Anthropogenic impacts on the environment. Anthropogenic impacts on biotic communities. special impact on the environment Development of productive forces and anthropogenic impact on the environment

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Introduction

With the advent and development of mankind, the process of evolution has noticeably changed. In the early stages of civilization, cutting down and burning forests for agriculture, grazing, fishing and hunting for wild animals, wars devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, and the extermination of certain animal species. As civilization developed, especially after the industrial revolution of the end of the Middle Ages, mankind seized ever greater power, ever greater ability to involve and use huge masses of matter to satisfy its growing needs - both organic, living, and mineral, bone.

Real shifts in biospheric processes began in the 20th century as a result of another industrial revolution. The rapid development of energy, mechanical engineering, chemistry, and transport has led to the fact that human activity has become comparable in scale with the natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere. The intensity of human consumption of energy and material resources is growing in proportion to the population and even ahead of its growth. The consequences of anthropogenic (man-made) activities are manifested in the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the biosphere with industrial waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth's surface, and climate change. Anthropogenic impacts lead to disruption of almost all natural biogeochemical cycles.

In accordance with population density, the degree of human impact on environment. With the current level of development of productive forces, the activity of human society affects the biosphere as a whole.

Anthropogenic impacts on the environment

The possession of facts is knowledge; their use is wisdom;

their choice is education. Knowledge is not power, but treasures and,

like treasures, they have value when spent (Thomas Jefferson)

1. The concept and main types of anthropogenic impacts

Anthropogenic period, i.e. the period in which man arose is revolutionary in the history of the Earth. Mankind manifests itself as the greatest geological force in terms of the scale of its activities on our planet. And if we recall the short time of human existence in comparison with the life of the planet, then the significance of his activity will appear even clearer.

Anthropogenic impacts are understood as activities related to the implementation of economic, military, recreational, cultural and other human interests, making physical, chemical, biological and other changes in natural environment. By their nature, depth and area of distribution, time of action and nature of application, they can be different: targeted and spontaneous, direct and indirect, long-term and short-term, point and area, etc.

Anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere according to their environmental consequences are divided into: positive and negative (negative). Positive impacts include the reproduction of natural resources, the restoration of groundwater reserves, field-protective afforestation, land reclamation at the site of mineral development.

Negative (negative) impacts on the biosphere include all types of impacts created by man and oppressing nature. Unprecedented in terms of power and diversity, negative anthropogenic impacts began to manifest themselves especially sharply in the second half of the 20th century. Under their influence, the natural biota of ecosystems ceased to serve as a guarantor of the stability of the biosphere, as had been observed previously over billions of years.

The negative (negative) impact is manifested in the most diverse and large-scale actions: the depletion of natural resources, deforestation over large areas, salinization and desertification of lands, reduction in the number and species of animals and plants, etc.

The main global factors of environmental destabilization include:

Growth in consumption of natural resources with their reduction;

The growth of the world's population with a reduction in habitable territories;

Degradation of the main components of the biosphere, a decrease in the ability of nature to self-sustain;

Possible climate change and depletion of the Earth's ozone layer;

Reduction of biological diversity;

Increasing environmental damage from natural disasters and man-made disasters;

Insufficient level of coordination of actions of the world community in the field of solving environmental issues.

Pollution is the main and most widespread type of negative human impact on the biosphere. Most of the most acute environmental situations in the world, one way or another, are associated with environmental pollution.

Anthropogenic impacts can be divided into destructive, stabilizing and constructive.

destructive (destructive) - leads to the loss, often irreplaceable, of the wealth and qualities of the natural environment. This is hunting, deforestation and burning of forests by man - the Sahara instead of the forest.

Stabilizing This is a targeted effect. It is preceded by awareness of the environmental threat to a specific landscape - a field, forest, beach, green alongside cities. Actions are aimed at slowing down the destruction (destruction). For example, the trampling of suburban forest parks, the destruction of undergrowth of flowering plants can be weakened by breaking paths, forming places for a short rest. Soil protection measures are carried out in agricultural zones. On city streets, plants are planted and sown that are resistant to transport and industrial emissions.

constructive(for example, reclamation) - a purposeful action, its result should be the restoration of a disturbed landscape, for example, reforestation or the reconstruction of an artificial landscape in place of an irretrievably lost one. An example is the very difficult but necessary work to restore rare species of animals and plants, to improve the zone of mine workings, landfills, to turn quarries and waste heaps into green areas.

The famous ecologist B. Commoner (1974) identified five, in his opinion, the main types of human intervention in environmental processes:

Simplifying the ecosystem and breaking biological cycles;

The concentration of dissipated energy in the form of thermal pollution;

The growth of toxic waste from chemical industries;

Introduction to the ecosystem of new species;

The appearance of genetic changes in plants and animals.

The vast majority of anthropogenic impacts are purposeful, i.e. carried out by a person consciously in the name of achieving specific goals. There are also anthropogenic influences, spontaneous, involuntary, having a character after the action. For example, this category of impacts includes the processes of flooding of the territory that occur after its development, etc.

Pollution is the main and most widespread type of negative human impact on the biosphere. Pollution is the entry into the environment of any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noise, radiation) in quantities that are harmful to human health, animals, plants and ecosystems.

According to the objects of pollution, pollution of surface groundwater, atmospheric air pollution, soil pollution, etc. are distinguished. In recent years, the problems associated with the pollution of near-Earth space have also become topical. Sources of anthropogenic pollution, the most dangerous for populations of any organisms, are industrial enterprises (chemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper, building materials, etc.), thermal power engineering, agricultural production, and other technologies.

The technical capabilities of man to change the natural environment were rapidly increasing, reaching their highest point in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Now he is able to carry out such projects for the transformation of the natural environment, which until relatively recently he did not even dare to dream of.

2. The general concept of eecological crisis

An ecological crisis is a special type of ecological situation when the habitat of one of the species or population changes in such a way that it calls into question its further survival. The main causes of the crisis:

Biotic: The quality of the environment degrades from the needs of the species after a change in abiotic environmental factors (for example, an increase in temperature or a decrease in rainfall).

Biotic: The environment becomes difficult for a species (or population) to survive due to increased pressure from predators or overpopulation.

The ecological crisis is currently understood as a critical state of the environment caused by the activities of mankind and characterized by a discrepancy between the development of productive forces and production relations in human society with the resource and environmental capabilities of the biosphere.

The concept of the global ecological crisis was formed in the 1960s and 1970s.

The revolutionary changes in biospheric processes that began in the 20th century led to the rapid development of energy, mechanical engineering, chemistry, and transport, to the fact that human activity became comparable in scale with natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere. The intensity of human consumption of energy and material resources is growing in proportion to the population and even ahead of its growth.

The crisis can be global and local.

The formation and development of human society was accompanied by local and regional environmental crises of anthropogenic origin. It can be said that the steps of mankind forward along the path of scientific and technological progress relentlessly, like a shadow, accompanied negative moments, the sharp aggravation of which led to environmental crises.

But earlier there were local and regional crises, since the very impact of man on nature was predominantly local and regional in nature, and has never been as significant as in the modern era. anthropogenic impact ecological crisis

Fighting a global environmental crisis is much more difficult than dealing with a local one. The solution to this problem can only be achieved by minimizing the pollution produced by mankind to a level that ecosystems will be able to cope with on their own.

Currently, the global environmental crisis includes four main components: acid rain, the greenhouse effect, pollution of the planet with superecotoxicants, and the so-called ozone holes.

It is now obvious to everyone that the ecological crisis is a global and universal concept that concerns each of the people inhabiting the Earth.

A consistent solution to pressing environmental problems should lead to a reduction in the negative impact of society on individual ecosystems and nature as a whole, including humans.

3. History of man-made environmental crises

The first great crises - perhaps the most catastrophic ones - were witnessed only by microscopic bacteria, the only inhabitants of the oceans in the first two billion years of our planet's existence. Some microbial biotas died, others - more perfect ones - developed from their remains. About 650 million years ago, a complex of large multicellular organisms, the Ediacaran fauna, first appeared in the ocean. They were strange soft-bodied creatures, unlike any of the modern inhabitants of the sea. 570 million years ago, at the turn of the Proterozoic and Paleozoic eras, this fauna was swept away by another great crisis.

Soon a new fauna was formed - the Cambrian, in which for the first time animals with a solid mineral skeleton began to play the main role. The first reef-building animals appeared - the mysterious archaeocyaths. After a short flowering, the archaeocyates disappeared without a trace. Only in the next, Ordovician period, new reef builders began to appear - the first real corals and bryozoans.

Another great crisis came at the end of the Ordovician; then two more in a row - in the late Devonian. Each time, the most characteristic, massive, dominant representatives of the underwater world, including reef builders, died out.

The largest catastrophe occurred at the end of the Permian period, at the turn of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Relatively little change took place on land then, but almost all living things perished in the ocean.

Throughout the next - early Triassic - era, the seas remained practically lifeless. So far, not a single coral has been found in the Early Triassic deposits, and such important groups of marine life as sea urchins, bryozoans and sea lilies are represented by small single finds.

Only in the middle of the Triassic period did the underwater world begin to gradually recover.

Ecological crises occurred both before the emergence of mankind and during its existence.

Primitive people lived in tribes, collecting fruits, berries, nuts, seeds and other plant foods. With the invention of tools and weapons, they became hunters and began to eat meat. It can be considered that this was the first ecological crisis in the history of the planet, since anthropogenic impact on nature began - human intervention in natural trophic chains. It is sometimes referred to as the consumer crisis. However, the biosphere survived: there were still few people, and the vacated ecological niches were occupied by other species.

The next step of anthropogenic influence was the domestication of some animal species and the separation of pastoral tribes. This was the first historical division of labor, which gave people the opportunity to provide themselves with food in a more stable way, compared to hunting. But at the same time, overcoming this stage of human evolution was also the next ecological crisis, since domesticated animals broke out of trophic chains, they were specially protected so that they would give a greater offspring than in natural conditions.

About 15 thousand years ago, agriculture arose, people switched to a settled way of life, property and the state appeared. Very quickly, people realized that the most convenient way to clear land from forest for plowing was to burn trees and other vegetation. In addition, ash is a good fertilizer. An intensive process of deforestation of the planet began, which continues to this day. It was already a larger ecological crisis - a crisis of producers. The stability of providing people with food has increased, which allowed man to overcome the effect of a number of limiting factors and win in the competition with other species.

Approximately in the III century BC. in ancient rome irrigated agriculture arose, which changed the hydrobalance of natural water sources. It was another ecological crisis. But the biosphere held out again: there were still relatively few people on Earth, and the land surface area and the number of freshwater sources were still quite large.

In the seventeenth century the industrial revolution began, machines and mechanisms appeared that facilitated the physical labor of a person, but this led to a rapidly increasing pollution of the biosphere with production waste. However, the biosphere still had sufficient potential (it is called assimilation potential) to withstand anthropogenic impacts.

But then the 20th century came, the symbol of which was the NTR (scientific and technological revolution); Along with this revolution, the past century brought an unprecedented global environmental crisis.

Ecological crisis of the twentieth century. characterizes the colossal scale of anthropogenic impact on nature, in which the assimilation potential of the biosphere is no longer enough to overcome it. The current environmental problems are not of national, but of planetary significance.

In the second half of the twentieth century. humanity, which until now perceived nature only as a source of resources for its economic activity, gradually began to realize that it could not continue like this and something had to be done to preserve the biosphere.

4. Ways out of the global environmental crisis

An analysis of the ecological and socio-economic situation allows us to identify 5 main directions of exit from the global ecologicalwhom crisis:

Ecology of technologies;

Development and improvement of the economics of the mechanism of environmental protection;

Administrative and legal direction;

Ecological and educational;

International legal;

All components of the biosphere must be protected not separately, but as a whole as a single natural system. According to the Federal Law on "environmental protection" (2002), the main principles of environmental protection are:

Respect for human rights to a favorable environment;

Rational and non-wasteful nature management;

Conservation of biological diversity;

Payment for nature use and compensation for environmental damage;

Mandatory state ecological expertise;

Priority of conservation of natural ecosystems of natural landscapes and complexes;

Observance of the rights of everyone to reliable information about the state of the environment;

The most important environmental principle is a scientifically based combination of economic, environmental and social interests(1992)

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be noted that in the process of the historical development of mankind, its attitude towards nature has changed. As the productive forces developed, there was an ever-increasing attack on nature, its conquest. By its nature, such an attitude can be called practically utilitarian, consumerist. This attitude in modern conditions is manifested to the greatest extent. Therefore, further development and social progress urgently requires the harmonization of relations between society and nature by reducing the consumer and increasing the rational, strengthening the ethical, aesthetic, humanistic attitude towards it. And this is possible due to the fact that, having stood out from nature, a person begins to treat it both ethically and aesthetically, i.e. loves nature, enjoys and admires the beauty and harmony of natural phenomena.

Therefore, the upbringing of a sense of nature is the most important task not only of philosophy, but also of pedagogy, which should be solved already from elementary school, because the priorities acquired in childhood will manifest themselves in the future as norms of behavior and activity. This means that there is more confidence that humanity will be able to achieve harmony with nature.

And one cannot but agree with the words that everything in this world is interconnected, nothing disappears and nothing appears from nowhere.

List of used literature

1. Kiselev V.N. Fundamentals of Ecology, 1998. - 367p.

2. Novikov Yu.V. Ecology, environment and man. M.: Agency "FAIR", 2006, - 320 p.

3. Ecology and life safety. Tutorial edited by D.A. Krivosheina, L.A. Ant. -2000. - 447 p.

4. Remers N.F. Nature management. Dictionary reference. - M.: Thought, 1990. - 637 p.

5. Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V. Ecology. Man - Economy - Biota - Environment: a textbook for university students - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2006

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COURSE WORK

Anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3

1 Air pollution…………………………………………....4

1.1 Natural pollution of the atmosphere…………………………………….…4

1.2 Anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere…………………………………….4

2 The main sources of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere……….…….8

2.1 Air pollution by industrial waste………………………8

2.1.2 Atmospheric air pollution by emissions from ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy………………………………………………………………………………. .9

2.1.3 Atmospheric air pollution by chemical production emissions………………………………………………………………………….…….10

2.2 Air pollution by vehicle emissions……………………...12

3 Consequences of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere……………………...14

3.1 Consequences of local (local) air pollution……………14

3.2 Consequences of global air pollution…………………….….17

4 Protection of atmospheric air………………………………………………..24

4.1 Means of protection of the atmosphere…………………………………………………..24

4.1.1 Measures to combat vehicle emissions………………….28

4.1.2 Methods for cleaning industrial emissions into the atmosphere……………...30

4.2 The main directions of the protection of the atmosphere………………………………..31

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….…34

References………………………………………………………………35

Annex A………………………………………………………………………36

Annex B………………………………………………………………………37

Introduction

The issue of human impact on the atmosphere is in the center of attention of specialists and environmentalists around the world. And this is no coincidence, since the largest global environmental problems of our time - the "greenhouse effect", the violation of the ozone layer, acid rain, are associated precisely with anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere.

