure of which the alliteration technique is used: as blind as a bat, as pleased as Punch, as thick as thieves.
2. CFU without alliteration: as happy as a lark, as black as sin, as like as two peas.
III. Based on the correspondence or discrepancy between the Russian and English variants, comparative phraseological units can be divided into three subgroups:
1. Demonstrating full compliance in the compared languages (“work like crazy” - to work like crazy).
2. Characterized by partial compliance (“soft as wax” - as soft as butter; cf.: as yielding as wax).
3. With the absence of any correspondence between the considered options ( as dull as ditch-water– “Green boredom”). [AND. I. Turansky, 1990: 93].
An important remark about comparative phraseological units is made by A.F. Artemova: “Comparative phraseological units, in which figurativeness is not expressed as implicitly as in metaphorical ones, perform a more amplifying function. In other words, the amplifying function in them dominates the present emotional-evaluative function" [A. F. Artemova 1991:79].
1.5. Semantic features of comparative phraseological units
For adjectival comparisons, as well as for comparisons of other types, a two-dimensional meaning is characteristic: one is compared with another. Such a structure of meaning distinguishes it as a phraseological meaning of a special kind, namely comparative.
The first component of adjective comparisons is usually used in its main literal meaning. The function of the second component is always intensifying, since it indicates the degree of the attribute expressed by the first component. The first component is called the base of comparison, and the second is called the object of comparison. Union as- link. The subject of comparison is a variable element located in the text.
For example: as good as gold“good, noble, golden (man)”. Gertrude Morel was very ill when the boy was born. Morel was good to her, as good as gold.
Gertrude Morel- the subject of comparison, good- base of comparison gold- comparison object, as - bundle.
Adjective comparisons arise in the language because there is a need to convey additional information compared to the information transmitted by the first components of the comparisons, taken separately.
There are comparative phrases that are used only with adjectives in a comparative degree: more dead than alive“half-dead, mortally tired” (do not mix with Russian - “neither alive nor dead”).
The figurativeness of the phrase arises due to the fact that in speech the comparison refers to a different class of objects, phenomena or persons, which denotes its second component.
For example: he is as brave as a lion. Imagery is created by comparing a man with a lion, but if we compare, say, a lioness with a lion, then the imagery of comparison disappears and instead of a figurative comparison (simile), an unimaginative one (comparison) appears.
Comparisons are usually phraseological units with a pronounced evaluative value, both positive and negative.
For example: (as) bold/brave as a lion- "brave as a lion";
(as) fierce as a tiger"fierce as a tiger";
(as) pretty as a picture"as good as the picture"
The nature of the evaluation depends on the semantics of the first component. In some cases, the semantics of the second component plays a decisive role. For example: (as) fat as a pig“fat, fattened like a pig”;
(as) fat as butter -"chubby, plump"
Comparisons are characterized by hyperbolization, i.e. exaggeration of a sign in order to highlight it more expressively.
Adjective comparisons are two-component. The second component can be a token or a combination of tokens. Here are examples of adjectival phraseological units with the second component - a combination of lexemes:
(as) different as chalk from cheese“completely different”;
(as) plain as the nose on your face“clear as twice two is four”;
(as) welcome as flowers in May -“long-awaited, desired”, etc.
Adjective comparisons denote a wide variety of qualities and properties of both people and objects and phenomena. Examples of adjective comparisons referring to people:
(as) cool as a cucumber -“calm, unruffled”;
(as) brown as a berry“tanned, chocolate color”;
(as) pretty as a picture“good as a picture”;
(as) true as steel“devoted in body and soul”;
(as) ugly as sin -"ugly as sin";
(as) vain as a peacock"proud as a peacock";
(as) wise as Solomon—“wise as Solomon”;
(as) yellow as a guinea"yellow as a lemon", etc.
Comparisons are usually monosemantic. But there are comparisons with two phraseosemantic variants. Polysemantic comparisons are extremely rare.
In comparisons of this type, the second component performs not only an amplifying function, but is also a differentiator of meaning. Yes, turnover. (as) weak as water means:
1) “weak, frail.” For example: Sir, I am just getting well of a fever, and I am as weak as water.
2) “weak-willed, weak-willed”. For example: You are very fond of swearing and blistering and threatening, but when it comes to the point you are as weak as water.
Comparison (as) sober as a judge also two phraseosemantic variants that characterize a person from different angles:
1) “completely sober” = “not in one eye”;
2) “sober in judgment” = “sane”.
Some comparative phraseological units are used to describe parts of the human body:
(as) heavy as lead -“like lead poured (eyelids, eyes)”;
(as) pale as ashes"very pale."
Comparative phraseological units can denote a property of an object and a property of a person. For example: (as) hard as a bone:
1) “hard as a stone”: Owing to the intense cold the ground was as hard as a bone.
2) "cruel, ruthless": It is not much use of your expecting any generosity or kindles from him. He is as hard as a bone in anything that concerns his own interests.
For example: (as) sharp as a needle:
1) “sharp as a knife”: How the boys admired that knife, the vicious shape of it and its shininess, the point was as sharp as a needle.
2) "observant, insightful": I know a solicitor here - he is a patient of time - of the name of Gooch, a fat fellow but sharp as a needle.
Some other adjectival comparisons have a similar semantic structure:
(as) light as a feather“light as a feather” (about an object or a person); (as) like as two peas“similar as two drops of water” (about objects or people);
(as) slippery as an eel“slippery like an eel” (about a slippery object or a dodgy person);
(as) tough as old boots - 1) “hard as a sole” (about food); 2) “very hardy, persistent” (about a person); "hard" (of a person).
Adjective comparisons can refer to both a person and an animal. For example: (as) free as (the) air -“free as the wind” (of a person or animal).
FE (as) dead a doornail/ as mutton refers both to a person and to custom, tradition:
1) “without any signs of life, lifeless”: Old Marley was as dead as a doornail.
2) “lost its validity, its main properties, obsolete”: Mr. Crabbe was dead as mutton, but Mr. Crabbe continued to write moral stories in rhymed couples.
Word dead in the first phraseosemantic variant it is used literally, and in the second - metaphorically. A similar phenomenon is observed in the above comparisons: (as) slippery as an eel; (as) tough as old boots. In these and similar phrases, the meaning of the entire phraseological unit is a kind of combination of partially rethought and completely rethought phraseosemantic variants of the comparative type. The polysemy of such phraseological units is closely connected with the polysemy of their first components.
Some comparative phraseological units do not refer to either a person or an object, but to any statements, actions, etc. For example:
(as) certain as death“inevitable as death”;
(as) clear as mud 1)
“clear as daylight”:
She was trying to hook young Bob for that sprig of a girl – it was clear as mud.
