Winged horses. Detail of the pediment composition of the temple of Ara della Regina in Tarquinia. Terracotta. 4th century BC e.
Fibula from the tomb of Regolini-Galassi and Cerveteri. Gold. OK. 650 BC e. Vatican, Gregorian Etruscan Museum
Musician's head. Detail of the painting of the tomb of the Leopards in Tarquinia. 475-455 AD BC e.
The so-called "Black Stone" with the oldest Latin inscription
Sarcophagus depicting a married couple from Cerveteri. Detail. Terracotta.
Beginning of the 6th century BC e.
Servian wall
Items found in burials at the Forum
Capitoline she-wolf
Tarquinius and Mastarna. Etruscan painting
Round Temple at the Bull Forum in Rome. OK. 120 BC e.
Temple of Fortuna Virilis at the Bull Forum in Rome.
OK. 100-80 years BC e.
Jupiter. Roman work, 1st c.
Aphrodite (Venus), the so-called "Aphrodite in the Gardens".
Ares (Mars).
Roman copy after a Greek original of the 5th century BC. BC e.
Bronze gladiatorial helmet from Herculaneum
gladiator fight
Fight of gladiators. Mosaic from the Empire
Goddess Roma, patroness of the city of Rome. Statue in the Capitol, Rome
Restored in the 1st century. Duilia's column, adorned with the prows of wrecked ships
The Mulvian Bridge in Rome. End of the 2nd century BC e.
Roman denarius 268-264 BC e.
On the facial the goddess Roma is depicted on the side, on negotiable - Dioscuri
Copper Roman Ass(aes grave) 311-271 BC e. On the facial side - the image of two-faced Janus, on negotiable- prow of the ship
Coin (denarius) of the rebellious Italians. An Italian ox tramples a Roman she-wolf
Coin depicting Antony and Octavian
The so-called tomb of the Tarquins.
The alleged crypt of the Tarquins was found at the end of the 19th century. in Cere. On its walls 35 times the name of the Tarquins is engraved in Etruscan: "Tarhna". But this is still not enough to claim that this is the tomb of the Roman Tarquinii
Pyrrhus. marble bust
Gaius Zilniy Maecenas. Carved amethyst. The work of the famous engraver Dioscorides
Appian Way. Janine reconstruction
Scipio Africanus
Crossing the troops of Hannibal across the river Rodan (Rhone)
Hannibal
(according to modern engraving)
Sulla. Marble
Guy Mari. Marble
Gnaeus Pompey the Great.
Caesar. Marble. End of the 1st century BC e.
Marble bust of the 1st c. BC e.
Etruscan warrior statue. Bronze
Samnite warrior. Bronze
Samnite standard-bearer and warrior. According to the images on the Italian vase. The armament of the warriors resembles Greek models, but has local features, in particular, a half-cuirass (left) and combat bronze belts on both warriors
Warriors of Republican Rome: triarii, hastati and velites
The order of battle of the Roman legion in the III century. BC e.
Manipulative order of battle
The organization of the Roman army in the III century. BC e.
Armament of the ancient Romans
Shield of a Roman cavalry warrior
Roman cavalry helmet
Carapace of wealthy Roman horsemen
Roman large scutum shield
Centurion
Pilum throwing
Jupiter sending rain to the Roman army. Relief from the Antoninus Column.