Atmospheric air protection is a key problem in the improvement of the natural environment. Atmospheric air occupies a special position among other components of the biosphere. Its significance for all life on Earth cannot be overestimated. A person can go without food for five weeks, without water for five days, and without air for only five minutes. At the same time, the air must have a certain purity and any deviation from the norm is dangerous to health.

Atmospheric air also performs the most complex protective ecological function, protecting the Earth from the absolutely cold Cosmos and the flow of solar radiation. Global meteorological processes take place in the atmosphere, climate and weather are formed, a mass of meteorites is delayed.

The atmosphere has the ability to self-purify. It occurs when aerosols are washed out of the atmosphere by precipitation, turbulent mixing of the surface layer of air, deposition of polluted substances on the surface of the earth, etc. However, under modern conditions, the possibilities of natural systems for self-purification of the atmosphere are seriously undermined. Under the massive onslaught of anthropogenic pollution, very undesirable environmental consequences, including those of a global nature, began to appear in the atmosphere. For this reason, atmospheric air no longer fully fulfills its protective, thermoregulatory and life-supporting ecological functions.

Target term paper- to study the problems of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere and identify factors that affect the state of atmospheric air.

Objectives of the course work:

To study the sources of air pollution;
Reveal the environmental consequences of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere;

3. To characterize the impact of atmospheric pollution on human health;

Consider ways to clean polluted air entering the atmosphere;
Familiarize yourself with the basic means of protecting the atmosphere.

1. Air pollution

1.1 Natural air pollution

Atmospheric air pollution should be understood as any change in its composition and properties that has a negative impact on human and animal health, the condition of plants and ecosystems.

Natural sources of pollution include: volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, space dust, sea salt particles, products of plant, animal and microbiological origin. The level of such pollution is considered as background, which changes little with time.

The main natural process of pollution of the surface atmosphere is the volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth. Major eruptions volcanoes lead to global and long-term pollution of the atmosphere, as evidenced by the chronicles and modern observational data. This is due to the fact that huge amounts of gases are instantly emitted into the high layers of the atmosphere, which are picked up by high-speed air currents at high altitude and quickly spread throughout the globe.
The duration of the polluted state of the atmosphere after large volcanic eruptions reaches several years.

Large forest fires significantly pollute the atmosphere. But most often they appear in dry years. The smoke from the forest spreads over thousands of kilometers. This leads to a significant decrease in the influx of solar radiation to the earth's surface.

Dust storms appear in connection with the transfer of particles of earth raised from the earth's surface by a powerful wind. Powerful winds - tornadoes and hurricanes - also lift large fragments of rocks into the air, but they do not stay in the air for a long time. During powerful dust storms, up to 50 million tons of dust rises into the atmospheric air.

Conventionally, natural air pollution is divided into continental and marine, as well as inorganic and organic. The sources of organic pollution include aeroplankton - bacteria, including pathogens, fungal spores, plant pollen (including poisonous ragweed pollen), etc.

On the share of natural factors at the end of the XX century. accounted for 75% of the total air pollution. The remaining 25% arose as a result of human activities.

1.2 Anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere

Human influence on the atmosphere is becoming deeper and more multifaceted. This has become not only a scientific, but also a state problem.

According to the state of aggregation, emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere are classified into:

1) gaseous (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, etc.);

2) liquid (acids, alkalis, salt solutions, etc.);

3) solid (carcinogenic substances, lead and its compounds, organic and inorganic dust, soot, tarry substances, etc.).

Substances that pollute the atmosphere are also divided into primary and secondary. Primary — These are substances contained directly in the emissions of enterprises and coming with them from various sources. Secondary are transformation products of primary or secondary synthesis. They are often more dangerous than the primary substances.

In recent decades, anthropogenic factors of atmospheric pollution have begun to exceed natural ones in scale, acquiring a global character. They can have various effects on the atmosphere: direct - on the state of the atmosphere (heating, changes in humidity, etc.); impact on physiochemical properties atmosphere (change in composition, increase in the concentration of CO 2, aerosols, freons, etc.); impact on the properties of the underlying surface (albedo value change, "ocean-atmosphere" system, etc.)

Pollutants released into the air in the form of gases or aerosols by enterprises can:

1) settle under the action of gravity (coarse aerosols);

2) be physically captured by settling particles (sediments) and enter the lithosphere and hydrosphere;

3) be included in the biospheric circulation of the relevant substances (carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, etc.);

4) change its state of aggregation (condense, evaporate, crystallize, etc.) or interact chemically with other air components, and then go one of the above ways;

5) stay in the atmosphere for a relatively long time, being carried by circulation flows to different layers of the tropo- and stratosphere and to different geographical regions of the planet until conditions are created for their physical or chemical transformation (for example, freons).

Anthropogenic air pollution is divided into:

1) Radioactive

2) Electromagnetic

3) Noise

4) Aerosol

1) The greatest danger is the radioactive contamination of the atmosphere as a result of human activities. At present, radioactive elements are quite widely used in various fields. Negligent attitude to the storage and transportation of these elements leads to serious radioactive contamination. Radioactive contamination of the atmosphere and the biosphere as a whole is associated, for example, with the testing of atomic weapons.

In the second half of the 20th century, nuclear power plants, icebreakers, and submarines with nuclear power plants began to be put into operation. During the normal operation of nuclear facilities and industry, environmental pollution with radioactive nuclides is an insignificantly small fraction of the natural background. A different situation develops in case of accidents at nuclear facilities.

Thus, during the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, only about 5% of nuclear fuel was released into the environment. But this led to the exposure of many people, large areas were so polluted that they became hazardous to health. This required the relocation of thousands of residents from the infected areas. An increase in radiation as a result of radioactive fallout was noted hundreds and thousands of kilometers from the accident site .

At present, the problem of warehousing and storage of radioactive waste from the military industry and nuclear power plants is becoming more and more acute. Every year they pose an increasing danger to the environment. Thus, the use of nuclear energy posed new serious problems for mankind.

2) Electromagnetic radiation of technogenic origin are sources of physical pollution of the environment. Increasing levels of electromagnetic pollution in recent times talks about electromagnetic smog (similar to chemical smog). Electromagnetic pollution of the environment and chemical pollution have common features: both types assume more or less constant levels, and both smog can have an adverse effect on people, animals and plants.

3) Noises are among the atmospheric pollution harmful to humans. The irritating effect of sound (noise) on a person depends on its intensity, spectral composition and duration of exposure. Noises with continuous spectra are less irritating than noises with a narrow frequency interval. The greatest irritation is caused by noise in the frequency range of 3000-5000 Hz.

4) Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air. The solid components of aerosols in some cases are especially dangerous for organisms, and cause specific diseases in humans. In the atmosphere, aerosol pollution is perceived in the form of smoke, fog, mist or haze. A significant part of aerosols is formed in the atmosphere when solid and liquid particles interact with each other or with water vapor. The average size of aerosol particles is 1-5 microns. About 1 cubic meter enters the Earth's atmosphere every year. km. dust particles of artificial origin. A large number of dust particles are also formed during the production activities of people.

The main sources of artificial aerosol air pollution are thermal power plants (TPPs), which consume high-ash coal, processing plants, metallurgical, cement, magnesite and carbon black plants. Aerosol particles from these sources are distinguished by a wide variety of chemical composition. Most often, compounds of silicon, calcium and carbon are found in their composition, less often - oxides of metals: iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, bismuth, selenium, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, as well as asbestos.

An even greater variety is characteristic of organic dust, including aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, acid salts. It is formed during the combustion of residual petroleum products, during the pyrolysis process at oil refineries, petrochemical and other similar enterprises.

Permanent sources of aerosol pollution are industrial dumps - artificial mounds of redeposited material, mainly overburden, formed during mining or from the waste of processing industries. The source of dust and poisonous gases is mass blasting. So, as a result of one medium-sized explosion (250-300 tons of explosives), about 2 thousand cubic meters are released into the atmosphere. m. of conditional carbon monoxide and more than 150 tons of dust. The production of cement and other building materials is also a source of air pollution with dust.

Atmospheric pollutants include hydrocarbons - saturated and unsaturated, containing from 1 to 13 carbon atoms. They undergo various transformations, oxidation, polymerization, interacting with other atmospheric pollutants after being excited by solar radiation. As a result of these reactions, peroxide compounds, free radicals, compounds of hydrocarbons with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are formed, often in the form of aerosol particles.

Under certain weather conditions, especially large accumulations of harmful gaseous and aerosol impurities can form in the surface air layer. This usually happens when there is an inversion in the air layer directly above the sources of gas and dust emission - the location of a layer of colder air under warm air, which prevents mixing of air masses and delays the transfer of impurities upward. As a result, harmful emissions are concentrated under the inversion layer, their content near the ground increases sharply, which becomes one of the reasons for the formation of a photochemical fog previously unknown in nature.

2 Main sources of anthropogenic pollution

atmosphere

2.1 Air pollution from industrial waste

The main anthropogenic air pollution is created by motor vehicles and a number of industries. According to the features of the structure and the nature of the impact on the atmosphere, pollutants are usually divided into mechanical and chemical.

Anthropogenic sources of pollution are caused by human activities. These should include:

1) Burning fossil fuels, which is accompanied by the release of 5 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year. As a result, over 100 years (1860 - 1960) the content of CO 2 increased by 18% (from 0.027 to 0.032%). Over the past three decades, the rate of these emissions has increased significantly.

2) The operation of thermal power plants, when acid rain is formed during the combustion of high-sulfur coals as a result of the release of sulfur dioxide and fuel oil.

3) Exhausts of modern turbojet aircraft with nitrogen oxides and gaseous fluorocarbons from aerosols, which can damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere (ozonosphere).

4) Production activity.

5) Pollution with suspended particles (when crushing, packing and loading, from boiler houses, power plants, mine shafts, quarries when burning garbage).

6) Emissions by enterprises of various gases.

7) Combustion of fuel in flare furnaces, resulting in the formation of the most massive pollutant - carbon monoxide.

8) Fuel combustion in boilers and vehicle engines, accompanied by the formation of nitrogen oxides, which cause smog.

9) Ventilation emissions (mine shafts).

10) Ventilation emissions with an excessive concentration of ozone from rooms with high energy installations (accelerators, ultraviolet sources and nuclear reactors) at a maximum allowable concentration (MPC) in working rooms of 0.1 mg/m 3 . In large quantities, ozone is a highly toxic gas.

Each industry has a characteristic composition and mass of substances entering the atmosphere. This is determined primarily by the composition of the substances used in technological processes, and the ecological perfection of the latter. At present, the environmental indicators of thermal power engineering, metallurgy, petrochemical production and a number of other industries have been studied in sufficient detail. Less studied are the indicators of mechanical engineering and instrumentation, their distinctive features are: a wide network of production facilities, proximity to residential areas, a significant range of emitted substances, which may contain substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard class, such as mercury vapor, lead compounds, etc. (Appendix A)

According to scientists, every year in the world as a result of human activities a large amount of harmful substances enter the atmosphere. (Table 1)

Table 1. Release into the atmosphere of the main pollutants (pollutants) in the world and in Russia.

2.1.1 Air pollution from thermal and nuclear power plants

In the process of burning solid or liquid fuels, smoke is released into the atmosphere, containing products of complete (carbon dioxide and water vapor) and incomplete (oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, hydrocarbons, etc.) combustion. The volume of energy emissions is very high. Thus, a modern thermal power plant with a capacity of 2.4 million kW consumes up to 20 thousand tons of coal per day and emits 680 tons of SO 2 and SO 3 into the atmosphere per day, 120-140 tons of solid particles (ash, dust, soot), 200 tons of nitrogen oxides.

The conversion of installations to liquid fuel (fuel oil) reduces ash emissions, but practically does not reduce emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides. The most environmentally friendly gas fuel that pollutes the atmosphere three times less than fuel oil, and five times less than coal.

Sources of air pollution with toxic substances on nuclear power plants(NPP) - radioactive iodine, radioactive inert gases and aerosols. A large source of energy pollution of the atmosphere - the heating system of dwellings (boiler plants) produces little nitrogen oxides, but many products of incomplete combustion. Due to the low height of the chimneys, toxic substances in high concentrations are dispersed near the boiler plants.

2.1.2 Air pollution from ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy

When smelting one ton of steel, 0.04 tons of solid particles, 0.03 tons of sulfur oxides and up to 0.05 tons of carbon monoxide are emitted into the atmosphere, as well as in small quantities such dangerous pollutants as manganese, lead, phosphorus, arsenic, vapors mercury, etc. In the process of steelmaking, vapor-gas mixtures consisting of phenol, formaldehyde, benzene, ammonia and other toxic substances are emitted into the atmosphere.

Significant emissions of exhaust gases and dust containing toxic substances are observed at non-ferrous metallurgy plants during the processing of lead-zinc, copper, sulfide ores, in the production of aluminum, etc.

The iron and steel industry emits various gases into the air. Dust emission per 1 ton of pig iron is 4.5 kg, sulfur dioxide - 2.7 kg and manganese - 0.5 - 0.1 kg. Emissions from the blast-furnace process contain compounds of arsenic, phosphorus, antimony, lead, rare metals, mercury vapor, hydrogen cyanide and tarry substances. Sinter plants are a significant source of air pollution. During agglomeration, sulfur is burnt out from pyrites. Sulfide ores contain up to 10% sulfur, and after agglomeration, it remains less than 0.2 - 0.8%. The release of sulfur dioxide during agglomeration is 190 kg per 1 ton of ore.

Open-hearth and converter steelmaking processes emit when oxygen is supplied to the molten metal 25 - 52 g / m of dust per 1 ton of steel, up to 60 kg of carbon monoxide and up to 3 kg of sulfur dioxide. When coking 1 ton of coal, 300 - 320 m3 of coke oven gas is formed, which includes: hydrogen 50 - 62% (by volume); methane 20 - 34; carbon monoxide 4.5 - 4.7; carbon dioxide 1.8 - 4.0; nitrogen 5 - 10; hydrocarbons 2.0 - 2.6 and oxygen 0.2 - 0.5%. Most of these emissions are captured during production, but 6% enters the atmosphere. Sometimes, due to technological disruption of the operation mode of coke oven batteries, significant volumes of untreated gas are released into the atmosphere.