2) “absolutely unclear, the matter is dark”:
The matter is rather complicated; but I hope I've made it clear to you. About as clear as mud so far! Suppose you start all over again from the beginning.
A feature of the comparison semantics (as) dead as mud is the presence of antonymous phraseosemantic variants.
Among the adjective comparisons there are several turns with an unmotivated second component. Beyond Comparison (as) dead as a doornail“without signs of life”, such comparisons include a few more:
(as) bold as brass- "impudent, impudent, shameless";
(as) mad as a hatter- “out of my mind, completely out of my mind survived”;
(as) plain as a pikestaff- “undoubtedly, clear as day” (pikestaff - distorted, pikestaff - a stand on which itinerant merchants lay out their goods). In such cases, the relationship between the first and second components of the comparisons is not motivated.
etc.................
Chapter 1 Phraseology
1.1 The subject and tasks of phraseology
- 1.2 Types of phraseological units
1.3 The concept of phraseological system
- Chapter 2 Varieties of phraseological units in English
2.1 Bibleisms
2.2 Shakespeareanisms
2.3 Statements of English writers that have become phraseological units
2.4 Phraseologisms borrowed from literary works of other languages and countries
- INTRODUCTION
The English language has a thousand-year history. During this time, it has accumulated a large number of expressions that people found successful, well-aimed and beautiful. And so a special layer of the language arose - phraseology, a set of set expressions that have an independent meaning.
The study of English is widespread in our country. A good knowledge of the language, including English, is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Knowledge of phraseology greatly facilitates the reading of both non-fiction and fiction. The reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more expressive.
With the help of phraseological expressions, which are not translated literally, but are perceived rethought, the aesthetic aspect of the language is enhanced. “With the help of idioms, as with the help of various shades of colors, the informational aspect of the language is supplemented by a sensual-intuitive description of our world, our life” Anichkov I.E. Works on linguistics. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997, p. fifteen.
The world of modern English phraseology is large and diverse, and every aspect of its study certainly deserves due attention.
The purpose of this work is to study the ways of formation of phraseological units in the English language.
The following tasks were set during the work:
1. understand the subject and tasks of phraseology;
2. to analyze the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word;
3. consider the types of phraseological units and the concept of phraseological system;
4. show the ways in which phraseological units appear in the English language.
For those who study English as a foreign language, this layer of the language is difficult to master, but after mastering phraseological units, you can start speaking like English and understand them from a half-word, as speech readiness increases dramatically. You can briefly and very accurately express your thought, being sure of the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology helps to avoid Russianisms, that is, literal translations sentences from Russian into English.
Thus, from all of the above, we can conclude that the relevance of the topic is undeniable.
Chapter 1 Phraseology
1.1 The subject and tasks of phraseology
Phraseology is a section of linguistics that studies stable combinations in a language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a particular work of art, etc.
As an independent linguistic discipline, phraseology arose relatively recently. The subject and tasks, scope and methods of studying phraseology are not yet clearly defined, and therefore have not received full coverage. The questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their relationship with parts of speech, etc., have been developed less than others. the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers (L.P. Smith, V.P. Zhukov, V.N. Teliya, N.M. Shansky and others) include stable combinations in phraseology, others (N.N. Amosova, A.M. Babkin , AI Smirnitsky and others) - only certain groups. So, some linguists (including academician V.V. Vinogradov) do not include proverbs, sayings and catchwords in the category of phraseological units, believing that they differ from phraseological units in their semantics and syntactic structure. V.V. Vinogradov argued: "Proverbs and sayings have a sentence structure and are not the semantic equivalents of words" V. V. Vinogradov. On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language. - M.: Nauka, 1986, p. 243.
The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the consistency of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units, which requires considerable experience in the study of this discipline.
Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods for their study, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries.
Phraseology uses various research methods, such as component analysis of meaning. On the basis of the methods of research existing in linguistics, “proper phraseological methods of analysis and description” are being developed. Kopylenko M.M., Popova Z.D. Essays on General Phraseology: Problems, Methods, Experiments. - Voronezh: Publishing House of the Voronezh University, 1990, p. 49:
1. identification method - establishing the identities of words and syntactic constructions that form phraseological units with their free counterparts;
2. application method, which is a kind of identification method, a method limited in the choice of variables, establishing different structural and semantic organizations of a phraseological unit from combinations formed in accordance with regular patterns of choice and combination, etc. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods for their study.
The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, initial forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources for all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the scope of the phraseological composition and its systematic ordering in one or another historical era of language development.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units, the ratio of phraseological units and words, the consistency of phraseology, phraseological variability, the method of study phraseology, etc.
Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English Alekhina A.I. Phraseological unit and word. - Minsk, 1991, p. 28.
1.2 Types of phraseological units
As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative sense. Gradually, portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable.
In English, there are the following typologies of phraseological units Kunin A.V. Phraseology of modern English. - M.: International relations, 1996, p. 31:
1. Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units.
a) combination of an adjective with a noun:
Vicious circle - vicious circle
The Indian summer - Indian summer
b) when translating into Russian, a combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case:
Point of view - point of view
c) combination of the prepositional form of a noun with an adjective:
Be on a good footing - be on a short footing with someone
d) combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition):
Come to one "s senses - take on the mind
Cock one "s nose - turn up your nose
e) combination of a verb with an adverb:
To see through somebody - see through
Fly high - be very ambitious
Get down to earth - descend from the clouds to earth
f) combination of a participle with a noun:
One "s heart is bleeding - the heart bleeds
2. Typology based on the correspondence of the syntactic functions of phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced.
a) nominal phraseological units:
Swan-song - swan song
(in a sentence, they perform the functions of a subject, predicate, complement; by the nature of connections with other words, in combination they can control any member and be controlled);
b) verb phraseological units
Hold one "s ground - hold on very firmly, do not give up your positions
(in the sentence they play the role of a predicate; in combination with other words they can agree, control and be controlled);
c) adjective phraseological units
In blooming health - blood and milk
(they have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, act in a sentence as a definition or nominal part of the predicate);
d) adverbial or adverbial phraseological units:
Up one "s sleeves - later sleeves
(like adverbs, they characterize the quality of the action and play the role of circumstances in the sentence);
e) interjectional phraseological units:
good luck! - Good afternoon!
(like interjections, such phraseological units express will, feelings, acting as separate, undivided sentences).
Phraseological units can also be systematized according to other features. For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered according to their phonics and neutral ones.
The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization, with rhyming elements, with sound repetitions.
An interesting classification of phraseological units according to their origin Anichkov I.E. Works on linguistics. - St. Petersburg: Science, p. thirty.