Jupiter in the form of a winged old man, spreading his long arms, from which streams of water flow, the legionnaires collect it in helmets and shields, and the barbarians lie on the ground, struck down by lightning
Roman order
Roman horseman
Plan of a Roman camp for two legions. Schematic reconstruction according to Polybius: 1. Pretorium, the square where the commander's tent was located. 2. Forum, a square that served for gatherings. 3. Altar. 4. The premises of the Praetorian cohort, the personal guard of the commander. 5. Auxiliary cavalry barracks. 6. Legion barracks. 7. Barracks for auxiliary infantry units. 8. Barracks of a detachment of veterans, newly called up for military service. 9. The square where the quaestor's tent was located. 10. Main street of the camp. 11. A street parallel to the main one, on which merchants who traded with soldiers were located. 12. The street that separated the parts located directly at the fortifications,
from the inside of the camp. 13. The street connecting the praetorium with the gates of the camp. 14. The gap between the defensive rampart surrounding the camp and the first barracks. 15. Camp Gate
Insignia of the pontificate. Bas-relief from the Saint-Germain Museum
triumphal procession
Etruscan bireme. An Etruscan vase (located in the British Museum in London) is decorated with a picturesque image of a bireme, which shows us what the ships of this ancient Italian sailing people looked like around the 6th century. BC e. Two rows of oars are clearly visible: the upper row with oarlocks on the gunwale or, possibly, on the outrigger, and the lower one, the oars of which come out of the ports in the hull, or with oarlocks along the gunwale hidden behind the outrigger, as can be assumed from a long crack in the vase. There is a battering ram on the nose and, what is especially interesting, a tank, which has never before been presented so long and high in other picturesque images. During the reconstruction, the nose was recreated like the noses of ancient Greek biremes of the same period, it was formed by the ends of the longitudinal bars connected together
Roman warship. bas-relief
towers on ships
Trireme. Here is a ship with a solid combat deck and a "raven" on the bow. There are three rows of oars: the upper row has oval ports in the outrigger, while the lower two exit from round ports in the sides of the vessel. The leather sleeves, which were meant to keep sea water out through the openings for the lower oars, are not visible. On Roman triremes, the number of rowers in all teams was the same. In addition to the rowers, there were at least 10-12 sailors and 80-90 soldiers on board. Approximate dimensions: length - 18.3 feet (5.6 m), including 2 feet (0.6 m) for outriggers on each side,
draft - 3.2 feet (1 m)
Quadrirema. During excavations in the Athenian port, the remains of hangars were discovered, where triremes were stored during the winter season. From the dimensions of the hangars, it was inferred that the Greek triremes were approximately 114.8 feet (35 m) long and 16.4 feet (5 m) wide. With regard to the Roman quadriremes, which were larger, it can be assumed that they were 131 feet (40 m) long and 32 feet (7 m) wide. The ship was supposed to accommodate 200 rowers plus 15-20 sailors and a hundred soldiers - that was the full crew. According to Polybius, the first quadrireme of the Roman fleet was a Carthaginian ship captured in 260 during the siege of Milazzo
Numidian horseman of the Punic Wars and Samnite III c. BC e.
ancient german warrior
Swords of the Germans
Legionary of the 1st century BC e. - I century, centurion and legionary of the end of the I century. - the beginning of the II century.
Organization of the Roman army in the middle of the 1st century. BC e.
Building a legion by cohorts
Civil war in Rome in 49-45. BC e.
Plan of the Basilica in Pompeii Plan of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome
Plan of the Pantheon in Rome
Plan of an ordinary Roman house
Order of battle of Caesar's legion
Roman road
August depicted in the pose of Jupiter. Statue from Qom. First half of the 1st c.
Octavia, Octavian's sister. Basalt
Tiberius. Marble
Nero. Marble. 60-68 years
Caligula. Marble. 37-41 years
The siege of the city by the Romans. 1st century BC e.
Plan of Rome. 1st-4th centuries
Colosseum in Rome. Photography of the 19th century
Rome. Forum Romanum. Reconstruction:!. Temple of Saturn. 2. Sacred road. 3. Temple of Vespasian. 4. Rosters. 5. Arch of Septimius Severus. 6. Curia. 7. Basilica Emilia. 8. Basilica of Maxentius. 9. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. 10. Colosseum. 11. Round temple of Romulus. 12. Phokas Column
Great Circus (Circus Maximus). Reconstruction
Trajan's Column at the Forum of Trajan in Rome. 107-113 AD
Roman house. Reconstruction. Relender.
Interior of a rich Roman house Interior of a Roman house
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. Bronze. 161-180 AD
Aurelian wall in Rome. 270-275 AD Arch of Constantine in Rome. 312-315
Amphitheater in Arles, France. I in. General form
The aqueduct near Nimes, the so-called Gar bridge.