Non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and dusts of oxides of various metals into the atmosphere. During the production of metallic aluminum by electrolysis, with exhaust gases from electrolysis baths, a significant amount of gaseous and dust-like fluorine compounds is released into the atmospheric air. In particular, when producing 1 ton of aluminum, depending on the type and power of the electrolytic cell, from 33 to 47 kg of fluorine is consumed, while about 65% of it enters the atmosphere. .

2.1.3 Atmospheric air pollution by chemical production emissions

Emissions from this industry, although small in volume (about 2% of all industrial emissions), nevertheless, due to their very high toxicity, significant diversity and concentration, pose a significant threat to humans and the entire biota. In various chemical industries, atmospheric air is polluted by sulfur oxides, fluorine compounds, ammonia, nitrous gases (a mixture of nitrogen oxides, chloride compounds, hydrogen sulfide, inorganic dust, etc.).

1) Carbon monoxide. It is obtained by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous substances. It enters the air as a result of burning solid waste, with exhaust gases and emissions from industrial enterprises. At least 250 million tons of this gas enters the atmosphere every year. Carbon monoxide is a compound that actively reacts with the constituent parts of the atmosphere and contributes to an increase in the temperature on the planet and the creation of a greenhouse effect.

2) Sulfuric anhydride. It is formed during the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. The end product of the reaction is an aerosol or solution of sulfuric acid in rainwater, which acidifies the soil and exacerbates human respiratory diseases. The precipitation of sulfuric acid aerosol from smoke flares of chemical enterprises is observed at low cloudiness and high air humidity. Pyrometallurgical enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as thermal power plants annually emit tens of millions of tons of sulfuric anhydride into the atmosphere.

3) Hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide. They enter the atmosphere separately or together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises for the manufacture of artificial fiber, sugar, coke, oil refineries, and oil fields. In the atmosphere, when interacting with other pollutants, they undergo slow oxidation to sulfuric anhydride.

4) Nitrogen oxides. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing; nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, celluloid. The amount of nitrogen oxides entering the atmosphere is 20 million tons per year.

5) Fluorine compounds. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing aluminum, enamels, glass, and ceramics. steel, phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds - hydrogen fluoride or dust of sodium and calcium fluoride.
The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect. Fluorine derivatives are strong insecticides.

6) Chlorine compounds. They enter the atmosphere from chemical enterprises producing hydrochloric acid, chlorine-containing pesticides, organic dyes, hydrolytic alcohol, bleach, soda. In the atmosphere, they are found as an admixture of chlorine molecules and hydrochloric acid vapors. The toxicity of chlorine is determined by the type of compounds and their concentration.

2.2 Air pollution from vehicle emissions

With full right we can consider the XX century. century of development of all types of transport. With exhaust gases, about 200 harmful impurities enter the air. When burning 1 liter of gasoline, 10 - 12 thousand liters of air are consumed, and with a run of 15 thousand km per year, each car burns 2 tons of fuel and about 26 - 30 tons of air, including 4.5 tons of oxygen, which is 50 times more human needs. At the same time, the car emits into the atmosphere (kg / year): carbon monoxide - 700, nitrogen dioxide - 40, unburned hydrocarbons - 230 and solids - 2 - 5. In addition, many lead compounds are emitted due to the use of mostly leaded gasoline .

Toxic emissions from internal combustion engines (ICE) are exhaust and crankcase gases, fuel vapors from the carburetor and fuel tank. The main share of toxic impurities enters the atmosphere with the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines. With crankcase gases and fuel vapors, approximately 45% of hydrocarbons from their total emission enter the atmosphere.

The amount of harmful substances entering the atmosphere as part of the exhaust gases depends on the general technical condition of the vehicles and, especially, on the engine - the source of the greatest pollution. So, if the carburetor adjustment is violated, carbon monoxide emissions increase by 4-5 times. The use of leaded gasoline, which has lead compounds in its composition, causes air pollution with very toxic lead compounds. About 70% of the lead added to gasoline with ethyl liquid enters the atmosphere with exhaust gases in the form of compounds, of which 30% settles on the ground immediately behind the cut of the car's exhaust pipe, 40% remains in the atmosphere. One medium-duty truck emits 2.5-3 kg of lead per year. The concentration of lead in the air depends on the lead content in gasoline.

Exhaust gases of gas turbine propulsion systems (GTPU) contain such toxic components as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, soot, aldehydes, etc. The content of toxic components in combustion products significantly depends on the engine operating mode. High concentrations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are typical for gas turbine engines at reduced modes (during idling, taxiing, approaching the airport, landing approach), while the content of nitrogen oxides increases significantly when operating at modes close to nominal (takeoff, climb, flight mode).

The total emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere by aircraft with gas turbine engines is constantly growing, which is due to an increase in fuel consumption up to 20 - 30 t / h and a steady increase in the number of aircraft in operation. The influence of GTDU on the ozone layer and the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is noted.

Gas turbine emissions have the greatest impact on living conditions at airports and areas adjacent to test stations. Comparative data on emissions of harmful substances at airports suggest that the revenues from gas turbine engines into the surface layer of the atmosphere are, in%: carbon monoxide - 55, nitrogen oxides - 77, hydrocarbons - 93 and aerosol - 97. The rest of the emissions emit ground vehicles with internal combustion engines.

Air pollution by vehicles with rocket propulsion systems occurs mainly during their operation before launch, during takeoff, during ground tests during their production or after repair, during storage and transportation of fuel. The composition of combustion products during the operation of such engines is determined by the composition of the fuel components, the combustion temperature, and the processes of dissociation and recombination of molecules. The amount of combustion products depends on the power (thrust) of propulsion systems. During the combustion of solid fuels, water vapor, carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrochloric acid vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and Al2O3 solid particles with an average size of 0.1 microns (sometimes up to 10 microns) are emitted from the combustion chamber.

When launched, rocket engines adversely affect not only the surface layer of the atmosphere, but also outer space, destroying the Earth's ozone layer. The scale of the destruction of the ozone layer is determined by the number of launches of rocket systems and the intensity of flights of supersonic aircraft.

In connection with the development of aviation and rocket technology, as well as the intensive use of aircraft and rocket engines in other sectors of the national economy, the total emission of harmful impurities into the atmosphere has increased significantly. However, these engines still account for no more than 5% of toxic substances entering the atmosphere from vehicles of all types.

3 Consequences of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere

3.1 Consequences of local (local) air pollution

Air pollution, which poses a more obvious and immediate threat to human health, is associated with the release of toxins into the atmosphere, which are produced in certain industrial processes. All air pollutants, to a greater or lesser extent, have a negative impact on human health. These substances enter the human body mainly through the respiratory system. Respiratory organs suffer directly from pollution, since about 50% of impurity particles with a radius of 0.01-0.1 microns that penetrate into the lungs are deposited in them.

Particles that enter the body cause a toxic effect because they:

1) toxic (poisonous) in their chemical or physical nature;

2) interfere with one or more of the mechanisms by which the respiratory (respiratory) tract is normally cleared;

3) serve as a carrier of a poisonous substance absorbed by the body. In some cases, exposure to one of the pollutants in combination with others leads to more serious health problems than exposure to either of them alone. The duration of exposure plays an important role.

A relationship has been established between the level of air pollution and diseases such as upper respiratory tract damage, heart failure, bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, and eye diseases. A sharp increase in the concentration of impurities, which persists for several days, increases the mortality of the elderly from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

The fact is that the concentration of carbon dioxide exceeding the maximum allowable leads to physiological changes in the human body, and the concentration is more than 750 ml. to death. This is explained by the fact that it is an extremely aggressive gas that easily combines with hemoglobin (red blood cells). When combined, carboxyhemoglobin is formed, an increase (in excess of the norm, equal to 0.4%), the content of which in the blood is accompanied by:

1) deterioration in visual acuity and the ability to assess the duration of time intervals;

2) violation of some psychomotor functions of the brain (with a content of 2-5%);

3) changes in the activity of the heart and lungs (with a content of more than 5%);

4) headaches, drowsiness, spasms, respiratory disorders and mortality (with a content of 10-80%).

The degree of impact of carbon monoxide on the body depends not only on its concentration, but also on the time spent (exposure) of a person in polluted air.

Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric anhydride Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and sulfuric anhydride (SO 3) in combination with suspended particles and moisture have the most harmful effects on humans, living organisms and material values. These oxidizing agents are the main components of photochemical smog, the frequency of which is high in heavily polluted cities located in low latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres (Los Angeles, where smog is observed for about 200 days a year, Chicago, New York and other US cities; a number cities in Japan, Turkey, France, Spain, Italy, Africa and South America). (Appendix B)

Let's name some other air pollutants that have a harmful effect on humans. It has been established that people who professionally deal with asbestos have an increased likelihood of cancer of the bronchi and diaphragms that separate the chest and abdominal cavity.

Beryllium has a harmful effect (up to the oncological diseases) on the respiratory tract, as well as on the skin and eyes.

Mercury vapor causes disruption of the central upper system and kidneys. Because mercury can accumulate in the human body, exposure to mercury eventually leads to mental impairment.

In cities, due to ever-increasing air pollution, the number of patients suffering from diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, various allergic diseases and lung cancer is steadily increasing. In the UK, 10% of deaths are due to chronic bronchitis; population aged 40-59 suffers from this disease.

Some chemical elements radioactive: their spontaneous decay and transformation into elements with other serial numbers is accompanied by radiation. The greatest danger is posed by radioactive substances with a half-life of several weeks to several years: this time is sufficient for the penetration of such substances into the body of plants and animals. Spreading along the food chain (from plants to animals), radioactive substances with food enter the human body and can accumulate in such quantities that can harm human health.

Anthropogenic emissions of pollutants in high concentrations and for a long time cause great harm not only to humans, but also negatively affect animals, the state of plants and ecosystems as a whole.

Ecological literature describes cases of mass poisoning of wild animals, birds, and insects due to emissions of harmful pollutants of high concentration (especially salvos). Thus, for example, it has been established that when certain toxic types of dust settle on melliferous plants, a noticeable increase in the mortality of bees is observed. As for large animals, the poisonous dust in the atmosphere affects them mainly through the respiratory organs, as well as entering the body along with the dusty plants eaten.

Toxic substances enter plants in various ways. It has been established that emissions of harmful substances act both directly on the green parts of plants, getting through the stomata into tissues, destroying chlorophyll and cell structure, and through the soil to the root system. So, for example, soil contamination with dust of toxic metals, especially in combination with sulfuric acid, has a detrimental effect on the root system, and through it on the whole plant.

Gaseous pollutants affect vegetation in different ways. Some only slightly damage leaves, needles, shoots (carbon monoxide, ethylene, etc.). Others have a detrimental effect on plants (sulfur dioxide, chlorine, mercury vapor, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, etc.). Sulfur dioxide (SO) is especially dangerous for plants, under the influence of which many trees die, and first of all conifers - pines, spruces, fir, cedar.

As a result of the impact of highly toxic pollutants on plants, there is a slowdown in their growth, the formation of necrosis at the ends of leaves and needles, failure of assimilation organs, etc. An increase in the surface of damaged leaves can lead to a decrease in moisture consumption from the soil, its general waterlogging, which will inevitably affect on its habitat. (Table 2)

Harmful substances	Characteristic
sulphur dioxide	The main pollutant, a poison for the assimilation organs of plants, acts at a distance of up to 30 km
Hydrogen fluoride and silicon tetrafluoride	Toxic even in small quantities, prone to aerosol formation, effective at a distance of up to 5 km
Chlorine, hydrogen chloride	Damage mostly at close range
Lead compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen	Infect vegetation in areas of high concentration of industry and transport
hydrogen sulfide	Cellular and enzyme poison
	Damages plants at close range

Table 2. Plant toxicity of air pollutants

Can vegetation recover after exposure to harmful pollutants is reduced? This will largely depend on the restoring capacity of the remaining green mass and the general condition of natural ecosystems. At the same time, it should be noted that low concentrations of individual pollutants not only do not harm plants, but, like cadmium salt, for example, stimulate seed germination, wood growth, and the growth of some plant organs.

In improving the air environment of cities and towns great importance have architectural and planning measures. The planning structure should help improve the microclimate and protect the air basin. It is necessary to take into account the main sources of environmental pollution - industrial facilities and installations, roads, airports and airfields, railways, television centers, repeaters, radio stations, power plants, uncomfortable natural and climatic conditions, organization of waste treatment and disposal, etc. Depending on the harmfulness of substances emitted into the atmosphere and the degree of their purification during the technological process, industrial enterprises are divided into five classes. For enterprises of the first class, a sanitary protection zone is established with a width of 1000 m, the second - 500, the third - 300, the fourth - 100 and the fifth - 50 m. Fire stations, baths, laundries, garages, warehouses, administrative buildings, commercial premises, etc., but not residential buildings. The territory of these zones must be landscaped. The role of green spaces and forest parks in cities is multifaceted. Green spaces are a biofilter, they filter out harmful impurities, radioactive particles, and absorb noise.

In general, the protection of atmospheric air from pollution should be carried out not only on a regional or local scale, but primarily on a global scale, since air knows no boundaries and is in perpetual motion.

3.2 Consequences of global air pollution

The most important environmental consequences of global air pollution include:

1) possible climate warming (“greenhouse effect”);

2) violation of the ozone layer;

3) acid rain.

4) smog formation

Most scientists in the world consider them as the biggest environmental problems of our time.

1) Systematic observations of the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere show its growth. It is known that carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, like glass in a greenhouse, transmits the radiant energy of the Sun to the surface of the Earth, it delays the infrared (thermal) radiation of the Earth and thereby creates the so-called greenhouse (greenhouse) effect.

Global climate change is closely related to atmospheric pollution from industrial waste and exhaust gases. The influence of human civilization on the Earth's climate is a reality, the consequences of which are already being felt. Scientists believe that the heat wave in 1988 and the drought in the United States - to some extent a consequence of the so-called effect - global warming of the earth's atmosphere as a result of an increase in the content of carbon dioxide in it due to deforestation that absorbs it, and the burning of such fuel , like coal and gasoline, which releases this gas into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and other pollutants act like film or glass in greenhouses: they let the sun's heat through to the Earth and keep it here. In general, the temperature on the ground in the first 5 months of 1988 was higher than in any similar period during the 130 years of measurements. It can be argued that the cause of the change in temperature was the long-awaited global warming associated with environmental pollution. The warming trend is not a natural phenomenon, but a consequence of the greenhouse effect.

As you know, the main greenhouse gas is water vapor. It is followed by carbon dioxide, providing in the 80s. 49% additional increase in the greenhouse effect compared to the beginning of the last century, methane (18%), freons (14%), nitrous oxide NO (6%). Other gases account for 13%.