In this case, one can single out native British phraseological units (Fleet Street - a street in London, where the editorial offices of the most popular newspapers used to be) and phraseological units borrowed from other languages (Tete-a-tete - from French eye to eye).
Phraseological units borrowed from the Latin language are distinguished into a special group.
Their source was Christian books (the Bible), subsequently translated into English.
Apple of discord - apple of discord
A significant part of phraseological units is what came into English from ancient mythology.
Augean stables - Augean stables
Some phraseological units are tracing papers - a literal translation from the source language.
Phraseologisms are widely used in literature of all styles. And a competent translator should not allow inaccuracies in the translation of this or that phraseological unit. Without knowledge of phraseology, it is impossible to appreciate the brightness and expressiveness of speech, to understand a joke, a play on words, and sometimes simply the meaning of the entire statement.
1.3 The concept of phraseological system
The phraseology of the English language, like vocabulary, is a harmonious system.
It has autonomy, since phraseological units are fundamentally different, on the one hand, from individual words, on the other hand, from free phrases, and at the same time it is part of a more complex system of the national language, being in certain relations with its different levels.
For example, like words, phraseological units consist of phonemes that perform a meaningful function; this determines the systemic connections of phraseology with the phonemic level of the language.
Phraseologisms correlate differently with different parts of speech, which characterizes their systemic connections at the morphological level.
Performing certain syntactic functions in a sentence, phraseological units are in systemic relations with other linguistic units at the syntactic level.
As part of the phraseological system of the English language, various paradigms (groups) of phraseological units are distinguished, united according to their characteristic features.
In addition to the already mentioned groups of phraseological units, a number of others can be considered, based on their own linguistic features: phraseological units are single-valued and polysemantic, homonymous, synonymous, antonymous and some others.
Also, according to stylistic features, it is necessary to distinguish between stylistically marked and neutral phraseological units, and the former make it possible to identify various layers in their composition that differ significantly in stylistic coloring and stylistic affiliation.
The syntagmatic relations of phraseological units are characterized by the possibilities of their compatibility with a certain range of lexical units.
Some phraseological units are characterized by very limited compatibility, for example, the phraseological unit into the public eyes, which is combined with the verb to come, to be, but does not combine with the verbs to take, to become, etc.
Other phraseological units are characterized by a single, closed compatibility, they can be used with only one single word.
At the same time, there are many phraseological units that have a variety of syntagmatic connections.
Let us dwell in more detail on the systemic connections of phraseological units, determined by linguistic features.
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable Weinreich, U. Problems in the Analysis of Idioms: Substance and Structure of Language. - University of California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles, 1984, 11:
From the first look - according to the first impression
To daydream - indulge in ethereal dreams
But there are phraseological units that have several meanings:
1. do nothing
2. act frivolously, fool around
3. do stupid things.
Polysemy usually occurs in phraseological units that have retained a partial motivation of meanings in the language.
Moreover, ambiguity develops more easily in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning in their structure, and which can be correlated with phrases.
The modern English language is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meanings in terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, bring to a common denominator and the like.
Chapter 2 Varieties of phraseological units in English
2.1 Bibleisms
The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work enriched not only English, but also many other languages of the world with phraseological units. Much has been said and written about the tremendous impact that translations of the Bible have had on the English language. For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England: "... not only individual words, but entire idiomatic expressions entered the English language from the pages of the Bible" Fedulenkova T.N. English Phraseology: A Course of Lectures. - Arkhangelsk, 2000, p. 11. The number of biblical turns and expressions that have entered the English language is so great that it would be a very difficult task to collect and list them. The expressions used in modern English speech, the biblical origin of which is firmly established, include the following:
The apple of Sodom The beam (the mote) in one "s eye The blind leading the blind By the sweat of one's brow The camel and the needle's eye Can the leopard change his spots? A crown of glory A drop in the bucket A fly in the ointment Loaves and fishes The prodigal son The promised land A prophet is not without honor, save in his own country | beautiful but rotten fruit; deceptive success "log" in one's own eye; own big flaw the blind leading the blind in the sweat of your face an allusion to the gospel saying, which received this form in translation from Latin: it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven literally: can a leopard recolor its spots? ~ humpback grave fix crown of glory daily bread, livelihood literally: a drop in a bucket ~ drop in the sea literally: a fly in an ointment ~ fly in the ointment in a barrel of honey earthly blessings: bread and fish, with which Christ, according to the gospel tradition, fed hundreds of people who gathered to listen to him don't serve two masters prodigal son promised land no prophet in his own country |
In addition to the above expressions, which include whole sentences-sayings and various nominal (with the main word noun), attributive and adverbial phrases, many more verbal phrases have entered the English language from the Bible:
Phraseologisms of biblical origin often diverge in many respects from their biblical prototypes. This is due in some cases to the fact that the biblical prototype was rethought over time, the word order could also be changed in it, or archaic word forms were discarded. For example, the turn to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal sense of "slaughter the fatted calf." Later, this turnover took on a new meaning to treat the best that is at home. In the phraseological unit gall and wormwood - something hateful, disgusting, the word order is changed compared to the biblical prototype and the articles (the wormwood and the gall) are discarded. In the expression whatever a man soweth, that shall he reap - ~ what you sow, that shall you reap, the archaic form of the verb to sow is discarded (cf. whatever a man soweth, that shall he reap). There are cases when the biblical turnover is used in a positive sense, and in modern language it is rethought and is a phraseological unit with a negative evaluation, for example:
Not to let one "s left hand know what one" s right hand does - the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing (modern version).
When thou doest alms let not your left hand know what your right hand doeseth - when you do alms, let your left hand not know what your right hand is doing (biblical prototype).
Some phraseological units go back to the biblical story. So biblical images and concepts can be found in such phraseological units as forbidden fruit - forbidden fruit, Job "s comforter - unfortunate comforter, Juda" s kiss - Judas kiss, a prodigal son - prodigal son, a dead letter - dead letter; a law that has lost its meaning, a slogan.
2.2 Shakespeareanisms
In modern English, there are many phraseological units, the main function of which is to enhance the aesthetic aspect of the language. Many phraseological units originated in connection with customs, realities, historical facts, but most of the English phraseological fund, one way or another, arose thanks to the artistic literary works.
The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. It is possible to give examples of some of the most common Shakespeareanisms Kunin A.V. English-Russian phraseological dictionary. 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Russian language, 2001, p. 16.