End of the 1st century BC e. - beginning of the 1st c.
Bas-reliefs from Trajan's column.
Trajan gives the order to lay siege to Sarmizegetusa (up). Decebalus shows obedience
Plowman. Drawing from antique gems
Blacksmith with tongs and a two-handed hammer. Stonecutters.
One carves a stone
block, the other - a column. According to Virgil of the Vatican
Lictor, commander (consul or propraetor), imaginifer.
Soldiers of the auxiliary troops of the Roman Empire. 1st century
Warriors of the Roman Empire. 4th-5th centuries
Soldiers of the Praetorian Guard
Kingdom of Pergamon in the 2nd century. BC e.
Parthian kingdom
The conquest of Italy by Rome at the end of the 6th - the middle of the 3rd century. BC e.
Rome controlled Italy. OK. middle of the 3rd century BC e.
Roman Mediterranean power in the middle of the II century. BC e.
Second Punic War. 264-241 BC e.
Third Punic War. 149-146 BC e.
Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC e.
Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC e. Battle of Pydna in 168 BC e.
Macedonia and Greece in the II century. BC e.
The campaign of the Roman army in Parthia and the battle near Karrami in 53 BC. e.
Campaigns of the army of Spartacus in 73-71. BC e.
Roman siege works near Alesia
Roman siege of Alesia in 52 BC e.
Route map of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul
Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. BC e. and tribal invasions
Roman Empire under Constantine (306-337)
3 Among the numerous reviews of literature on the problems of the death of the republic and the formation of the principate, the most accessible for the Russian reader are
2 Perhaps he had this nickname even before the Gauls, simply because he lived on the Capitol.
enlarged by Roman annalistics.
3 The tradition of the war with Pyrrhus is in a very bad state. It was preserved mainly by later or minor writers and is extremely
2 The right of the same person to hold the position of tribune of the people twice in a row was debatable. Although, as we have seen, there was a plebiscite of Genutius in 342 (not entirely reliable), which forbade anyone to stand as a candidate for the same position before the expiration of a 10-year period, but this rule was violated more than once in practice. Moreover, the plebiscite of Genutius applied only to magistrates, and the tribunes of the people, strictly speaking, were not magistrates. Indeed, in
1 Tiberius Gracchus, XX.
make it possible to distinguish quite precisely the activities of both these periods.
1 In 59, Caesar married Calpurnia, with whom he lived happily until his death.
(through April).
1 In 355 he was proclaimed Caesar, from 361 he ruled alone.
Sacrifice to Jupiter Capitoline. Relief panel from the triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius (presumably). Photo: Matthias Kabel
The triumph is both one of the most revered and least known Roman ceremonies. Mary Beard, author of Roman Triumph (2007), once took great pains to separate fact from fiction. But Maggie Popkin, in her book The Architecture of a Roman Triumph, claims to be "the first critical study of the architecture of a Roman triumph." What was related to this "architecture"? The author argues that the buildings and structures that stood along the route of the triumphal procession "were built in accordance with the way the Romans performed, experienced and remembered the triumphal ceremonies, and with what they considered the identity of their city."
Maggie L. Popkin. The Architecture of the Roman Triumph: Monuments, Memory and Identity. Cambridge University Press. 350 s. In English
This statement is true only if the same “triumphal route” existed in Ancient Rome. However, until recently, scientists argued that there was no permanent route. So, Peter Wiseman suggested that, despite some "certain points" for each procession, the generals could connect them in any order. Beard points out that much of the attempt to reconstruct the route is based on a passage from the Jewish historian Josephus describing the triumph of Vespasian and Titus in 71 CE. Although, apart from this source, there is no clarity here.
In the description of the monuments, Popkin has a lot of interesting things, but not everything is convincing. For example, the researcher attaches great importance to the words of Josephus that the procession went "through the theaters" in order to give people a better view of it. She even suggests that the Colosseum was built along the triumphal route to give a "theatrical stage" to Domitian's triumphs. A passage from Propertius Popkin interprets as a depiction of how "people in the theaters got up to greet" victors; in fact, this fragment refers to the early deceased successor of the emperor Augustus, Marcellus, who never staged triumphs.