Scientists attribute climate change to changes in the content of "greenhouse" gases in the atmosphere. It is known how the chemical composition of the atmosphere has changed over 160,000 years. This information was obtained on the basis of an analysis of the composition of air bubbles in glacial cores extracted from a depth of up to 2 km at the Vostok station in Antarctica and Greenland. It was found that during warm periods the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane were approximately 1.5 times higher than during cold glacial ones. These results confirm the assumption made in 1861 by J. Tyndall that the history of Earth's climate change can be explained by changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

In a calm state, a person passes through the lungs 10 - 11 thousand dm 3 of air per day, while when physical activity and an increase in air temperature, the need for oxygen can increase by 3-6 times. Accordingly, the world's population emits more than 6 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO 2) per year. Including pets, this figure would at least double. Thus, the purely biological contribution to the increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere turns out to be commensurate with the industrial emission of carbon dioxide.

Along with an increase in fossil fuel consumption, an increase in CO 2 content in the atmosphere may be associated with a decrease in the mass of terrestrial vegetation. The deforestation of highly productive forests in the countries of South America and Africa is especially affected. The rate of destruction of forests - the lungs of the planet - is increasing, and by the end of the century, at current rates, the area of \u200b\u200bforests will decrease by 20 - 25%.

It is predicted that an increase in the content of CO 2 in the atmosphere by 60% of the current level can cause an increase in the temperature of the earth's surface by 1.2 - 2.0 C. The existence of a feedback between the amount of snow cover, albedo and surface temperature should lead to the fact that temperature changes can be even greater and cause a fundamental change in the climate on the planet with unpredictable consequences.

If the current level of fossil fuel consumption continues until 2050, then the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere will double. In the absence of other factors, this will lead to an increase in the temperature of the Earth's surface by 3 o C.

Unfortunately, the content of not only CO 2 in the atmosphere, but also other "greenhouse" gases, in particular nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, oxygen, as well as methane, freons and other organic substances, is growing. If the rate of increase in the concentration of "greenhouse" gases remains at the same level, then by 2020 atmospheric pollution will correspond to an equivalent doubling of CO 2 content.

Doubling the concentration of methane will lead to an increase in the temperature of the earth's surface by 0.2 - 0.3 o C.

An increase in the concentration of freons in the troposphere by a factor of 20 will lead to an increase in surface temperature by 0.4 - 0.5 o C. An increase in temperature by 1 o C will occur with a simultaneous doubling of the content of methane, ammonia, and nitrogen oxide.

At the same time, climatologists consider a significant change in the average temperature even by 0.1 o C, and an increase in temperature by 3.5 o C is critical.

Global warming will lead to a noticeable shift to higher latitudes of the main geographic areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The tundra zone, in particular, will gradually disappear as one moves into the higher latitudes of the forests. There is no doubt that warming will have a significant impact on continental and sea ice.

The area of glaciers on the territory of the Russian Federation will decrease and many of them will disappear relatively quickly. The area of the permafrost zone will noticeably decrease. The ice sheet of the Arctic Ocean in the next century will either be completely destroyed, or it will be replaced by relatively thin ice that will form in winter and melt in summer.

Although the features of the expected change in natural conditions on the territory of our country listed here are relatively favorable for the national economy, due to rapid climate change they can lead to significant difficulties, especially if the changes are not taken into account in long-term planning of economic activity.

The greenhouse effect will disrupt the planet's climate by changing critical variables such as precipitation, wind, cloud cover, ocean currents and the size of the polar ice caps. Although the implications for individual countries far from clear, scientists are confident in the general trends. The interior of the continents will become drier and the coasts wetter. The cold seasons will become shorter and the warm seasons longer. Increased evaporation will cause the soil to become drier over large areas.

One of the most widely discussed and feared effects of the greenhouse effect is the projected rise in sea levels as a result of rising temperatures. Most scientists believe that this rise will be relatively gradual, creating problems mainly in countries with large populations living at or below sea level, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh. In terms of geographic areas, the greenhouse effect may have the greatest impact at the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Snow and ice reflect sunlight into outer space without allowing the temperature to rise. But with global warming, floating Arctic ice will begin to melt, leaving less snow and ice to reflect.

2) The total amount of ozone in the atmosphere is not large, however, ozone is one of its most important components. Thanks to him, the deadly ultraviolet solar radiation in the layer between 15 and 40 km above the earth's surface is weakened by about 6500 times.

Ozone is formed mainly in the stratosphere under the influence of the short-wave part of the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Depending on the time of year and distance from the equator, the ozone content in the upper atmosphere varies, however, significant deviations from the average ozone concentration values were first noted only in the early 1980s. Then, over the south pole of the planet, the ozone hole sharply increased - an area with a low ozone content.

In the autumn of 1985, its content decreased by 40% relative to the average. A decrease in the ozone content was also observed at other latitudes. A decrease in the "thickness" of the ozone layer leads to a change (increase) in the amount of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun reaching the Earth's surface, a violation of the thermal balance of the planet. A change in the intensity of solar radiation significantly affects biological processes, which, in the end, can lead to critical situations. An increase in the number of skin cancers in humans and animals is associated with an increase in the proportion of the ultraviolet component in radiation reaching the surface of the planet.

In humans, these are three types of fast-moving cancers: melanoma and two carcinomas. It has been established that an increase in the dose of ultraviolet radiation by 1% leads to an increase in cancer by 2%. However, in residents of high mountain regions, where the radiation intensity is several times higher than at sea level, blood cancer is less common than in residents of lowlands. This contradiction is so far explained by the fact that not so much the level of exposure has increased as the way of life of people has changed according to modern data, the ozone hole has almost always existed, either appearing from time to time, or disappearing in accordance with seasonal changes in the state of the atmosphere.

In the early 1980s, it was found that there were serious changes in the dynamics of this phenomenon - the "hole" ceased to recover to its original state. Thus, natural fluctuations in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere have become more complicated due to the anthropogenic impact of people, who began to spend much more time in the sun. At the same time, hard ultraviolet radiation is classified as ionizing radiation, and, therefore, is a mutagenic factor in the environment. According to calculations, one chlorine molecule can destroy up to 1 million ozone molecules in the stratosphere, and one nitric oxide molecule can destroy up to 10 ozone molecules.

According to one of the theories, the phenomenon of the Antarctic “ozone hole” is explained by the impact of chlorofluorocarbons (freons) of anthropogenic origin. Thus, the measurements showed an almost twofold excess of the background concentrations of chlorine-containing particles in the zone of the Antarctic "hole" and the presence in the spring months in the stratosphere over Antarctica of regions almost without ozone.

3) Acid precipitation is sulfuric and nitric acids formed when sulfur and nitrogen dioxide dissolve in water and fall to the surface of the earth along with rain, fog, snow or dust.

Acid rain is a consequence of a violation of the circulation of substances between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Acidity is measured by the hydrogen index (pH), which is expressed as the tenth logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions. Cloud and rain water under normal conditions should have a pH = 5.6 - 5.7. It depends on the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide in it with the formation of weak carbonic acid. But for decades now, over North America and Europe, rains have been falling with acid content tens, hundreds, thousands of times greater. In terms of acid content, modern rains correspond to dry wine, and often to table vinegar. The acid in rain is caused by the dissolution of sulfur and nitrogen oxides and the formation of the corresponding acids.

Sulfur dioxide is formed and released into the atmosphere during the combustion of coal, oil, fuel oil, as well as during the extraction of non-ferrous metals from sulfur ores. And nitrogen oxides are formed when nitrogen combines with atmospheric oxygen at high temperatures, mainly in internal combustion engines and boiler plants. Getting energy - the basis of civilization and progress, alas, is accompanied by acidification of the environment. The matter is further complicated by the fact that the pipes of thermal power plants began to grow in height. Their height reached 250 - 300 and even 400 m.

The amount of emissions into the atmosphere has not decreased, but they are now dispersed over vast territories, travel long distances, and are transferred across state borders. In the Scandinavian countries, only 20 - 25% of all acid rain is of their own origin, and they receive the rest from distant and near neighbors. Due to more frequent westerly winds across the western borders, Russia receives 8-10 times more sulfur and nitrogen compounds than is transported from us in the opposite direction. The acidification of rains, and then of soils and natural waters, at first proceeded as a hidden, imperceptible process. Clean, but already acidified lakes retained their deceptive beauty.

The forest looked the same as before, but irreversible changes had already begun. Acid rain most often affects fir, spruce, pine, because the change of needles occurs less frequently than the change of leaves and it accumulates more harmful substances over the same period of time.

Acid destroys structures made of marble and limestone. This fate threatens the Taj Mahal - a masterpiece of Indian architecture of the period of the Great Mongols, in London - the Tower and Westminster Abbey. The antique equestrian statue of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, which for more than four centuries adorned the famous square on the Capitoline Hill, designed by Michelangelo, "moved" to the restoration workshops in 1981. The fact is that this statue is the work of an unknown master, whose age is 1800 years , "severely ill." High levels of air pollution, car exhaust, as well as the scorching sun and rain caused great damage to the bronze statue of the emperor.

To reduce material damage, metals sensitive to automotive emissions are replaced with aluminum; special gas-resistant solutions and paints are applied to the structures. Many scientists see the development of motor transport and the increasing air pollution of large cities with automobile gases as the main reason for the increase in lung disease.

4) Photochemical fog is a multicomponent mixture of gases and aerosol particles of primary and secondary origin.

The composition of the main components of smog includes ozone, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, numerous organic peroxide compounds, collectively called photooxidants.

Photochemical smog occurs as a result of photochemical reactions under certain conditions: the presence in the atmosphere of a high concentration of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other pollutants; intense solar radiation and calm or very weak air exchange in the surface layer with a powerful and increased inversion for at least a day.

Sustained calm weather, usually accompanied by inversions, is necessary to create a high concentration of reactants. Such conditions are created more often in June-September and less often in winter. In prolonged clear weather, solar radiation causes the breakdown of nitrogen dioxide molecules with the formation of nitric oxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen with molecular oxygen give ozone. It would seem that the latter, oxidizing nitric oxide, should again turn into molecular oxygen, and nitric oxide into dioxide. But that doesn't happen. The nitric oxide reacts with the olefins in the exhaust gases, which break down the double bond to form molecular fragments and excess ozone. As a result of the ongoing dissociation, new masses of nitrogen dioxide are split and give additional amounts of ozone. A cyclic reaction occurs, as a result of which ozone gradually accumulates in the atmosphere. This process stops at night. In turn, ozone reacts with olefins. Various peroxides are concentrated in the atmosphere, which in total form oxidants characteristic of photochemical fog. The latter are the source of the so-called free radicals, which are characterized by a special reactivity. Such smog is not uncommon over London, Paris, Los Angeles, New York and other cities in Europe and America. According to their physiological effects on the human body, they are extremely dangerous for the respiratory and circulatory systems and often cause premature death of urban residents with poor health.

4 Air protection

4.1 Atmospheric protection

At the XIX special session of the UN General Assembly in June 1997, one of the main directions of environmental activities of national governments was adopted within the framework of the program. This direction is to maintain the cleanliness of the atmospheric air of the planet. To protect the atmosphere, administrative and technical measures are needed to reduce the increasing pollution of the atmosphere. Atmospheric protection cannot be successful with one-sided and half-hearted measures directed against specific sources of pollution. It is necessary to determine the causes of pollution, analyze the contribution of individual sources to the total pollution and identify opportunities to limit these emissions.

So, in order to protect the environment in December 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, aimed at regulating emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. In the Russian Federation, the law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” is aimed at preserving and improving the quality of atmospheric air. This law should regulate relations in the field of atmospheric air protection in order to improve the condition of atmospheric air and provide a favorable environment for human habitation, prevent chemical and other impacts on atmospheric air and ensure the rational use of air in industry.

Control of air pollution in Russia is carried out in almost 350 cities. The monitoring system includes 1200 stations and covers almost all cities with a population of more than 100 thousand inhabitants and cities with large industrial enterprises.

Means of protection of the atmosphere should limit the presence of harmful substances in the air of the human environment at a level not exceeding the MPC.

Compliance with this requirement is achieved by localization of harmful substances at the place of their formation, removal from the room or equipment and dispersion in the atmosphere. If at the same time the concentration of harmful substances in the atmosphere exceeds the MPC, then the emissions are cleaned from harmful substances in the cleaning devices installed in the exhaust system. The most common are ventilation, technological and transport exhaust systems.

In practice, the following options for protecting atmospheric air are implemented:

Removal of toxic substances from the premises by general ventilation;

Localization of toxic substances in the zone of their formation by local ventilation, purification of polluted air in special devices and its return to the production or household premises, if the air after cleaning in the device meets the regulatory requirements for supply air;

Localization of toxic substances in the zone of their formation by local ventilation, purification of polluted air in special devices, emission and dispersion in the atmosphere;

Purification of technological gas emissions in special devices, emission and dispersion in the atmosphere; in some cases, exhaust gases are diluted with atmospheric air before being released;

Purification of exhaust gases from power plants, for example, internal combustion engines in special units, and release into the atmosphere or production area (mines, quarries, storage facilities, etc.)

To comply with the MPC of harmful substances in the atmospheric air of populated areas, the maximum allowable emission (MAE) of harmful substances from exhaust ventilation systems, various technological and power plants is established.

Devices for cleaning ventilation and technological emissions into the atmosphere are divided into: dust collectors (dry, electric, wet, filters); mist eliminators (low and high speed); devices for capturing vapors and gases (absorption, chemisorption, adsorption and neutralizers); multi-stage cleaning devices (dust and gas traps, mists and solid impurities traps, multi-stage dust traps). Their work is characterized by a number of parameters. The main ones are cleaning activity, hydraulic resistance and power consumption.

Dry dust collectors - cyclones of various types have been widely used for cleaning gases from particles.

Electric cleaning (electrostatic precipitators) is one of the most advanced types of gas cleaning from dust and fog particles suspended in them. This process is based on the impact ionization of gas in the zone of the corona discharge, the transfer of the ion charge to impurity particles and the deposition of the latter on the collecting and corona electrodes. For this, electrofilters are used.

For highly efficient cleaning of emissions, it is necessary to use multi-stage cleaning devices. In this case, the gases to be purified sequentially pass through several autonomous purification apparatuses or one unit, which includes several purification stages.

Such solutions are used in highly efficient gas purification from solid impurities; with simultaneous purification from solid and gaseous impurities; when cleaning from solid impurities and dropping liquid, etc.

Multi-stage purification is widely used in air purification systems with its subsequent return to the room.