To be or not to be? To cudgel one's brains The observed of all observers To be hoist with one "s own petard To do yeoman service Our withers are unwrung To shuffle off (this mortal coil) To give pause to (smb.) To out-Herod Herod To know a hawk from a handsaw Caviar to the general Germane to the matter A towering passion The primrose path of dalliance From whose bourne no traveler returns In the mind's eye To the manner born Shreds and patches Sweets to the sweet To the top of one's bent | to be or not to be? puzzle over (something) center of attention fall into your own trap provide timely assistance blasphemy, the accusation does not hurt us leave this mortal world, end (accounts with life) confuse surpass Herod himself in cruelty be not devoid of elementary insight ~ be able to distinguish a cuckoo from a hawk too thin a dish for a coarse taste (the word general here means the general public) more to the point fury, rage primrose path here's the catch ~ that's where the dog is buried where no one has yet returned, that is, in the kingdom of death in imagination, mind to the manner born patches and shreds beautiful - beautiful (courteous treatment when presenting a gift) completely, completely; as much as you like |
"King Henry IV"
"Twelfth Night"
"As You Like It"
Midsummer Night's Dream
"Much Ado About Nothing"
"Romeo and Juliet"
In modern English, Shakespeareanisms can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one "s heart upon one" s sleeve for days to peck at ("Othello") - flaunt your feelings; (~ soul wide open). This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of your lady on the sleeve. In modern English, it is usually used in an abbreviated form: to wear one "s heart upon one" s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon another preposition can be used - on. For example: “It's lovely to be able to tell the world what she means to me.” Howard … adds: “I never back off from showing my emotions whatever they are. I think if we all wore our hearts on our sleeves a bit more we "d all get on a lot better" (The times)
Shakespeareanism the better part of valor is discretion (“King Henry IV”) is one of the adornments of courage - modesty exists in modern English with a changed word order: discretion is the better part of valour.
In Shakespearianism, buy golden opinions - to deserve a favorable flattering opinion of oneself, to arouse admiration in modern language, the verb win is used instead of the verb buy.
The expression at one fell swoop ("Macbeth") - with one blow, in one fell swoop, at one moment, immediately began to be used in the abbreviated form at one swoop. For example: "They go quick, one after another - five of them vanished already at one swoop".
In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere except for this phraseological unit. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from, that is, in the kingdom of death. The word bourne is archaic and denotes a border or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.
A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare came into general use, which indicates both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity Kunin A.V. English-Russian phraseological dictionary. 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Russian language, 2001, p. 47.
2.3 Statements of English writers that have become phraseological units
In addition to Shakespeare, many other writers have enriched the English phraseological fund. Among them, Alexander Pope, Walter Scott, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton and Charles Dickens should be noted. Savitsky V.M. English Phraseology: Modeling Problems. - Samara, 1993, p. 92.
Alexander Pop:
Walter Scott:
Geoffrey Chaucer:
John Milton:
Charles Dickens:
The statements of other English writers usually remain quotations and only in rare cases replenish the phraseological fund of the English language, entering into colloquial speech. We give some examples of such statements (the phraseological units listed below are classified according to the time of creation of the work in which this phraseological unit is used).
XVIIIcentury Savitsky V.M. English Phraseology: Modeling Problems. - Samara, 1993, p. 95
J. Arbuthnot: John Bull - "John Bull" (a derisive nickname for the English). The turnover was first used by the court physician J. Arbuthnot in the satirical pamphlet "Law is a Bottomless Pit" (1712), later reprinted under the title "The History of John Bull".
J. Gay: (as) cool as a cucumber - completely calm, calm; ~ does not blow in the mustache, and does not blink an eye (“Poems on Several Occasions”).
D. Defoe: man Friday - Friday; a faithful devoted servant (named after the faithful servant in the novel Robinson Crusoe); a gentleman "s gentleman - "a gentleman serving a gentleman", a servant ("Everybody" s Business ").
S. T. Coleridge: an albatross about one "s neck - a constant reminder of someone else's fault; a sad circumstance (in Coleridge's poem "The Ancient Mariner" it is said about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brought trouble to his ship and was forced to wear the dead as a punishment albatross on the neck).
K. Marlo: to clip smb."s wings - clip someone's wings.
L. Chesterfield: small talk - chatter, talk about trifles, about the weather ("Letters to his Son").
XIXcentury Savitsky V.M. English Phraseology: Modeling Problems. - Samara, 1993, p. 97
J. G. Byron: (as) merry as a marriage-bell - very cheerful, cheerful, full of life (“Childe Harold's Pilgrimage”).
W. Wordsworth: the child is father of the man - the features of an adult are already in the child.
J. Poole: Paul Pry is a nose prying, overly curious person (most importantly actor comedy "Paul Pry").
A. Tennyson: a little rift within the lute - the beginning of discord or madness; wormhole, "crack" ("Idylls of the King, Merlin and Vivien").
A. O. Shaughnessy: mover and shaker - an influential person, an opinion leader who makes politics.
XXcentury Amosova N.N. Fundamentals of English phraseology. - L .: Nauka, 1989, p. 68
R. Kipling: the tail wags the dog - “the tail wags the dog”, the subordinate commands the boss (“The Conundrum of the Workshops”).
C. Snow: corridors of power - corridors of power (title of the book).
Many phraseological units were not created by the writers themselves, but only thanks to the latter they became widespread in modern English. Here are examples. The saying to be on the side of the angels (literally: to be on the side of the angels), to insist on the traditional (anti-scientific) point of view, gained popularity thanks to B. Disraeli. Phraseologism vanity fair - a vanity fair, which is the name of the famous novel by W. Thackeray, is found in J. Bunyan's book “Pilgrim's Progress” (1678 - 1684). Phraseological unit a skeleton in the closet - the family secret, hidden from outsiders, introduced by W. Thackeray into literature, was also known before him. Comparisons green like a Cheshire cat - smirk, smile from the top of your head; (as) mad as a hatter and (as) mad as a March hare - out of your mind, crazy, completely out of your mind - popularized by L. Carroll in the book Alice in Wonderland.
2.4 Phraseologisms borrowed from literary works of other languages and countries
Many phraseological units came to England from USA. They refer to intralingual borrowings. Some of these phraseological units were once created by American writers and are widely used in modern English speech.
The creators of many revolutions are known.
W. Irving: the almighty dollar - "almighty dollar" (usually used ironically); a Rip Van Winkle - "Rip Van Winkle", a retarded man (named after the hero of the story of the same name who slept for twenty years).
E. O "Connor: the last hurrah - "last hurrah"; ~ swan song (usually about the last election campaign, or about a politician who ends his stormy political career. By the name of the novel).