The most obvious "triumphal monuments" are arches, and Popkin tries to use this fact in his argument, however, as Beard rightly states, "some arches may have been erected in the path of the procession, while others are definitely not (and it is not always easy to determine which one falls into which category). As for the arches, which Pliny the Elder calls the very first, it should be remembered that, according to legend, the consul Stercinius erected them after all hopes of triumph had been abandoned. A candidate for the title of "triumphal monument" could be the arch of Septimius Severus at the Capitoline Hill, but there is no evidence that this emperor ever celebrated a triumph. At the same time, Popkin suggests that numerous monuments, in particular on the triumphal route, were erected during his reign in order to form a "false memory" of the emperor's victories.
triumphus) in Rome- solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, the Triumph began to be allowed only under the presence of a number of conditions. The triumph was considered the highest award to a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had empires and waged war as a commander in chief, not subject to the authority of another commander. The triumph could be received by both ordinary magistrates (consuls, praetors, proconsuls and propraetors), as well as dictators and persons who received the highest command by virtue of a special popular decree (lat. imperium extraordinarium). Triumph was determined by the senate, but sometimes, if the senate refused to triumph, the military leader managed to get it by virtue of the decision of the people's assembly, as was the case, for example, with the dictator Marcius Rutilus (the first of the plebeians).Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century BC
A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was at that time a victor. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The victor rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four horses. When Camillus harnessed white horses for the first time during his triumph, this was met with a murmur in the public, but subsequently white horses during the triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.
In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, gave many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the triumph. Golden wreaths were also carried, presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paul, there were about 400, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa, about 3000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the triumph in the eyes of the Roman commanders were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. Some of the captives during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison that lay on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such a beating of prisoners was common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be given from a later era: Jugurtha and Caesar's opponent in Gaul Vercingetorix perished in this way. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fascias entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd.
The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave reminded the triumphant from time to time that he was only a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens released by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. They exclaimed "Jo triumphe" and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).
Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of victors among the statues of victors. The last triumph seems to have been won by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called "ovation".
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triumphal procession
About what was captured in such arches or paintings, says Josephus, describing one of the Roman triumphs: “... Vespasian and Titus appeared in laurel wreaths and the usual purple robe and went to the portico of Octavia. Here the senate, the highest dignitaries and the noblest horsemen were waiting for their arrival ... After the prayer, Vespasian delivered a short speech to the assembly, addressed to everyone and released the soldiers to the feast, usually given to them in such cases by the emperor himself. He himself proceeded to the gate, called triumphal due to the fact that triumphal processions always passed through them ... to open a triumphal procession that moved past the theaters so that the people could more easily see everything. It is impossible to adequately describe the mass of sights that were shown (during the triumph. - V.M.) and the luxury of decorations, in which the imagination was refined or the splendor of everything that fantasy can only imagine, such as: works of art, luxury items and those found in nature rarities ... Everything that day was put on display to give an idea of the greatness of the Roman state ... Many individual images extremely vividly reproduced the war in its main moments. Here it was depicted how the happiest country was devastated, how entire enemy crowds were exterminated, how some of them fled, while others were captured; how gigantic walls fall under the blows of machines; how strong fortresses are conquered, or how they climb to the very top of the fortifications of the most populous cities, how an army penetrates walls and fills everything with blood; pleading gestures of the unarmed, flaming firebrands thrown at the temple, houses collapsing over the heads of their inhabitants, finally, after many sad scenes of destruction, water streams - not those that irrigate the fields for the benefit of people or animals, but streams spilling over the engulfed everywhere area fire. Thus were depicted all the disasters that the war brought upon the Jews. The artistic performance and grandeur of these images represented the events, as it were, with their own eyes and for those who were not their eyewitnesses. On each of these structures, the head of the conquered city was also represented at the moment when he was taken prisoner ... The booty was carried in masses; but those that were taken from the temple attracted special attention, namely: a golden table that weighed many talents, and a golden lampstand ... The last in a series of booty items was the Law of the Jews. Following this, many people carried statues of the goddess of Victory, made of ivory and gold. Then Vespasian rode, followed by Titus, Domitian in a magnificent outfit on the side. 