Atmospheric protection cannot be successful with one-sided and half-hearted measures directed against specific sources of pollution. The best results can only be obtained with an objective, multilateral approach to determining the causes of air pollution, the contribution of individual sources and identifying real opportunities to limit these emissions.

In urban and industrial conglomerates, where there are significant concentrations of small and large sources of pollutants, only an integrated approach based on specific restrictions for specific sources or their groups can lead to the establishment of an acceptable level of atmospheric pollution under a combination of optimal economic and technological conditions. Based on these provisions, an independent source of information is needed, which would have information not only on the degree of atmospheric pollution, but also on the types of technological and administrative measures. An objective assessment of the state of the atmosphere, together with knowledge of all opportunities to reduce emissions, allows you to create realistic plans and long-term forecasts of atmospheric pollution in relation to the worst and most favorable circumstances, and forms a solid basis for developing and strengthening an atmospheric protection program.

By duration, atmospheric protection programs are divided into long-term, medium-term and short-term. Methods for the preparation of atmospheric protection plans are based on conventional planning methods and are coordinated to meet long-term requirements in this area.

An integral part of short and medium term planning is immediate action to prevent further pollution of the most disadvantaged areas by installing equipment designed specifically to reduce emissions from existing pollution sources. If proposals for long-term measures to protect the atmosphere are presented in the form of mere recommendations, then they are usually not implemented, since the requirements of the industry often do not coincide with its interests and development plans.

The most important factor in the formation of forecasts for the protection of the atmosphere is the quantitative assessment of future emissions. Based on the analysis of sources of emissions in selected industrial areas, especially as a result of combustion processes, a nationwide assessment of the main sources of solid and gaseous emissions over the past 10-14 years has been established. Then a forecast was made about the possible level of emissions for the next 10-15 years. At the same time, two directions for the development of the national economy were taken into account:

1) pessimistic assessment - the assumption of maintaining the current level of technology and emission limits, as well as maintaining existing methods of pollution control at existing sources and the use of modern high-performance separators only at new sources of emissions;

2) optimistic assessment - the assumption of maximum development and use new technology with a limited amount of waste and the application of methods that reduce solid and gaseous emissions from both existing and new sources. Thus, the optimistic estimate becomes a goal when reducing emissions.

Making a forecast includes: determining the main measures required in a given technical and economic situation; establishment of alternative ways of industrial development (especially for fuel and other energy sources); an assessment of the complex capital investments required to implement the entire strategic plan; comparison of these costs with the damage from air pollution. The ratio of investments in the protection of the atmosphere (including equipment to control emissions from existing and newly introduced sources) and the total damage from atmospheric pollution is approximately 3:10.

It would be fair to include the cost of emission control equipment in the cost of production, and not in the cost of protecting the atmosphere, then the indicated ratio of investment and damage from pollution would be 1: 10.

Separate areas of research on the protection of the atmosphere are often grouped into a list according to the rank of the processes that lead to its pollution.

Sources of emissions (location of sources, raw materials used and methods of their processing, as well as technological processes).
Collection and accumulation of pollutants (solid, liquid and gaseous).
Determination and control of emissions (methods, devices, technologies).
Atmospheric processes (distance from chimneys, transfer to long distance, chemical transformations of pollutants in the atmosphere, calculation of expected pollution and forecasting, optimization of chimney heights).
Recording emissions (methods, instruments, stationary and mobile measurements, measurement points, measurement grids).
Impact of polluted atmosphere on people, animals, plants, buildings, materials, etc.
Comprehensive protection of the atmosphere combined with environmental protection.

In this case, it is necessary to take into account various points of view, the main of which are:
- legislative (administrative measures);
- organizational and controlling;
- prognostic with the creation of projects, programs and plans;
- economic with obtaining additional economic effects;
- scientific, research and development;
- tests and measurements;
- implementation, including the production of products and the creation of installations;
- practical use and operation;
- standardization and unification.

4.1.1 Measures to combat vehicle emissions

Assessment of cars by exhaust toxicity. Day-to-day control of vehicles is of great importance. All fleets are required to monitor the serviceability of vehicles produced on the line. With a well-working engine, the carbon monoxide exhaust gases should contain no more than the permissible norm.

The Regulation on the State Automobile Inspectorate entrusts it with control over the implementation of measures to protect the environment from harmful influence motor transport.

The adopted standard for toxicity provides for further tightening of the norm, although today in Russia they are tougher than European ones: for carbon monoxide - by 35%, for hydrocarbons - by 12%, for nitrogen oxides - by 21%.

The plants introduced control and regulation of vehicles for toxicity of exhaust gases.

Urban transport management systems. New traffic control systems have been developed that minimize the possibility of traffic jams, because when stopping and then picking up speed, the car emits several times more harmful substances than when driving uniformly.

Highways were built to bypass the cities, which received the entire flow of transit transport, which used to be an endless tape along the city streets. The intensity of traffic has sharply decreased, the noise has decreased, the air has become cleaner.

An automated control system has been created in Moscow road traffic"Start". Thanks to perfect technical means, mathematical methods and computer technology, it allows you to optimally control traffic throughout the city and completely frees a person from the responsibility of directly regulating traffic flows. "Start" will reduce traffic delays at intersections by 20-25%, reduce the number of traffic accidents by 8-10%, improve the sanitary condition of urban air, increase the speed of public transport, and reduce noise levels.

Transfer of vehicles to diesel engines. According to experts, the transfer of vehicles to diesel engines will reduce the emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere. The exhaust of a diesel engine contains almost no toxic carbon monoxide, since diesel fuel is burned in it almost completely.

In addition, diesel fuel is free of lead tetraethyl, an additive that is used to increase the octane rating of gasoline burned in modern high-burning carburetor engines.

Diesel is more economical than a carburetor engine by 20-30%. Moreover, the production of 1 liter of diesel fuel requires 2.5 times less energy than the production of the same amount of gasoline. Thus, it turns out, as it were, a double saving of energy resources. This is what explains fast growth number of vehicles running on diesel fuel.

Improvement of internal combustion engines. Creation of cars taking into account the requirements of ecology is one of the serious tasks that designers face today.

Improving the process of fuel combustion in an internal combustion engine, the use of an electronic ignition system leads to a decrease in the exhaust of harmful substances.

Neutralizers. Much attention is paid to the development of a device for reducing toxicity-neutralizers, which can be equipped with modern cars.

The method of catalytic conversion of combustion products is that the exhaust gases are cleaned by coming into contact with the catalyst.

At the same time, afterburning of the products of incomplete combustion contained in the exhaust of cars takes place.

The converter is attached to the exhaust pipe, and the gases that have passed through it are released into the atmosphere purified. At the same time, the device can act as a noise suppressor. The effect of the use of neutralizers is impressive: in the optimal mode, the emission of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere is reduced by 70-80%, and hydrocarbons - by 50-70%.

The composition of exhaust gases can be significantly improved by using various fuel additives. Scientists have developed an additive that reduces the content of soot in exhaust gases by 60-90% and carcinogens by 40%.

Recently, the process of catalytic reforming of low-octane gasolines has been widely introduced at the country's oil refineries. As a result, unleaded, low-toxic gasolines can be produced.

Their use reduces air pollution, increases the service life of automobile engines, and reduces fuel consumption.

Gas instead of petrol. High-octane, compositionally stable gas fuel mixes well with air and is evenly distributed over the engine cylinders, contributing to a more complete combustion of the working mixture.

The total emission of toxic substances from cars running on liquefied gas is much less than cars with gasoline engines. So, the ZIL-130 truck, converted to gas, has a toxicity indicator almost 4 times less than its gasoline counterpart.

When the engine is running on gas, the combustion of the mixture is more complete. And this leads to a decrease in the toxicity of exhaust gases, a decrease in carbon formation and oil consumption, and an increase in engine life. In addition, LPG is cheaper than gasoline.

Electric car. At present, when a car with a gasoline engine has become one of the significant factors leading to environmental pollution, experts are increasingly turning to the idea of creating a "clean" car. We are usually talking about an electric car.

Currently, five brands of electric vehicles are produced in our country.

The electric car of the Ulyanovsk Automobile Plant (“UAZ” -451-MI) differs from other models by the electric propulsion system on alternating current and built-in charger. In the interests of protecting the environment, it is considered expedient to convert vehicles to electric traction, especially in large cities.

4.1.2 Methods for cleaning industrial emissions into the atmosphere

The main methods include:

1) Absorption method;

2) Method of oxidation of combustibles;

3) Catalytic oxidation;

4) Sorption-catalytic;

5) Adsorption-oxidative;

The absorption method of gas purification, carried out in absorber units, is the simplest and provides a high degree of purification, however, it requires bulky equipment and purification of the absorbing liquid. Based on chemical reactions between a gas, such as sulfur dioxide, and an absorbent suspension (alkaline solution: limestone, ammonia, lime). With this method, gaseous harmful impurities are deposited on the surface of a solid porous body (adsorbent). The latter can be extracted by desorption by heating with water vapor.

The method of oxidation of combustible carbonaceous harmful substances in the air consists in combustion in a flame and the formation of CO 2 and water, the thermal oxidation method consists in heating and feeding into a fire burner.

Catalytic oxidation using solid catalysts is that sulfur dioxide passes through the catalyst in the form of manganese compounds or sulfuric acid.

Reducing agents (hydrogen, ammonia, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide) are used to purify gases by catalysis using reduction and decomposition reactions. Neutralization of nitrogen oxides NO is achieved by using methane, followed by the use of aluminum oxide to neutralize the resulting carbon monoxide in the second stage.

A sorption-catalytic method for purifying especially toxic substances at temperatures below the catalysis temperature is promising.

The adsorption-oxidation method also seems to be promising. It consists in the physical adsorption of small amounts of harmful components, followed by the blowing of the adsorbed substance with a special gas flow into a thermocatalytic or thermal afterburning reactor.

In large cities, to reduce the harmful effects of air pollution on humans, special urban planning measures are used: zonal development of residential areas, when low buildings are located close to the road, then tall buildings and under their protection - children's and medical institutions; transport interchanges without intersections, landscaping.

4.2 Main directions of atmospheric protection

Atmospheric protection cannot be successful with one-sided and half-hearted measures directed against specific sources of pollution. It is necessary to determine the causes of pollution, analyze the contribution of individual sources to the total pollution and identify opportunities to limit these emissions.

So, in order to protect the environment in December 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, aimed at regulating emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. In the Russian Federation, the law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” is aimed at preserving and improving the quality of atmospheric air; it comprehensively covers the problem. This law should regulate relations in the field of atmospheric air protection in order to improve the condition of atmospheric air and provide a favorable environment for human habitation, prevent chemical and other impacts on atmospheric air and ensure the rational use of air in industry.

The Law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” summarized the requirements developed in previous years and justified themselves in practice. For example, the introduction of rules prohibiting the commissioning of any production facilities (newly created or reconstructed) if they become sources of pollution or other negative impacts on the atmospheric air during operation. The rules on the regulation of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants in the atmospheric air were further developed.

The state sanitary legislation only for atmospheric air established MPCs for most chemicals with isolated action and for their combinations.

Hygienic standards are a state requirement for business leaders. Their implementation should be monitored by the state sanitary supervision bodies of the Ministry of Health and the State Committee for Ecology.

Of great importance for the sanitary protection of atmospheric air is the identification of new sources of air pollution, the accounting of designed, under construction and reconstructed facilities that pollute the atmosphere, control over the development and implementation of master plans for cities, towns and industrial centers in terms of locating industrial enterprises and sanitary protection zones.

The Law "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air" provides for the requirements to establish standards for maximum permissible emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Such standards are established for each stationary source of pollution, for each model of vehicles and other mobile vehicles and installations. They are determined in such a way that the total harmful emissions from all sources of pollution in a given area do not exceed the MPC standards for pollutants in the air.

Maximum allowable emissions are set only taking into account the maximum allowable concentrations.

The requirements of the Law relating to the use of plant protection products, mineral fertilizers and other preparations are very important. All legislative measures constitute a preventive system aimed at preventing air pollution.

The law provides not only control over the fulfillment of its requirements, but also responsibility for their violation. A special article defines the role of public organizations and citizens in the implementation of measures to protect the air environment, obliges them to actively assist state bodies in these matters, since only broad public participation will make it possible to implement the provisions of this law. Thus, it says that the state attaches great importance to the preservation of the favorable state of atmospheric air, its restoration and improvement in order to ensure the best living conditions for people - their work, life, recreation and health protection.

Enterprises or their separate buildings and structures, the technological processes of which are a source of the release of harmful and unpleasantly smelling substances into the atmospheric air, are separated from residential buildings by sanitary protection zones. The sanitary protection zone for enterprises and facilities can be increased, if necessary and with proper justification, by no more than 3 times, depending on the following reasons:

a) the effectiveness of the methods envisaged or possible for the treatment of emissions into the atmosphere;

b) lack of ways to clean emissions;

c) placement of residential buildings, if necessary, on the leeward side in relation to the enterprise in the zone of possible air pollution;

d) wind roses and other unfavorable local conditions (for example, frequent calms and fogs);

e) the construction of new, still insufficiently studied, harmful in sanitary terms, industries.

Sizes of sanitary protection zones for individual groups or complexes of large enterprises in the chemical, oil refining, metallurgical, machine-building and other industries, as well as thermal power plants with emissions that create large concentrations of various harmful substances in the air and have a particularly adverse effect on health and sanitary - hygienic living conditions of the population are established in each specific case by a joint decision of the Ministry of Health and the Gosstroy of Russia.

To increase the effectiveness of sanitary protection zones, trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation is planted on their territory, which reduces the concentration of industrial dust and gases. In the sanitary protection zones of enterprises that intensively pollute the atmospheric air with gases harmful to vegetation, the most gas-resistant trees, shrubs and grasses should be grown, taking into account the degree of aggressiveness and concentration of industrial emissions. Particularly harmful to vegetation are emissions from chemical industries (sulphurous and sulfuric anhydride, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric, nitric, fluoric and bromous acids, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, etc.), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, coal and thermal power industries.

Conclusion

Air protection is the task of our century, a problem that has become a social one.

The assessment and forecast of the chemical state of the surface atmosphere, associated with the natural processes of its pollution, differs significantly from the assessment and forecast of the quality of this natural environment, due to anthropogenic processes.

Volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth, other natural phenomena cannot be controlled. We can only talk about minimizing the consequences of the negative impact, which is possible only in the case of a deep understanding of the features of the functioning of natural systems of different hierarchical levels, and, above all, the Earth as a planet. It is necessary to take into account the interaction of numerous factors that change in time and space. The main factors include not only the internal activity of the Earth, but also its connections with the Sun and space. Therefore, thinking in "simple images" when assessing and predicting the state of the surface atmosphere is unacceptable and dangerous.