F. Cooper: the last of the Mohicans - the last of the Mohicans (according to the title of the novel). The Mohicans are an extinct tribe of North American Indians. The popularity of Cooper's works contributed to the introduction into the English language of phraseological units related to the life of the Indians: bury the hatchet - make peace, make peace, end hostility (the Indians buried a tomahawk in the ground when making peace); dig up the hatchet - start a war (the Indians had a custom before starting hostilities to pull out a tomahawk buried in the ground); go on the war-path - enter the path of war, be in a warlike mood.
G. Longfellow: ships that pass in the night - fleeting, random meetings ("Tales of Wayside Inn") (comparison: they dispersed like ships at sea). The popularity of the expression is also associated with its use as the title of one of the novels of the writer Beatrice Harraden (1893).
J. London: the call of the wild - “call of the ancestors”, “call of nature” (according to the title of the novel); the iron heel "iron heel", imperialism (after the title of the novel).
M. Mitchell: gone with the wind - disappeared without a trace, sunk into the past (the expression became popular after the publication of M. Mitchell's novel "Gone With the Wind") and the film based on this novel was created by the English poet E Dawson (1867 - 1900).
J. Howe: the grapes of wrath - grapes of wrath (turnover is first found in J. Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic" (1862), owes its popularity to J. Steinbeck's novel of the same name).
The number of phraseological units borrowed from American fiction is not as great as the number of phraseological units created by English writers. But, it should be noted that the above Americanisms have the most vivid imagery and increased expressiveness in comparison with the statements of English writers.
French fiction made a significant contribution to the phraseological fund of modern English. Many works of French writers have been translated into English and are still very popular in England. In this regard, one should single out such French writers as: Francois Rabelais, Jean-Baptiste Molière, Jerome d'Angers, La Fontaine and others.
You can give examples of phraseological units created by French writers and most commonly used in modern English (all the following phraseological units, borrowed from French fiction, are translations and presented in English - in their original form, these phraseological units are not used in modern English speech):
Appetite comes with eating - appetite comes with eating (the expression was first found in the essay “On the Causes” (1515) by Jerome d'Angers, Bishop of the city of Le Mans; popularized by Francois Rabelais in Gargantua and Pantagruel);
Buridan "s ass - Buridan's donkey (about a person who does not dare to make a choice between two equivalent objects, equivalent decisions, etc.) (The 14th-century French philosopher Buridan is credited with the story of a donkey who died of hunger, as he did not dare to do choice between two identical bundles of hay. This story was allegedly cited by Buridan as an example in discussions about free will. The phraseological unit an ass (or a donkey) between two bundles of hay goes back to the same story; castles in Spain - castles in the air (expression associated with the medieval heroic epic, the heroes of which, the knights, received in their personal possession the castles in Spain that had not yet been conquered);
For smb."s fair eyes (or for the fair eyes of smb.) - for the sake of someone's beautiful eyes, not for the sake of his merits, but for his personal disposition, for nothing, for nothing (an expression from the comedy by J. B. Molière "Simply");
Let us return to our muttons - let's return to the topic of our conversation (an expression from the medieval farce of Blanche about the lawyer Patlen, later the infinitive to return to one "s muttons arose through reverse formation);
To pull smb."s (or the) chestnuts out of the fire (for smb.) - to pull chestnuts out of the fire for someone; it is pointless, at the risk of working for the benefit of another (in Lafontaine's fable "The Monkey and the Cat" - the monkey Bertrand makes the cat Raton drag chestnuts out of the fire for himself). The expression to make a cat "s paw of smb is associated with the same fable. - to make someone your obedient instrument - to rake in the heat with the wrong hands).
It should be noted that the number of phraseological units borrowed from French fiction into English is not large, but despite this, they are often used by English writers to enhance imagery and are widespread in modern English speech.
Phraseological borrowings from German and Danish fiction few. Only a few writers from Germany and Denmark replenished the English phraseological fund with "winged" expressions. Here are examples of these phraseological units:
Speech is silvern, silence is golden - “the word is silver, silence is gold”; the proverb is first found in the German writer Thomas Carlyle: As the Swiss Inscription says: Sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden (speech is silvern, silence is golden) ("Sartor Resartus");
Storm and stress - "storm and onslaught" (a trend in German literature of the 70-80s of the XVIII century); period of anxiety, excitement; tension (in public or private life), impetuous onslaught (German: Sturm und Drang - after the title of F. Klinger's play);
Between hammer and anvil - between the hammer and the anvil (according to the title of the novel (1868) by the German writer F. Shpilhagen);
The emperor has (or wears) no clothes - the king is naked (an expression from the fairy tale of the Danish writer G.H. Andersen "The King's New Dress", 1837);
An ugly duckling - “an ugly duckling” (a person unfairly assessed below his merits, which manifest themselves unexpectedly to others; according to the title of G.Kh. Andersen's fairy tale about an ugly duckling that grew up and became a beautiful swan).
In modern English, there are only a few phraseological units borrowed from Spanish fiction. In this regard, one of the most famous Spanish writers, Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra, who became famous throughout the world with his work Don Quixote, should be singled out. Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra is the author of the following idioms:
The knight of the Rueful Countenance - (book) Knight of the Sad Image, Don Quixote (Spanish: el Caballero de la triste figura. So Don Quixote was called by his squire Sancho Panza);
Tilt at windmills - fight with windmills, “quixotic” (Spanish: acometer molinos de viento. The battle with windmills is one of the episodes in the novel Don Quixote).
Currently, there are many phraseological units of Spanish origin in English, but only those phraseological units that are given above have literary roots.
Also in English there are phraseological units associated with Arabic artistic literature. From the tales of the Thousand and One Nights, several expressions came into the English language:
Aladdin "s lamp (book) - Aladdin's magic lamp (a talisman that fulfills all the desires of its owner). Phraseologism to rub the lamp is associated with the same tale - easy to fulfill your desire;
Alnascharn's dream (book) - empty dreams, fantasizing (in one of the tales of the "Thousand and One Nights" it is said about Alnashar, who bought glassware with all his money and put them in a basket, but, dreaming about how he will become rich, and angry with his future wife, he hit the basket and broke all the glass);
The old man of the sea - a person who is difficult to get rid of, get rid of, an obsessive person (a hint of an episode in one of the tales, which tells how Sinbad the Sailor could not get rid of the old man who sat on his shoulders);
An open Sesame - "Sesame, open!" - a quick and easy way to achieve something (the magic words with which the door to the cave of robbers was opened in the fairy tale "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves").
The fact that some expressions borrowed from Arabic folklore have become phraseological units of the modern English language testifies to the metaphorical and expressiveness of these phraseological units. Similar concepts exist in other languages of the world, in this case we can talk about the internationality of phraseological units borrowed from Arabic literature.