The Romans would be very surprised if someone told them that such a country would appear in the world where the people would be much more likely and more willing to elect to high posts for some reason those whose path to the top is littered with the shame of betrayal and defeat.
You come to curious conclusions when you take a closer look at the results of Roman rule in Africa or in Spain ... Africa is still of particular interest, since the tribes inhabiting it, ethnically and culturally, were further away from the Italics. Let us turn to the book by T. P. Kaptereva about the countries of the Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco) for help. Almost here, in Egypt, even in Libya and Nubia, on the Mediterranean coast, the influence of Greek and Roman cultures was most noticeable. Recall that in the severe battle between Rome and Carthage, the Libyan kingdoms, like Numidia and Mauretania, played a significant role. The lands of Numidia (eastern Algeria and western Tunisia) covered the possessions of Carthage in a semicircle. Of course, the Numidians, who are known as excellent cavalry, took a direct part in all the wars that captured the region. The king of the Massils, Masinissa, who often appears in the descriptions of historians, united the Numidian tribes, turned them into farmers and introduced them to civilization. Polybius wrote that the king was able, with the help of Rome, to radically change the situation of his country. The land here began to bear fruit, as he skillfully used, as we would say, "new technologies." He actively led urban construction (especially in the capital). With him, trade began to flourish. From the Carthaginians, he adopted some forms of the Punic civilization, the city management system (with the help of suffets). As a result of this competent balanced policy, the country soon changed. The author writes: “The kings of Numidia and Mauretania patronized construction and art, they willingly invited Greek masters to their cities. As in the Punic era, foreign works of art were imported into North Africa. The richest Carthaginian library, a whole body of knowledge, handed over by the Romans to the Numidian kings, could not but play a significant role in the development of the spiritual life of African society. 
LESSON 2. ROMAN CONQUESTS IN THE 2nd CENTURY BC
The further development of Roman aggression and the establishment of Roman domination throughout the Mediterranean are considered. Emphasizes the predatory - on the part of the Romans - the nature of the wars II .v. BC e., as a result of which the once independent flourishing regions were turned into disenfranchised provinces, robbed by the conquerors.
Lesson start options: I. B 1, 3-5; A 1, 3; B 6-7. II. B 1, 3-4; A 2; B 6-7. III. B 1, 3-5, 7; A 3. IV. B 1-7. Questions and tasks:
A. 1. What began first: the second Punic War or the campaign of Alexander's troops in Asia? How much earlier? Draw a “time line” on the board, mark the required dates on it. 2. One student - to draw on the board a plan for the location of the Roman troops at Cannae, the direction of military strikes and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of its legionary participant. For another student to draw the formation of the Carthaginian troops, the direction of their blows and at the same time tell about the battle on behalf of the warrior of Hannibal's army. The teacher guides the answers, giving the word either to the “Roman” or to the “Carthaginian”. 3. What do you see as Hannibal's outstanding military abilities? Students are able to give a detailed justification using the following facts: a) Hannibal's sudden invasion of Italy (crossing the Alps); b) the encirclement and defeat of the numerically superior troops of the Romans at Cannae; c) a plan to win over to its side the peoples of Italy conquered by Rome (Gauls, Greeks, etc.).
B. 1. What were the wars between Rome and Carthage called? Why were they called that? What were their reasons? 2. How did the Romans create a navy and defeat the Carthaginians at sea?
(According to the filmstrip "The Wars of Rome with Carthage".) 3. How did the first Punic War end? 4. Tell us about Hannibal's invasion of Italy. Show on the map the path of his troops. 5. Show on the map the locations of the two major battles of Hannibal. (Cannes, Zams.) What are the results of each battle? 6. Why couldn't Hannibal conquer Italy? 7. How did the second Punic War end?
Study plan ( This plan follows the chronology of events. The textbook deals with the Third Punic War before the Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean (the advantage of the textbook outline is that the destruction of Carthage is thematically linked to the previous lesson). The teacher can choose any plan for studying the material): 1. Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. 3. Robbery of the conquered countries by the Romans.