Anthropogenic processes of air pollution in most cases are manageable.

The scale of anthropogenic impact on the environment and the level of danger arising from this force us to look for new approaches to the development of technological processes, which, being no less efficient in the economic sense, would be many times superior to the existing ones in terms of environmental cleanliness.

It is easy to formulate the basic methods for achieving clean air. It is more difficult to implement these methods in the presence of an economic crisis and limited financial resources. In this formulation of the question, research and practical measures are needed to help cope with the problems of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere.

In fact, the contradiction between the economy and ecology means the contradiction between the need for the harmonious development of the nature-man-production system and the insufficient objective possibility, and sometimes just the subjective unwillingness of such harmony on present stage development of productive forces and industrial relations.

List of sources used

http://www.ecology-portal.ru/publ/12-1-0-296
http://www.globalm.ru/question/52218/
Stepanovskikh A.S. С 79 Ecology: Textbook for universities. - M .: UNITY-DANA, - 703 p.
Chemistry and Life No. 11, 1999, p. 22 - 26
Nikolaikin N. I. Ecology: Proc. for universities / N. I. Nikolaykin, N. E. Nikolaykina, O. P. Melekhova. - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M .: Bustard, 2004. - 624 s: ill.
http://burenina.narod.ru/6-7.htm

7) Marchuk G. I., Kondratiev K. Ya. Priorities of global ecology. M.: Nauka, 1992. 26) p.

8) http://mishtal.narod.ru/Atm.html

9) Protasov V.F. "Ecology, health and environmental protection in Russia",10) The cycle of matter in nature and its change by human economic activity. M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1990. 252 p.

11) Our common future. M.: Progress. 1989. 376 p.

12) Milanova E. V., Ryabchikov A. M. Use of natural resources and nature conservation. M.: Higher. school, 1986. 280 p.

13) Danilov-Danilyan V.I. "Ecology, nature conservation and environmental safety" M.: MNEPU, 1997

14) Lebedeva M. I., Ankudimova I. A. Ecology: Proc. allowance. Tambov: Tambov Publishing House. state tech. un-ta, 2002. 80 p.

15) http://www.car-town.ru/interesnoe-o-sgoranii/obrazovanie-smoga.html

16) Belov S.V. "Life safety" M.: graduate School, 1999

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18) Balashenko S. A., Demichev D. M.. environmental law. M., 1999.

Atmospheric pollution by emissions from industrial enterprises

Figure A.1

Effects of vehicle exhaust fumes on human health

Harmful substances	The consequences of exposure to the human body
carbon monoxide	Interferes with the absorption of oxygen by the blood, which impairs thinking ability, slows reflexes, causes drowsiness and can lead to loss of consciousness and death
	Affects the circulatory, nervous and genitourinary systems; probably causes a decrease in mental abilities in children, is deposited in bones and other tissues, therefore it is dangerous for a long time.
nitrogen oxides	May increase the body's susceptibility to viral diseases (such as influenza), irritate the lungs, cause bronchitis and pneumonia
	Irritates the mucous membrane of the respiratory system, causes coughing, disrupts the functioning of the lungs; reduces resistance to colds; can exacerbate chronic heart disease, as well as cause asthma, bronchitis
Toxic emissions (heavy metals)	Cause cancer, reproductive dysfunction, and birth defects

Table B.1

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Environmental quality - the state of the environment, which is characterized by physical, chemical, biological and other indicators and their combination. To address the issues of environmental quality management and regulation, it is necessary to have the following: an idea of what quality (state of pollution) of natural environments can be considered acceptable; information about the observed state of the environment and trends in its change; assessment of compliance (or non-compliance) of the observed and predicted state of the environment with the acceptable one.
As noted earlier (see Chapter 1.2), environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) is a complex system for observing the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
There are three levels of environmental monitoring for assessing anthropogenic impact: local - on a relatively small area in zones of high impact intensity (cities, industrial areas); regional - to larger areas in zones with an average level of impact; global - almost all over the world.
The most important element environmental monitoring is an environmental impact assessment (EIA), which is carried out in order to identify and take the necessary and sufficient measures to prevent possible unacceptable for society environmental and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of economic or other activities (Fig. 1.3).

Rice. 1.3. Monitoring scheme

To reduce the negative impact of pollutants on the biosphere as a whole and its components - the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere - it is necessary to know their limiting levels.
In accordance with the law Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection, standards for the quality of the environment and standards for the permissible impact on it are established, subject to which the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems is ensured and biological diversity is preserved.
Maximum Permissible Concentration (MAC) - the maximum amount of a harmful substance per unit volume or mass, which, with prolonged exposure, does not cause any painful changes in the human body and adverse hereditary changes in offspring that are detectable modern methods.
The determination of MPC is based on the threshold principle of the action of chemical compounds. The threshold of harmful action is the minimum dose of a substance, when exceeded, changes occur in the body that go beyond the limits of physiological and adaptive reactions, or latent (temporarily compensated) pathology.
The norms defined in this way are based on the principle of anthropocentrism, i.e. acceptable environmental conditions for humans, which is the basis of sanitary and hygienic regulation. However, humans are not the most sensitive of biological species, and it cannot be assumed that if humans are protected, then ecosystems are also protected.
Environmental regulation involves taking into account the allowable anthropogenic load (DAN) on the ecosystem, under the influence of which the deviation from the normal state of the ecosystem does not exceed natural changes, therefore, does not cause undesirable consequences for living organisms and does not lead to a deterioration in the quality of the environment.
But as a practical use, only some attempts to take into account the allowable load for fishery reservoirs are known so far.
Environmental safety from the activities of economic entities should be ensured by a set of financial, legislative and technical measures that reduce the harmful impact on the environment.
The most important legislative acts are the federal laws "On the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population" (1999), "On environmental protection" (2002), "On environmental expertise" (2006). On the territory of Russia, there are federal sanitary and epidemiological rules and regulations approved and put into effect by the federal executive body.
The main methods of managing environmental protection include information, preventive and compulsory (Table 1.10).
Table 1.10
Methods of regulation of rational nature management

Information on	Warning			Forced
	administrative		financial save cal
	legal	control nye		penalty nia	responsible ness
Monitoring Research Education Education Upbringing Propaganda Forecastiro ing	Norm rights Standards Permission nia Ecoex pertiza	Activity verification Product certification Licensing Eco-audit Inventory	Subsidies Grants Preferential loans Loans	Payments taxes fines Bond tions	Work bans Activity restrictions Arrest suspension Withdrawal

The environmental program should be based on the principle of sustainable development, which is ensured not by individual environmental measures, but by a comprehensive reconstruction of production, which allows minimizing the consumption of natural resources and at the same time reducing the anthropogenic load on the environment.
To achieve the goals of the environmental program in Russia, the following environmental measures have been identified.
Protection and rational use of water resources: construction of treatment facilities for wastewater from enterprises; introduction of water recycling systems of all types; reuse of waste water, improvement of their treatment; development of methods for wastewater treatment and processing of liquid waste; reconstruction or liquidation of waste collectors; creation and implementation of an automated system for monitoring the composition and volume of wastewater discharges.
Atmospheric air protection: installation of gas and dust trapping devices; equipping internal combustion engines with exhaust gas decontamination converters; creation of automated control systems for atmospheric air pollution; creation and equipping of laboratories for monitoring the composition of emissions; introduction of installations for the utilization of substances from gases. Use of production and consumption waste: construction of waste processing plants; introduction of technologies for processing, collecting and transporting household waste from urban areas; construction of installations for obtaining raw materials from production waste.
Control questions and tasks What is the biosphere and what determines its boundaries? What components (types of matter) of the biosphere were identified by V.I.Vernadsky? Define the concepts of "biocenosis", "biotope", "biogeocenosis", "ecosystem". What is the difference between the concepts of "biogeocenosis" and "ecosystem"? What are adaptations? How are they classified? What is meant by the term "second nature", "third nature"? Name the main causes, negative consequences and ways to prevent environmental pollution. Name the types of environmental monitoring. Name the natural and anthropogenic sources of air pollution. What are the sources of acid rain? Name the anthropogenic factors of pollution of water bodies. What waters are considered polluted? What is eutrophication of water bodies and what is the difference between eutrophication and pollution of water bodies? Describe the most common water pollutants. What are the consequences of anthropogenic acid soil pollution? What substances are classified as municipal solid waste? Which groups, in terms of environmental safety, they are usually separated? Give the main terms and definitions used in ecotoxicology. List the main routes of xenobiotics entry into the human and animal body, give a brief description of each of them. Name the main types of radioactive decays. What dose is a measure of the biological effects of radiation? Is it true that the environment is exposed to a significantly higher dose load after the development of nuclear energy? Specify the radiation source that contributes the maximum dose to the public. What radionuclides are biogenic? Specify artificial radionuclides actively participating in biogeochemical cycles.

Standards for permissible anthropogenic load on the environment

In order to prevent the negative impact on the environment of economic and other activities, the following standards of permissible environmental impact are established for legal entities and individuals of users of natural resources:

Standards for permissible emissions and discharges of substances and microorganisms;

Standards for the generation of production and consumption waste and limits on their disposal;

Standards for permissible physical impacts (amount of heat, levels of noise, vibration, ionizing radiation, electromagnetic field strength and other physical impacts);

Standards for permissible removal of components of the natural environment;

And a number of other regulations.

Subjects are responsible for exceeding these standards depending on the damage caused to the environment. It is necessary to apply and develop measures to reduce the negative impact of human activities on the state of the environment.

Measures to reduce the negative impact of anthropogenic factors and ensure a favorable state of the environment

To eliminate the negative impact of plant protection chemicals on the environment, an important place is given to the rational use of pesticides in integrated or complex plant protection systems, the basis of which is the full use of environmental factors that cause the death of harmful organisms or limit their vital activity.

The main task of such systems is to keep the number of harmful insects at a level where they do not cause significant harm, using not one method, but a set of measures.

Considering that the chemical method is the leading one, exceptionally great attention is paid to its improvement.

The leading principle of rational chemical control is the full consideration of the ecological situation on agricultural land, accurate knowledge of the criteria for the number of harmful species, as well as the number of beneficial organisms that suppress the development of pests.

There are four main areas for improving security chemical method plant protection:

Improving the range of pesticides in the direction of reducing their toxicity to humans and beneficial animals, reducing persistence, increasing the selectivity of action.

Use of optimal methods of pesticide application, such as pre-sowing seed treatment, belt and strip treatments, the use of granular preparations.

Optimizing the use of pesticides, taking into account the economic feasibility and the need to use pesticides to suppress populations.

The strictest regulation of the use of pesticides in agriculture and other industries based on a comprehensive study of their sanitary and hygienic characteristics and safety conditions at work. At present, highly toxic and persistent in nature compounds are being replaced by low-toxic and low-resistant ones.

In order to preserve beneficial insects for chemical treatment, it is necessary to use highly selective preparations that are poisonous only for certain harmful objects and are of little danger to natural enemies of pests. An important way to increase the selectivity of the action of broad-spectrum pesticides is to rationalize the methods of their use, taking into account the economic threshold of harmfulness for each pest species in the zonal context. This allows you to reduce the area or frequency of chemical treatments without compromising the protected crop. In order to prevent soil contamination with pesticide residues, the application of persistent pesticides to the soil should be limited as much as possible, and where necessary, rapidly degrading preparations should be applied locally, which reduces the pesticide application rate.

A qualitatively new stage in the development of plant protection, which characterizes its transfer to an ecological basis, predetermines a reasonable, technically competent management of the phytosanitary state of agrocenoses. The plant protection strategy now and in the future is based on high agricultural technology, maximum use of the natural forces of agrocenoses, increasing the resistance of cultivated crops to harmful organisms, the expanded use of the biological method, and the rational use of chemicals.

Excessive and contrary to the recommendations of the use of pesticides can cause great damage to the environment. The streamlining of their use, the exclusion from the range of the most dangerous compounds leads to a decrease in the pollution of nature, and therefore, a decrease in the intake of people into the body.

The use of any pesticide in each specific case should be carried out on the basis of approved instructions, recommendations, guidelines and provisions on technology, application regulations. One of the important requirements is the neutralization and proper disposal of pesticide containers.

In general, it can be said that the introduction of eco-friendly integrated plant protection in practice shows that this method has an advantage over individual methods of plant protection. And when using zero technologies, you simply cannot do without it.

The largest amount of industrial waste is formed by the coal industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, thermal power plants, building materials industry. In Russia, about 10% of the total mass of solid waste is classified as hazardous waste. A huge number of small burials of radioactive waste, sometimes forgotten, are scattered around the world. It is obvious that the problem of radioactive waste over time will be even more acute and relevant.

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Lecture #10

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON BIOTIC COMMUNITIES. SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Anthropogenic impacts on biotic communities
1. Anthropogenic impacts on forests and other plant communities
2. Anthropogenic impacts on wildlife
3. Protection of biotic communities

2. Special types of impact on the biosphere

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON BIOTIC COMMUNITIES

The normal state and functioning of the biosphere, and hence the stability of the natural environment, is impossible without providing a favorable environment for all biotic communities in all their diversity. The loss of biodiversity threatens not only human well-being, but also its very existence.Anthropogenic impacts on the main components of biotic communities will be considered in the following order: flora (forests and other communities), fauna.

1.1. Anthropogenic impacts on forests and other plant communities

The value of the forest in nature and human life

Forests are an important part of the natural environment. As an ecological system, the forest performs various functions and at the same time is indispensable natural resource(Fig. 1). Russia is rich in forests: more than 1.2 billion hectares, or 75% of the land area, is occupied by forests.

Numerous studies both in our country and abroad have confirmed the exceptional importance of forests in maintaining the ecological balance in the natural environment. According to experts, the importance of the environmental protection function of the forest, i.e. the preservation of the gene pool of flora and fauna, is an order of magnitude higher than their economic importance as a source of raw materials and products.

The impact of forests on the natural environment is extremely diverse. It manifests itself, in particular, in the fact that forests: -

- are the main supplier of oxygen on the planet;

- directly affect the water regime both in the territories occupied by them and in the adjacent territories and regulate the water balance;

- reduce the negative impact of droughts and dry winds, restrain the movement of moving sands;

- softening the climate, contribute to the increase in crop yields;

- absorb and transform part of atmospheric chemical pollution;

— protect soils from water and wind erosion, mudflows, landslides, coastal destruction and other unfavorable geological processes;

- create normal sanitary and hygienic conditions, have a beneficial effect on the human psyche, and are of great recreational importance.