Conclusion
The phraseological fund of the English language is so large that its full study would not fit within the framework of this work. Nevertheless, on the example of the considered phraseological units, one can clearly imagine how diverse in their semantics and expressiveness the phraseological units of the modern English language are. Thanks to the literary works of writers and poets, both from Great Britain itself and from different countries of the world, the English language today has a huge number of phraseological units. But, we should not forget that from the history and culture of various countries of the world a huge number of phraseological units also came into the English language.
Unfortunately, in modern English speech there is no use of expressions taken from the literature of Asian countries. Only phraseological units borrowed from the literature of countries, one way or another, geographically close to Great Britain, have received wide circulation. It should be noted that the number of bibleisms in the English language is especially large, this may indicate the religiosity of the British.
An important fact is that all non-English literary borrowings presented in this work are complete tracing papers from one language or another. In modern English, these phraseological units are not used in a foreign language. Therefore, we cannot talk here about the process of assimilation of phraseological units borrowed from the literature of various countries.
The expression “enrich with phraseological units” is often used in the work. It must be said that this is not a simple pattern, because phraseology is the treasury of the language, and phraseological units in the language are wealth. Phraseologisms not only reflect the culture and life of a particular language, but also help to make speech in the most expressive and emotional way Kunin A.V. Phraseology of modern English. - M.: International relations, 1996, 15.
Phraseology is an extremely complex phenomenon, the study of which requires its own research method, as well as the use of data from other sciences - lexicology, grammar, stylistics, phonetics, language history, history, philosophy, logic and country studies.
The opinions of linguists on a number of problems of phraseology diverge, and this is quite natural. Nevertheless, an important task of linguists working in the field of phraseology is to combine efforts and find common ground in the interests of both the theory of phraseology and the practice of teaching foreign languages Fedulenkova T.N. English Phraseology: A Course of Lectures. - Arkhangelsk, 2000, p. 21.
Alekhina A.I. Phraseological unit and word. - Minsk, 1991, 119 p.
Amosova N.N. Fundamentals of English phraseology. - L .: Nauka, 1989, 97 p.
Anichkov I.E. Works on linguistics. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997, 209 p.
Babkin A.M. Russian phraseology, its development and sources. - L.: Nauka, 1990, 126 p.
Vinogradov V.V. On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language. - M.: Nauka, 1986, 179 p.
Zakharova M.A. The strategy of speech use of figurative phraseological units of the English language. - M.: Infra-M, 1999, 151 p.
Kopylenko M.M., Popova Z.D. Essays on General Phraseology: Problems, Methods, Experiments. - Voronezh: Publishing House of the Voronezh University, 1990, 109 p.
Kunin A.V. Phraseology of modern English. - M.: International Relations, 1996, 183 p.
Kunin A.V. English-Russian phraseological dictionary. 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Russian language, 2001, 264 p.
Litvinov P.P. English-Russian phraseological dictionary with thematic classification. - M.: Yakhont, 2000, 302 p.
Litvinov P.P. Phraseology. - M.: Primstroy-M, 2001, 182 p.
Savitsky V.M. English Phraseology: Modeling Problems. - Samara, 1993, 219 p.
Worell A.J. English idiomatic expressions. - M.: Fiction, 1999, 117 p.
Fedulenkova T.N. English Phraseology: A Course of Lectures. - Arkhangelsk, 2000, 192 p.
Weinreich, U. Problems in the Analysis of Idioms: Substance and Structure of Language. - University of California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles, 1984, 208 pp.
Phraseological research in domestic and foreign linguistics has reached in recent decades significant results. Numerous works on the study of stable word complexes (WSC) of various types have yielded a lot of new and original ideas both for the phraseology of individual languages and for the general theory of phraseology.
However, with all the positive that is available in phraseological studies, linguists have ambiguous views on some problems, including the problem of understanding and defining a phraseological unit as a language unit, the problem of the meaning of a phraseological unit, the reproducibility and stability of phraseological units, but there are similar opinions. moments.
The word "phraseology" (from the Greek. phrasis "expression, speech" and logos "concept, teaching") has several meanings. As a linguistic term, it is used to refer to a special branch of linguistics that studies set phrases called phraseological units (hereinafter PU) or phraseological units, as well as to denote a set of similar phrases characteristic of a given language
Phraseology is a branch of the science of language that studies the phraseological system in its state of the art and historical development.
The object of study of phraseology is phraseological turns and phraseological units.
In the composition of phraseological units, some scientists include all stable combinations of words, others limit the list of phraseological units only to a certain group of stable phrases. For some linguists, proverbs, sayings, proverbs, catchwords, aphorisms get into the phraseology of the language, for others they do not.
As criteria for determining a phraseological unit, stability, integrity of the meaning, not derived from the sum of the meanings of its constituent words, separate form, the possibility of structural variants, or neoplasms, reproducibility, untranslatability into other languages are called in various combinations. In general, phraseology is characterized as a combination of words with a "figurative meaning", as a stable phrase with an "idiomatic meaning", as a "stable phrase"
In particular, Chernysheva I.I. Phraseological units he calls stable verbal complexes of various structural types with a single linkage of components, the meaning of which arises as a result of a complete or partial semantic transformation of the component composition
I. V. Arnold distinguishes free (a free combination) and stable (a set expression) phrases. The former are studied in syntax. And the second - in lexicology. IV Arnold explains the difference between them with the help of the following examples;
She took several books
She was taken aback
In the first example, the verb to take appears in a free combination with its object, in the second it significantly changed its semantics under the influence of the second element aback firmly connected with it, and both words together convey a single meaning. Set phrases are used, as a rule, in the same composition, they are not constructed in a sentence, but are introduced into it in finished form, just like words. The verb to take forms a number of similar combinations, for example,
To take into account
That take part in
That take notice of notice
To take one by surprise
To take advantage of
“As Arnold I.V. in all these stable combinations, the semantic connection between the elements becomes so close that their meaning changes, becomes phraseologically connected.
There are other opinions on this issue. For example, according to Zhukov V.P., a phraseological unit should be understood as a stable and reproducible separately designed language unit, consisting of components, endowed with a holistic (or less often partially holistic) meaning and combined with other words.
Another researcher Azarkh N.A. interprets phraseological units as combinations of words that exist in the language in a finished form, reproduced, and not newly organized in the process of speech. . He singles out the semantic unity of phraseological units among other features. If we compare units such as to paint the lily. To pay through the nose. Dutch comfort. Baker "s dosen with ordinary or as they are called as opposed to stable, free phrases, then we will see that the values of the formations in question are not equal to the sum of the values \u200b\u200bof their components: pain- paint, the lily- lily, to paint the lily means not to paint the lily, but to engage in ~ fruitless business.This quite clearly distinguishes phraseological units from free phrases.