1. Rome, having crushed Carthage, began to reign supreme in the Western Mediterranean. It is advisable to show students on the wall map the approximate boundaries of both of these regions (Western and Eastern Mediterranean). “What states arose in the Eastern Mediterranean after the campaigns of Alexander the Great?” the teacher asks. Complementing the answers, he recalls that the Syrian kingdom, Egypt, Macedonia and other smaller states were constantly at enmity with each other. The internecine wars of the eastern parishes were beneficial to the Romans, the rule of the Roman Senate was: "divide and rule!" (“How do you understand this expression?” Students are able to point out that the Romans deliberately set neighboring peoples and states against each other and smashed their troops separately.)
More detailed than in the textbook, the story of the fate of Hannibal will help to connect the material of the previous and this lesson.
Soon after the end of the second Punic War, Hannibal was forced to flee to the east, where he became an adviser to the Syrian king Antiochus. Hannibal was old and sick, but he remained true to his oath and was ready to fight the Romans. “Zyai, king,” he said to his master, “the Romans are warlike and cruel; they want to conquer the whole world. Remember how they humiliated my homeland. The Romans took almost all the possessions of Carthage. Forget, king, your old enmity with the kings of other states of the East. Unite! Only by joint efforts will you be able to defeat the Romans. Otherwise, slavery awaits you all.” But the king of Syria did not heed the wise advice of the famous commander.
Students can learn about the defeat of the Syrian kingdom while reading the textbook aloud (§ 46, p. 2). After this, the teacher finishes the story of Hannibal, who fled to Bithynia (Asia Minor). And here he became a military adviser to the king.
Upon learning of this, the Romans demanded the extradition of Hannibal. One day the old commander saw that his house was surrounded by armed men. Not wanting to become a prisoner of the Romans, Hannibal took poison.
The Teacher says that after Syria, the Romans subjugated Macedonia. He can offer compare the formation of the Roman and Macedonian troops in battle and draw a conclusion. (Which army was more perfect? What?) After listening to the answers, the teacher either uses the loud reading technique again (§ 46, p. 3), or tells himself about the battle of Pydna.
The blow of the Macedonian phalanx was so strong that the Roman forward detachments were crushed and began to retreat to the hills, located near the Roman camp itself. The Roman consul, who had turned gray in battle, later often recalled what a terrible impression the attack of the phalanx had made on him. But the very swiftness of the blow destroyed the Macedonians. The ranks of the phalanx broke in some places due to the rapid pursuit of the Romans by them and the unevenness of the ground. The consul took advantage of this and threw the mobile detachments into the gaps that had formed. The Romans began to attack the Macedonians from the flanks and from the rear, upsetting their ranks. The Macedonian king Perseus, confused, fled from the battlefield. The battle lasted less than an hour. 20 thousand Macedonians remained on the battlefield. 11 thousand were captured. Roman casualties were ridiculously low ( See: Kovalev S. I. History of Rome. L., 1948, p. 284-285).
Students will learn about the conquest of Macedonia and Greece by Rome, about the death of the largest trading center in Greece - Corinth (146 BC). Roman merchants insisted on the destruction of the city. The place where Corinth stood was cursed, the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, works of art were taken to Rome.
2. Militarily, Carthage did not pose any danger to Rome, but the Roman merchants were afraid of the rivalry of the more experienced Carthaginian merchants. The Carthaginians were engaged in peaceful labor, they grew grapes and olives and traded in wine and oil in all Mediterranean countries.
One day, the old and influential senator Cato arrived in Carthage at the head of the Roman embassy. With displeasure, he looked at the Carthaginian port: many ships stood at the berths) the merchants flaunted bright clothes. “Fifty years ago,” thought Cato, “when I fought here under Scipio, the Punes trembled with fear. And now they have forgotten everything - they are enjoying life and getting richer. Returning to his homeland, Cato spoke in the Senate. Carthage is booming! he declared indignantly. - Sea trade has enriched the Puns, and meanwhile our merchants are suffering losses. I believe that Carthage must be destroyed." From now on, speaking at every meeting of the Senate, no matter what was discussed there, Cato always ended his speech with the same words: "Still I believe that Carthage must be destroyed". Cato was supported by Roman merchants, who knew that wine and olive oil from the African possessions of Carthage were more readily bought than Italian ones. The Senate openly demanded to sweep Carthage off the face of the earth.