At the same time, forests are a source of timber and many other types of valuable raw materials. More than 30 thousand articles and products are produced from wood, and its consumption is not decreasing, but, on the contrary, increasing. According to experts, only in countries Western Europe timber deficit by 2005 will amount to 220 million m3 3 .

Rice. 1. The value of the forest in nature and human life

According to their value, location and functions, all forests are divided into three groups:

the first group is forests that perform protective ecological functions (water protection, field protection, sanitary and hygienic, recreational). These forests are strictly protected, especially forest parks, urban forests, especially valuable forests, national natural parks. In the forests of this group, only maintenance felling and sanitary felling of trees are allowed;

the second group is forests of protective and limited operational significance. They are distributed in areas with a high population density and a developed network of transport routes. The raw material resources of forests of this group are insufficient, therefore, in order to preserve their protective and operational functions, a strict forest management regime is required;

the third group is operational forests. They are distributed in densely forested areas and are the main supplier of timber. Wood harvesting should be carried out without changing natural biotopes and disturbing the natural ecological balance.

Human impact on forests

Human impact on forests and, in general, on the entire plant world can be direct and indirect. Direct impacts include: 1) clear-cutting of forests; 2) forest fires and burning of vegetation; 3) destruction of forests and vegetation during the creation of economic infrastructure (flooding during the creation of reservoirs, destruction near quarries, industrial complexes); 4) the growing pressure of tourism.

Indirect impact is a change in living conditions as a result of anthropogenic pollution of air, water, the use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers. The penetration of alien plant species (introducers) into plant communities is also of certain importance.

In XVII in. on the Russian Plain, the forest area reached 5 million km 2 , by 1970 there were no more than 1.5 million km 2 . Today, forests in Russia are cut down on about 2 million hectares annually. At the same time, the scale of reforestation through planting and sowing forests is constantly decreasing. For the natural restoration of the forest after clear-cutting, many tens of years are required, and to reach the climax phase, hundreds of years.

A similar situation is observed in other countries. In an even more dangerous position are evergreen rain forests - ancient climax ecosystems. This invaluable repository of genetic diversity is disappearing from the face of the Earth at about a tremendous rate. I 7 million hectares per year. Scientists believe that at this rate, tropical rainforests, especially in lowland plains, will completely disappear in a few decades. They are burned to clear land for pastures, cut down intensively as a source of wood fuel, uprooted due to improper management of the farming system, flooded during the construction of hydroelectric power stations, etc.

Forest fires have a detrimental effect on forest ecosystems. They arise in the overwhelming majority of cases through the fault of people, as a result of careless handling of fire. In rainforest zones, fires are formed as a result of the deliberate burning of forest areas for pastures.and other agricultural purposes.

The condition of forests is adversely affected by acid rain formed as a result of sulfur and nitrogen oxides coming from anthropogenic sources. In recent years, radioactive contamination has become a significant factor in forest degradation.

In addition to forests, the increased negative impact of human activity is also manifested in relation to the rest of the plant community (vascular plants, fungi, algae, lichens, bryophytes, etc.). Most often, the negative human impact on plant communities is manifested when mowing, collecting medicinal plants and berries, grazing livestock and other types of direct use. Many different types of plants die when exposed to pollutants, as well as in the process of land reclamation, construction and agricultural activities.

Ecological consequences of human impact on the plant world

A large-scale anthropogenic impact on biotic communities leads to severe environmental consequences both at the ecosystem-biosphere and at the population-species levels.

In deforested areas, deep ravines, destructive landslides and mudflows occur, photosynthetic phytomass that performs important ecological functions is destroyed, the gas composition of the atmosphere worsens, the hydrological regime of water bodies changes, many plant and animal species disappear, etc.

The reduction of large forests, especially humid tropical ones - these peculiar moisture evaporators, according to many researchers, adversely affects not only the regional, but also the biosphere level. The destruction of tree and shrub vegetation and grass cover on pastures in dry regions leads to their desertification.

Another negative environmental impact of deforestation ischange in the albedo of the earth's surface. Albedo (lat. albedo - whiteness) is a value that characterizes the ability of a surface to reflect the rays incident on it. The albedo of the earth's surface is one of the important factors determining the climate both in the whole world and in its individual regions. It has been established that serious climate changes on the planet can be caused by a change in the albedo of the Earth's surface by only a few percent. At present, with the help of satellite images, a large-scale change in the albedo (as well as in the heat balance) of the entire surface of the Earth has been detected. Scientists believe that this is caused, first of all, by the destruction of forest vegetation and the development of anthropogenic desertification in a significant part of our planet.

The forest fires mentioned above cause great harm to the state of natural forest ecosystems, for a long time, if not forever, slowing down the process of forest restoration in the burnt areas. Forest fires worsen the composition of the forest, reduce the growth of trees, break the connections between roots and soil, increase windbreaks, destroy the food base of wild animals, bird nests. In a strong flame, the soil is burned to such an extent that it completely disrupts moisture exchange and the ability to retain nutrients. The area burned to the ground is often quickly populated by various insects, which is not always safe for people due to possible outbreaks of infectious diseases.

In addition to the direct human impacts on biotic communities described above, indirect ones, such as pollution by industrial emissions, are also important.

Various toxicants, and primarily sulfur dioxide, nitrogen and carbon oxides, ozone, heavy metals, have a very negative effect on coniferous and broad-leaved trees, as well as shrubs, field crops and grasses, mosses and lichens, fruit and vegetable crops and flowers. In gaseous form or in the form of acid precipitation, they adversely affect the important assimilation functions of plants, the respiratory organs of animals, sharply disrupt metabolism and lead to various diseases. For example, high doses SO2 or prolonged exposure to its low concentrations lead to a strong inhibition of photosynthesis processes and a decrease in respiration.

Automobile exhaust gases, which contain 60% of all harmful substances in urban air, and among them such toxic ones as carbon oxides, aldehydes, undecomposed fuel hydrocarbons, and lead compounds, have an extremely negative effect on the life of plants. For example, under their influence in oak, linden, elm, the size of chloroplasts decreases, the number and size of leaves decreases, their life expectancy decreases, the size and density of stomata decreases, the total chlorophyll content decreases one and a half to two times.

At the population-species level, the negative human impact on biotic communities is manifested in the loss of biological diversity, in the reduction in the number and extinction of individual species. In total, 25-30 thousand plant species, or 10% of the world's flora, need protection throughout the world. The proportion of extinct species in all countries is more than 0.5% of the total number of flora species in the world, and in regions such as the Hawaiian Islands, more than 11%.

Reduction in the number of species of vascular plants, to a change in the species composition of ecosystems. This leads to a rupture of evolutionarily established food webs and to destabilization ecological system, which manifests itself in its destruction and impoverishment. Recall that the reduction of areas covered with green vegetation, or its rarefaction is highly undesirable for two reasons: firstly, the global carbon cycle in the biosphere is disturbed and, secondly, the intensity of absorption of solar energy by the biosphere during photosynthesis decreases.

1.2. Anthropogenic impacts on wildlife

The value of the animal world in the biosphere

The animal world is a collection of all species and individuals of wild animals (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, as well as insects, mollusks and other invertebrates) that inhabit a certain territory or environment and are in a state of natural freedom.

Rice. 2. The value of the animal world in nature and human life

The main ecological function of animals is participationin the biotic cycle of matter and energy. The stability of the ecosystem is provided primarily by animals, as the most mobile element.

It is necessary to realize that the animal world is not only an important component of the natural ecological system and at the same time the most valuable biological resource. It is also very important that all kinds of animals form the genetic fund of the planet, all of them are necessary and useful.

Human impact on animals and the causes of their extinction

In connection with the constant extermination of animals by humans, we are seeing a simplification of both individual ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.So far, there is no answer to the main question: what is the possible limit of this simplification, which must inevitably be followed by the destruction of the "life support systems" of the biosphere.

The main causes of biodiversity loss, population decline and extinction of animals are as follows:

— violation of the environment;

— excessive extraction, fishing in prohibited areas;

— introduction (acclimatization) of alien species;

— direct destruction in order to protect products;

- accidental (unintentional) destruction;

— environmental pollution.

Habitat disturbance due to deforestation, plowing of steppes and fallow lands, drainage of swamps, flow regulation, creation of reservoirs and other anthropogenic impacts radically changes the conditions for the reproduction of wild animals, their migration routes, which has a very negative impact on their numbers and survival.

For example, in the city of Norilsk, the laying of a gas pipeline without taking into account the migration of deer in the tundra led to the fact that animals began to huddle in front of the pipe into huge herds, and nothing could make them turn off the centuries-old path. As a result, many thousands of animals died.

An important factor causing the decline in the number of animals is overexploitation. For example, stocks of sturgeon in the Caspian and Azov Seas have been undermined to such an extent that, apparently, a ban on their industrial fishing will have to be introduced. The main reason for this is poaching, which everywhere has taken on a scale comparable to fishing.

The third most important reason for the decline in the number and extinction of animal species is the introduction (acclimatization) of alien species. Widely known in our country are examples of the negative impact of the American mink on the local species - the European mink, the Canadian beaver on the European, the muskrat on the muskrat, etc.

Other reasons for the decrease in the number and disappearance of animals are their direct destruction to protect agricultural products and commercial objects (the death of birds of prey, ground squirrels, pinnipeds, coyotes, etc.); accidental (unintentional) destruction (on roads, during military operations, when mowing grass, on power lines, when regulating water flow, etc.); environmental pollution (pesticides, oil and oil products, atmospheric pollutants, lead and other toxicants).

1.3. Protection of biotic communities

Protection flora

To preserve the number and population-species composition of plants, a set of environmental measures is being implemented, which include:

- fight against forest fires;

— protection of plants from pests and diseases;

— field-protective afforestation;

— improving the efficiency of using forest resources;

— protection of individual plant species and plant communities.

Fighting forest fires. For these purposes, airplanes, helicopters, powerful fire trucks, sprayers, all-terrain vehicles, bulldozers, etc. are used. Other protection measures also play an important role in the fight against forest fires, in particular, the creation of fire barriers, breaks, special lanes, etc. The main efforts should be directed to the prevention of fires: explanatory work among the population.

Protective afforestation. Artificially grown forest belts, formed from fast-growing biologically stable species to maintain biological balance, are created along the boundaries of fields and crop rotations, outside and inside gardens, pastures, etc. Forest plantations have a positive effect on the natural environment and contribute to the protection of agricultural fields, pasture grasses , fruit trees, shrubs, vineyards from freezing, the harmful effects of winds, dust storms, droughts and dry winds.

Improving the efficiency of using forest resources. The set of measures for this purpose includes the relocation of logging and timber processing enterprises to densely forested areas, the elimination of overcutting in sparsely forested areas, the reduction of wood losses in rafting and transportation, etc. with the aim of restoring forests to the climax stage, improving their composition, further developing a network of herd nurseries and developing methods for growing forests on special plantations.

Protection of individual plant species and plant communities. Usually, two aspects related to the protection of the plant world are distinguished: 1) protection of rare and endangered species of flora and 2) protection of the main plant communities. Rare are plant species that have a limited range and low abundance. Dozens of rare plant species have been protected by government regulations. In places where they grow, it is strictly forbidden to collect, graze, hay and other forms of destruction of plants and their communities.

A very important task is to preserve plant species diversity as a gene pool. In the case when all reserves for the conservation of plant species have been exhausted, special storages are created - genetic banks, where the gene pool of species is stored in the form of seeds.

Animal protection

The protection and exploitation of game animals, marine animals and commercial fish must provide for reasonable prey, but not their extermination. In addition to organized fishing and hunting in the hunting grounds, which occupy vast areas in Russia, biotechnical activities are carried out. Their purpose is to preserve and increase the capacity of hunting grounds, as well as to increase the number and enrichment of species of game animals.Acclimatization of animals is also widely used, i.e., their introduction into new habitats in order to enrich ecosystems with new useful species. Along with the acclimatization of wild animals, reacclimatization is practiced, that is, the resettlement of animals in their former habitats, where they previously were, but were exterminated.

One of the mechanisms for regulating the process of using animal and plant resources is the creation of a "Red Book" containing information on rare, endangered or endangered species of plants, animals and other organisms in order to introduce a regime for their special protection and reproduction. There are several versions of the Red Books: international, federal and republican (regional).

According to the degree of threat to existence, all animals and plants are divided into 5 groups: extinct, endangered, declining in numbers, rare, restored species. Every year, changes are made to the International Red Book and new species that need special care.

The next instrument of regulation is the creation of specially protected natural territories, areas of land or water surface, which, due to their environmental and other significance, are completely or partially withdrawn from economic use and for which a special protection regime has been established.

There are the following main categories of these territories:

a) state nature reserves, including biospheric ones - areas of the territory that are completely withdrawn from normal economic use in order to preserve the natural complex in a natural state

b) national parks are relatively large natural territories and water areas where the fulfillment of three main goals is ensured: environmental (maintaining the ecological balance and preservation of natural ecosystems), recreational (regulated tourism and recreation for people) and scientific (development and implementation of methods for preserving the natural complex in conditions for mass admission of visitors);

c) natural parks - territories of special ecological and aesthetic value, with a relatively mild protection regime and used primarily for organized recreation of the population;

d) state natural reserves - territories created for a certain period (in some cases permanently) to preserve or restore natural complexes or their components and maintain the ecological balance. Preserves preserve and restore population densities of one or more species of animals or plants, as well as natural landscapes, water bodies, etc.

e) natural monuments - unique, non-reproducible natural objects of scientific, ecological, cultural and aesthetic value (caves, small tracts, centuries-old trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.).

f) dendrological parks and botanical gardens - environmental institutions whose task is to create a collection of trees and shrubs in order to preserve biodiversity and enrich the flora, as well as for scientific, educational, cultural and educational purposes. In dendrological parks and botanical gardens, work is also being carried out on the introduction and acclimatization of plants new to the region.

2. SPECIAL IMPACTS ON THE BIOSPHERE

2.1. Types of impact of special factors on the environment

Among the special types of anthropogenic impact on the biosphere include:

1) pollution of the environment with hazardous waste;

2) noise impact;

3) biological pollution;

4) exposure to electromagnetic fields and radiation and some other types of exposure.

Pollution of the environment by production and consumption waste

One of the most acute environmental problems at the present time is the pollution of the natural environment by production and consumption wastes and, first of all, by hazardous wastes. Concentrated in dumps, tailings, waste heaps, unauthorized dumps, waste is a source of pollution of atmospheric air, ground and surface water, soil and vegetation. All waste is divided into household and industrial (industrial).