PhUs with a high degree of idiomaticity also have syntactic integrity: their components usually cannot enter into syntactic relationships with other words, i.e. it is impossible to arbitrarily insert another word into these phraseological units, it is impossible to change the order of the components, the grammatical structure. For example, in the Black Friday combination, the adjective Black cannot be used in the predicative - Friday is black. However, it must be taken into account that a number of phraseological units exist in two or more versions: the possibility of using different options should not be confused with the distribution of phraseological units in other words:
That hit the nail on the head
To hit the right nail on the head
In fine feather
According to Shansky N.M. believes that phraseological turnover is a unit of language reproduced in finished form from two or more stressed components of a verbal character, fixed (i.e., unchanging) in its meaning, composition and structure. Phraseological phrases are significant units, which are characterized by their own semantics, which exist on their own, regardless of the meanings of their constituent components, even when this semantics corresponds to the sum of the meanings of the components.
Akhmanova O.S. defines a phraseological unit as a phrase in which the semantic solidity (the integrity of the nomination) prevails over the structure of the separateness of its constituent elements, as a result of which it functions as part of a sentence as the equivalent of a single word
Kunin A.V. Phraseological units are stable combinations of lexemes with a fully or partially rethought meaning.
Academician Vinogradov V.V. by phraseological units he understands "stable" verbal complexes, opposed to "free" syntactic phrases as ready-made language formations, not created, but only reproduced in the process of speech.
Nazaryan A.G. considers a phraseological unit as a separate unit of language, characterized by a complete or partial semantic transformation of the components.
A.I. Smirnitsky characterizes phraseological units through likening, comparing it with a word. “A typical phraseological unit is likened to one whole word in that the relationship between its parts is idiomatic, due to which it has significant semantic integrity and is included in speech precisely as a unit. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that its parts relate to each other as components compound word, and in general, a phraseological unit is similar to a word as a lexeme, and not a separate form of a word. A phraseological unit equivalent to a grammatically inflected word, being included in speech, grammatically changes only in one of its components, although both components of a phraseological unit are grammatically formed: cf. Take care, takes care, took care, taking care, taken care, etc. with a change in the first component of a phraseological unit "
In their structure, phraseological units are similar to ordinary combinations of words in a sentence, i.e. are separate formations. For example, such a phraseological unit as (to) take the chair - to open a meeting, to preside is clearly distinguished as a special unit of the language, which, due to its idiomatic nature, has great semantic value. The meaning of the expression (to) take the chair - to take a chair - directly follows from the totality of the meanings of the words included in it. Thus, according to A.I. Smirnitsky, phraseologism - a unit that has the structure of a free, actually grammatical combination of words in a sentence, differs from the latter in its idiomatic nature and is included in speech as one unit.
In our opinion, the most complete definition of a phraseological unit is given by Yartseva V.N. She writes that a phraseological unit (phraseological unit) is a common name for semantically related combinations of words and sentences, which, unlike syntactic structures similar to them in form, are not reproduced in accordance with general patterns the choice and combination of words in the organization of the utterance, but is reproduced in speech in a fixed ratio of the semantic structure and a certain lexical and grammatical composition.
The term "phraseologism" denotes several semantically heterogeneous types of combinations; idioms characterized by a rethinking of their lexical and grammatical composition and having an integral nominative function, they are adjoined by phrase schemes in which the syntactic structure and a certain part of the lexical composition are rethought, and the rest is filled in the context; combinations in which only one word is lexically rethought, while maintaining a separate nominative function for each of the component words, speech cliches, proverbs and sayings that have formed in folklore and winged dictionaries of an aphoristic nature, dating back to a specific author or an anonymous literary source, are close to them. Rethinking or semantic transposition of the lexical and grammatical composition, stability and reproducibility are the main universal features of a phraseological unit.
The formation of a phraseological unit is based on semantic simplification, i.e. limiting the meanings of a word that has become a component of a phraseological unit that has its own single phraseological meaning.
The meaning of a phraseological unit, based on the meanings of its components, is often motivated differently in different languages.
In each language phraseologisation has its own special forms of expression. This is explained by the fact that phraseological units, being separately formed linguistic formations, in comparison with units of lower levels - a phoneme, a morpheme, a word - have a more complex lexical and grammatical, and, especially, semantic structure, in the formation of which extralinguistic and ethnolinguistic factors. These factors play an important role in the formation and development of phraseological units, determine their national character.
Phraseological units do not allow literal (word-by-word) translation: they require the search for a phraseological equivalent of another language, since phraseological meaning is accompanied by emotional, semantic and stylistic expression.
Completed by: Alekseeva M.M.. gr. 18241
Scientific adviser: .
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor.
Introduction
The English language has a thousand-year history. During this time, it has accumulated a large number of expressions that people found successful, well-aimed and beautiful. And so a special layer of the language arose - phraseology, a set of set expressions that have an independent meaning.
The study of English is widespread in our country. A good knowledge of the language, including English, is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Knowledge of phraseology greatly facilitates the reading of both non-fiction and fiction. The reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more expressive.
With the help of phraseological expressions, which are not translated literally, but are perceived rethought, the aesthetic aspect of the language is enhanced. “With the help of idioms, as with the help of various shades of colors, the informational aspect of the language is complemented by a sensual-intuitive description of our world, our life”*.
The world of modern English phraseology is large and diverse, and every aspect of its study certainly deserves due attention.
The purpose of this work is to study the ways of formation of phraseological units in the English language.
The following tasks were set during the work:
1. understand the subject and tasks of phraseology;
2. to analyze the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word;
3. consider the types of phraseological units and the concept of phraseological system;
4. show the ways in which phraseological units appear in the English language.
For those who study English as a foreign language, this layer of the language is difficult to master, but after mastering phraseological units, you can start speaking like English and understand them from a half-word, as speech readiness increases dramatically. You can briefly and very accurately express your thought, being sure of the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology helps to avoid Russicisms, that is, literal translations of sentences from Russian into English.
Chapter 1 Phraseology
1.1 The subject and tasks of phraseology
Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies stable combinations in a language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a particular work of art, etc.
As an independent linguistic discipline, phraseology arose relatively recently. The subject and tasks, scope and methods of studying phraseology are not yet clearly defined, and therefore have not received full coverage. Less developed than others are questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their relationship with parts of speech, etc.
The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the consistency of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units, which requires considerable experience in the study of this discipline.
Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods for their study, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries.
Phraseology uses various research methods, such as component analysis of meaning. On the basis of the research methods existing in linguistics, “proper phraseological methods of analysis and description” are being developed:
1. identification method - the establishment of the identities of words and syntactic constructions that form phraseological units with their free counterparts.