In the story about the siege and assault on Carthage, you can use either the color filmstrip "The Wars of Rome with Carthage" (frames 37-46), or the drawings on pages 191-192. The last drawing gives an idea of the heroism of the inhabitants who defended Carthage for six days, when there was no longer any hope of salvation. The brutalized Roman legionaries stormed house after house, slowly moving along the burning streets towards the city center, killing everyone in their path.
Carthage burned for seventeen days. Suffocating smoke drifted low on the ground. Instead of a beautiful city full of life, a lifeless field with shapeless ruins stretched all the way to the bay. The place where Carthage stood, where artisans worked and merchants traded, was subjected to eternal damnation, so that from now on neither house nor arable land would appear on it. The Senate so ordered See: Nemirovsky A.I. Three wars. L., 1961, p. 131-132).
Summarizing, the teacher notes that as a result of victorious wars, Rome became in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the strongest state in the entire Mediterranean. Egypt and several smaller states still retained their independence, but not one of them dared to fight Rome.
3. The question is revealed in the volume of the textbook (§ 46, paragraphs 4-5); concepts are introduced province and triumph.
It is advisable to use the painting by S. Ankundinov "The Triumph of the Roman Emperor". Before showing it, the teacher says that in Rome, after each major victory, a holiday was held, which was called a triumph: the army, led by the commander, solemnly entered the city.
After hanging the picture, the teacher explains that the front gates in the form of an arch were erected especially for the celebration: all participants in the triumph passed through them. He invites students to build a story based on the picture and helps them do this: “We see three groups of people in the picture: 1) Roman soldiers; 2) captives; 3) citizens meeting the army. Include a description of each group in the story. Usually students successfully complete the task; the teacher corrects errors in the answers, makes additions (see manual, table 19).
| - | When describing a picture, students are able to express the following thoughts: | Additions of the teacher in the process of describing the picture by students |
| ROMAN ARMY | The commander rides on a gilded chariot. It is harnessed by white horses. His clothes are red, and there is a wreath on his head. In one hand of the commander is a rod, in the other a green branch. The trumpeters and the guards of the consul go ahead of the chariot. The commander's chariot is followed by his army | The clothes are dyed purple. The slave holds another wreath over the head of the commander - a golden one. This commander received an honorary nickname - the emperor (in Latin "ruler, commander in chief"). It was given to him by the Senate or directly by the army for success in the war. A distinguished commander was not called emperor for his entire life, but for a certain period - usually during a celebration on the occasion of a victory, the Teacher either invites students to recall what they know about lictors (see manual, p. 273), or talks about them himself |
| CAPTIVES | Prisoners are driven ahead, bound by one chain. They have rags on them. You can see from their looks that they hate the Romans. A woman holds a child in her arms | These are probably the most noble captives, they will be turned into slaves, and possibly executed. The baby is dead, he couldn't take the long way |
| CROWD | The townspeople greet the soldiers, waving branches, holding out flowers. Smiles on their faces | In front of the fires of the altars (on the right) are the priests, they thank the gods for the victory |
At the end of the work with the picture, the task is possible: “Think about what feelings a triumph would cause in you if you were in Rome. What would be your personal attitude towards such festivities?” After listening to the answer, the teacher draws attention to the contrast between the jubilant Roman crowd and the mournful figures of the captives. For some, triumph-joy, for others - humiliation and loss of freedom. The sumptuous spectacle of triumph was nothing more than a display of plundered booty and enslaved people.
The teacher can make a description of the picture himself, without entrusting it to the students. (If the school does not have a named picture, color fig. 17 can be used.)
Homework: § 46. Answer the question to the document “Plutarch's Description of the Triumph” (p. 194). Questions and tasks 1-3 to § 46.