2. application method, which is a kind of identification method, a method limited in the choice of variables, establishing different structural and semantic organizations of a phraseological unit from combinations formed in accordance with regular patterns of choice and combination, etc. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods for their study.
The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, initial forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources for all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the scope of the phraseological composition and its systematic ordering in one or another historical era of language development.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units, the ratio of phraseological units and words, the consistency of phraseology, phraseological variability, the method of study phraseology, etc.
Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English*.
1.2 Types of phraseological units
As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative sense. Gradually, portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable.
In English, there are the following typologies of phraseological units:
1. Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units.
a) combination of an adjective with a noun:
Vicious circle - vicious circle
The Indian summer - Indian summer
b) when translating into Russian, a combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case:
Point of view - point of view
Apple of discord - apple of discord
c) combination of the prepositional form of a noun with an adjective:
Be on a good footing - be on a short footing with someone
d) combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition):
Come to one's senses - take on the mind
Cock one's nose - turn up your nose
e) combination of a verb with an adverb:
To see through somebody - see through
Fly high - be very ambitious
f) combination of a participle with a noun:
One's heart is bleeding - the heart bleeds
2. Typology based on the correspondence of the syntactic functions of phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced.
a) nominal phraseological units:
Swan-song - swan song
b) verb phraseological units
Hold one's ground - hold on very firmly, do not give up your positions
c) adjective phraseological units
In blooming health - blood and milk
d) adverbial or adverbial phraseological units:
Up one's sleeves - later sleeves
e) interjectional phraseological units:
good luck! - Good afternoon!
Phraseological units can also be systematized according to other features. For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered according to their phonics and neutral ones.
The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization, with rhyming elements, with sound repetitions.
1.3 The concept of phraseological system
The phraseology of the English language, like vocabulary, is a harmonious system.
It has autonomy, since phraseological units are fundamentally different, on the one hand, from individual words, on the other hand, from free phrases, and at the same time it is part of a more complex system of the national language, being in certain relations with its different levels.
For example, like words, phraseological units consist of phonemes that perform a meaningful function; this determines the systemic connections of phraseology with the phonemic level of the language.
Phraseologisms correlate differently with different parts of speech, which characterizes their systemic connections at the morphological level.
Performing certain syntactic functions in a sentence, phraseological units are in systemic relations with other linguistic units at the syntactic level.
As part of the phraseological system of the English language, various paradigms (groups) of phraseological units are distinguished, united according to their characteristic features.
In addition to the already mentioned groups of phraseological units, a number of others can be considered, based on their own linguistic features: phraseological units are single-valued and polysemantic, homonymous, synonymous, antonymous and some others.
Also, according to stylistic features, it is necessary to distinguish between stylistically marked and neutral phraseological units, and the former make it possible to identify various layers in their composition that differ significantly in stylistic coloring and stylistic affiliation.
The syntagmatic relations of phraseological units are characterized by the possibilities of their compatibility with a certain range of lexical units.
Some phraseological units are characterized by very limited compatibility, for example, the phraseological unit into the public eyes, which is combined with the verb to come, to be, but does not combine with the verbs to take, to become, etc.
Other phraseological units are characterized by a single, closed compatibility, they can be used with only one single word.
However, among the phraseological units there are many that have a variety of syntagmatic connections.
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable:
From the first look - according to the first impression
To daydream - indulge in ethereal dreams
Chapter 2 Varieties of phraseological units in English
2.1 Bibleisms
The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work enriched not only English, but also many other languages of the world with phraseological units. Much has been said and written about the tremendous impact that translations of the Bible have had on the English language. For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England. The number of biblical turns and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that it was not easy to collect them. The expressions used in modern English speech, the biblical origin of which is firmly established, include the following:
Some phraseological units go back to the biblical story. So biblical images and concepts can be found in phraseological units such as forbidden fruit - forbidden fruit, Job's comforter - unfortunate comforter, Juda's kiss - the kiss of Judas, a prodigal son - the prodigal son, a dead letter - a dead letter; a law that has lost its meaning, a slogan.
2.2 Phraseologisms borrowed from literary works of other languages and countries
Many phraseological units came to England from the USA. They refer to intralingual borrowings. Some of these phraseological units were once created by American writers and are widely used in modern English speech.
The creators of many revolutions are known.
W. Irving: the almighty dollar - "almighty dollar" (usually used ironically); a Rip Van Winkle - "Rip Van Winkle", a backward man (named after the hero of the story of the same name who slept for twenty years).
E. O'Connor: the last hurrah - "last hurrah"; ~ swan song (usually about the last election campaign, or about a politician who ends his turbulent political career. According to the title of the novel).
F. Cooper: dig up the hatchet - start a war (the Indians had a custom before starting hostilities to pull out a tomahawk buried in the ground); go on the war-path - enter the path of war, be in a warlike mood.
G. Longfellow: ships that pass in the night - fleeting, random meetings ("Tales of Wayside Inn") (comparison: they dispersed like ships at sea). The popularity of the expression is also associated with its use as the title of one of the novels of the writer Beatrice Harraden (1893).
J. London: the call of the wild - “call of the ancestors”, “call of nature” (according to the title of the novel); the iron heel "iron heel", imperialism (according to the title of the novel).
M. Mitchell: gone with the wind - disappeared without a trace, sunk into the past (the expression became popular after the publication of M. Mitchell's novel "Gone With the Wind") and the film based on this novel was created by the English poet E Dawson (1867 - 1900).
J. Howe: the grapes of wrath - grapes of wrath (turnover is first found in J. Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic" (1862), owes its popularity to J. Steinbeck's novel of the same name).
Conclusion
The phraseological fund of the English language is very large. But on the example of the considered phraseological units, one can clearly imagine how diverse in their semantics and expressiveness the phraseological units of the modern English language are. Thanks to the literary works of writers and poets, both from Great Britain itself and from different countries of the world, the English language currently has a huge number of phraseological units. But, we should not forget that from the history and culture of various countries of the world a huge number of phraseological units also came into the English language.
Phraseology is an extremely complex phenomenon, the study of which requires its own research method, as well as the use of data from other sciences - lexicology, grammar, stylistics, phonetics, history of language, history, philosophy, logic and country studies.
The opinions of linguists on a number of problems of phraseology diverge, and this is quite natural. Nevertheless, an important task of linguists working in the field of phraseology is to combine efforts and find common ground in the interests of both the theory of phraseology and the practice of teaching foreign languages.
Bibliography
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4. Babkin A.M. Russian phraseology, its development and sources. - L.: Nauka, 1990, 126 p.
5. Vinogradov V.V. On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language. - M.: Nauka, 1986, 179 p.