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a collection of solid substances (plastic, paper, glass, leather, etc.) and food waste generated in domestic conditions. Industrial (production) waste (OP) is the remains of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products formed during the production of products or the performance of work and which have lost their original consumer properties in whole or in part. Industrial waste, as well as household waste, due to the lack of landfills, is mainly taken to unauthorized landfills. Only 1/5 part is neutralized and utilized.

The largest amount of industrial waste is formed by the coal industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, thermal power plants, and the building materials industry.

Hazardous waste is understood as waste containing in its composition substances that have one of the hazardous properties (toxicity, explosiveness, infectiousness, fire hazard, etc.) and are present in an amount hazardous to human health and the environment.In Russia, about 10% of the total mass of solid waste is classified as hazardous waste. Among them are metal and galvanic sludge, fiberglass waste, asbestos waste and dust, residues from the processing of acid resins, tar and tar, used radio engineering products, etc.The greatest threat to humans and the entire biota is hazardous waste containing chemicals. I and II toxicity class. First of all, these are wastes containing radioactive isotopes, dioxins, pesticides, benzo(a)pyrene and some other substances.

Radioactive waste (RW) is solid, liquid or gaseous products of nuclear energy, military industries, other industries and healthcare systems containing radioactive isotopes in concentrations exceeding the approved standards.

Radioactive elements, such as strontium-90, moving along the food (trophic) chains, cause persistent violations of vital functions, up to the death of cells and the whole organism. Some of the radionuclides can remain deadly toxic for 10–100 million years.

A huge number of small burials of radioactive waste (sometimes forgotten) are scattered around the world. So, only in the USA, several tens of thousands of them have been identified, of which many are active sources of radioactive radiation.

Obviously, the problem of radioactive waste over time will be even more acute and urgent. In the next 10 years, a large number of nuclear power plants will need to be dismantled due to their obsolescence. During their dismantling, it will be necessary to neutralize a huge amount of low-level waste and ensure the disposal of more than 100 thousand tons of high-level waste. The problems associated with the decommissioning of Navy ships with nuclear power plants are also topical.

Dioxin-containing wastes are generated during the combustion of industrial and municipal waste, gasoline with lead additives and as by-products in the chemical, pulp and paper and electrical industries. It has been established that dioxins are also formed during the neutralization of water by chlorination, in places of chlorine production, especially in the production of pesticides.

Dioxins are synthetic organic substances from the class of chlorohydrocarbons. Dioxins 2, 3, 7, 8, - TCDD and dioxin-like compounds (more than 200) are the most toxic substances obtained by man. They have a mutagenic, carcinogenic, embryotoxic effect; suppress the immune system (“dioxin AIDS”) and, if a person receives sufficiently high doses through food or in the form of aerosols, they cause a “wasting syndrome” - gradual exhaustion and death without overt pathological symptoms. The biological effect of dioxins is already manifested in extremely low doses.

For the first time in the world, the dioxin problem arose in the USA in the 1930s and 1940s. In Russia, the production of these substances began near the city of Kuibyshev and in the city of Ufa in the 70s, where herbicide and other dioxin-containing wood preservatives were produced. The first large-scale dioxin pollution of the environment was registered in 1991 in the region of Ufa. The content of dioxins in the waters of the river. Ufa exceeded their maximum permissible concentrations by more than 50 thousand times (Golubchikov, 1994). The cause of water pollution is the inflow of leachate from the Ufa city dump of industrial and household waste, where, according to estimates, more than 40 kg of dioxins were conserved. As a result, the content of dioxins in the blood, adipose tissue and breast milk of many residents of Ufa and Sterlitamak increased 4-10 times compared to the permissible level.

Wastes containing pesticides, benzo(a)pyrene, and other toxicants also pose a serious environmental hazard to humans and biota. In addition, it should be borne in mind that over the past decades, man, having qualitatively changed the chemical situation on the planet, has included completely new, very toxic substances in the circulation, the environmental consequences of which have not yet been studied.

Noise impact

Noise impact is one of the forms of harmful physical impact on the environment. Noise pollution occurs as a result of unacceptable excess of the natural level of sound vibrations. From an ecological point of view, in modern conditions, noise becomes not only unpleasant for hearing, but also leads to serious physiological consequences for humans. Tens of millions of people suffer from noise in the urbanized areas of the developed countries of the world.

Depending on the auditory perception of a person, elastic vibrations in the frequency range from 16 to 20,000 Hz are called sound, less than 16 Hz - infrasound, from 20,000 to 110 9 – ultrasound and over 1 10 9 - hypersonic. A person is able to perceive sound frequencies only in the range of 16-20,000 Hz.

A unit of sound loudness measurement equal to 0.1 logarithm of the ratio of a given sound strength to its threshold (perceived by the human ear) intensity is called a decibel (dB). The range of audible sounds for humans is from 0 to 170 dB.

Natural natural sounds on the ecological well-being of a person, as a rule, are not reflected. Sound discomfort is created by anthropogenic noise sources that increase human fatigue, reduce his mental capabilities, significantly reduce labor productivity, cause nervous overload, noise stress, etc. High noise levels (> 60 dB) cause numerous complaints, at 90 dB, hearing organs begin to degrade, 110-120 dB is considered a pain threshold, and the level of anthropogenic noise over 130 dB is a destructive limit for the organ of hearing. It is noticed that at a noise level of 180 dB, cracks appear in the metal.

The main sources of anthropogenic noise are transport (road, rail and air) and industrial enterprises. The greatest noise impact on the environment is caused by motor vehicles (80% of the total noise).

Numerous experiments and practice confirm that anthropogenic noise impact adversely affects the human body and reduces its life expectancy, because it is physically impossible to get used to noise. A person may subjectively not notice sounds, but from this, his destructive effect on the organs of hearing not only does not decrease, but is even aggravated.

Adversely affects the nutrition of tissues of internal organs and the mental sphere of a person and sound vibrations with a frequency of less than 16 Hz (infrasounds). So, for example, studies conducted by Danish scientists have shown that infrasounds cause a state in people similar to seasickness, especially at a frequency of less than 12 Hz.

Noise anthropogenic impact is not indifferent to animals. There is evidence in the literature that intense sound exposure leads to a decrease in milk yield, egg production of chickens, loss of orientation in bees and the death of their larvae, premature molting in birds, premature birth in animals, etc. In the USA, it has been established that disordered noise with a power of 100 dB leads to a delay in seed germination and other undesirable effects.

biological pollution

Biological pollution is understood as the introduction into ecosystems as a result of anthropogenic impact of uncharacteristic species of living organisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.), which worsen the conditions for the existence of natural biotic communities or negatively affect human health.

The main sources of biological impact are wastewater from food and leather industries, household and industrial landfills, cemeteries, sewerage networks, irrigation fields, etc. From these sources, various organic compounds and pathogenic microorganisms enter the soil, rocks and groundwater.

The data obtained in recent years allow us to speak about the relevance and versatility of the problem of biosafety. Thus, a new ecological danger is being created in connection with the development of biotechnology and genetic engineering. In case of non-compliance with sanitary standards, it is possible that microorganisms and biological substances that have a very harmful effect on biotic communities, human health and its gene pool.

In addition to genetic engineering aspects, among the topical issues of biosafety that are important for the conservation of biodiversity, there are also:

- transfer of genetic information from domestic forms to wild species -

— genetic exchange between wild species and subspecies, including the risk of genetic contamination of the gene pool of rare and endangered species;

— genetic and ecological consequences of intentional and unintentional introduction of animals and plants.

Exposure to electromagnetic fields and radiation

At the current stage of development of scientific and technological progress, man is making significant changes to the natural magnetic field, giving geophysical factors new directions and sharply increasing the intensity of his influence. The main sources of this impact are electromagnetic fields from power lines (power lines) and electromagnetic fields from radio-television and radar stations.

The negative impact of electromagnetic fields on a person and on certain components of ecosystems is directly proportional to the field power and exposure time. Adverse impact electromagnetic field, created by the power transmission line, manifests itself already at a field strength equal to 1000 V/m. In humans, the endocrine system, metabolic processes, functions of the brain and spinal cord, etc. are disturbed.

The impact of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation from radio, television and radar stations on the human environment is associated with the formation of high-frequency energy. Japanese scientists have found that in areas located near powerful emitting television and radio antennas, eye cataract disease is noticeably increased.

In general, it can be noted that non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation of the radio range from radio and television communications, radars and other objects lead to significant violations of the physiological functions of humans and animals.

2.2 Protection of the natural environment from special types of impacts

Protection against production and consumption waste

This section uses the following key concepts:

utilization (from lat. utilis - useful) waste - extraction and economic use of various useful components;

waste disposal- placement on special permanent storage sites.

Detoxification (neutralization) of waste - their release from harmful (toxic) components at specialized installations.

At present, both in terms of the scale of accumulation and the degree of negative impact on the environment, hazardous waste is becoming the environmental problem of the century. Therefore, their collection, removal, detoxification, processing and disposal is one of the main tasks of engineering protection of the natural environment.

The most important problem is the protection of the environment from ordinary, i.e. non-toxic waste. In urbanized areas, waste disposal is already coming to the fore in terms of its importance among environmental problems. Let us consider how the environment is currently being protected from solid household and industrial waste, as well as from radioactive and dioxin-containing waste.

In domestic and world practice, the following methods of processing municipal solid waste (MSW) are most widely used:

— construction of landfills for burial and their partial processing;

— incineration of waste in waste incineration plants;

- composting (with the production of valuable nitrogen fertilizer or biofuel);

— fermentation (obtaining biogas from livestock effluents, etc.);

— preliminary sorting, utilization and recycling of valuable components;

— pyrolysis (high-molecular heating without air access) MSW at a temperature of 1700 °C.

According to a number of experts, at the current stage of development of production, which is generally characterized by the predominance of resource-consuming technologies and a huge accumulation of waste, the most acceptable method should be the construction of landfills for organized and authorized storage of waste and their partial processing (mainly by direct combustion). The term of complete disposal of waste is 50-100 years.

One of the promising methods for processing solid domestic food waste is their composting with aerobic oxidation of organic matter. The resulting compost is used in agriculture, and non-compostable household waste enters special furnaces, where it is thermally decomposed and converted into various valuable products, such as resin.

Another, less common method of processing municipal solid waste (MSW) is burning them in incinerators. Today, a small number of such plants operate in Russia (Moscow-2, Vladivostok, Sochi, Pyatigorsk, Murmansk, etc.). At these plants, the sintering of waste occurs at t = 800–850 °С. The second stage of gas purification is absent, therefore, an increased concentration of dioxins (0.9 µg/kg or more) is noted in the ashes of waste products. From each cubic meter of waste burned, 3 kg of ingredients (dust, soot, gases) are emitted into the atmosphere and 23 kg of ash remains.A number of foreign waste incineration plants implement a more environmentally friendly two-stage purification of exhaust gases; they regulate the purification of more than ten harmful components, including dibenzodioxin and dibenzofurans (four components at domestic plants). The combustion regime provides for the decomposition of waste, including dioxins formed from plastics at a temperature of 900–1000 °C.

At the plants for the pyrolysis of MSW at a temperature of 1700 ° C, all material and energy components are practically utilized, which drastically reduces environmental pollution. However technological process very laborious, in essence, the pyrolysis plant is a blast furnace.

The latest domestic developments include the technology of complex processing of MSW, proposed by the Research Institute of Resource Saving. The technology provides for preliminary mechanized sorting of MSW (extraction of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, separation of part of the ballast components - cullet, household electric batteries, separation of textile components, etc., for their subsequent use or elimination).

The heat treatment of the enriched and dried waste fraction is carried out at temperatures up to 1000 0 C, enriched slags are processed and burned into stones for construction purposes, a two-stage modern gas cleaning is provided.

A new type of waste processing plant operating on this combined technology produces only 15% of waste.

And yet, it should be emphasized that both in our country and abroad, the bulk of municipal solid waste (MSW), due to the lack of landfills, is transported to suburban areas and thrown into landfills. The ecological state of landfills is clearly unsatisfactory: waste decomposes on them, often catch fire and poison the air with toxic substances, and rain and melt water, seeping through the rock mass, pollute groundwater.

Toxic solid industrial waste is neutralized at special landfills and facilities. To prevent pollution of soils and groundwater, waste is cured with cement, liquid glass, bitumen, processed with polymer binders, etc.

In the case of especially toxic industrial waste, they are buried at special landfills (Fig. 20.19; according to S. V. Belov et al., 1991) in pits up to 12 m deep in special containers and working reinforced concrete tanks.

A very complex and still unresolved problem is the disposal and disposal of radioactive and dioxin-containing waste. It is generally recognized that ridding mankind of these wastes is one of the most acute environmental problems.

The most developed methods for the disposal of municipal radioactive waste, i.e., waste not related to the activities of nuclear power plants and the military-industrial complex, are cementing, vitrification, bitumination, burning in ceramic chambers and the subsequent transfer of processed products to special storage facilities (“burial sites”). At special plants and disposal sites, radioactive waste is burned to a minimum size in a pressing chamber. The resulting briquettes are placed in plastic barrels, filled with cement mortar and sent to storage facilities (“burial grounds”) dug into the ground by 5–10 m. According to another technology, they are burned, turned into ashes (ash), packed in barrels, cemented and sent in storage.

Vitrification, bituminization, etc. are used to dispose of liquid radioactive waste. During vitrification at a temperature of 1250-1600 ° C, granular glasses are formed, which are also encased in cement and barrels, and then sent to storage facilities. However, according to many experts, the durability of container barrels is doubtful.

Nevertheless, practically all existing methods of disposal and disposal of radioactive waste do not fundamentally solve the problem, and, as A. Ya. Yablokov (1995) notes, there are no acceptable ways to solve them.

An active fight against other very dangerous dioxin-containing wastes is being carried out in our country: technologies for water purification from dioxins by sorption on granular active carbons (GAC) have been developed and implemented (at the water supply systems of Ufa and Moscow).The problem of combating dioxins is complicated by the lack of a sufficient amount of modern analytical equipment, a small number of special laboratories, insufficiently trained personnel, the high cost of instruments from foreign companies, etc.

Noise protection

Like all other types of anthropogenic impacts, the problem of environmental pollution by noise has an international character.

Noise protection is a very complex problem and a set of measures is needed to solve it: legislative, technical and technological, urban planning, architectural planning, organizational, etc.

To protect the population from the harmful effects of noise, regulatory and legislative acts regulate its intensity, duration and other parameters.

Technical and technological measuresare reduced to noise protection, which is understood as complex technical measures to reduce noise in production (installation of soundproof casings for machine tools, sound absorption, etc.), in transport (emission silencers, replacement of shoe brakes with disc brakes, noise-absorbing asphalt, etc.).

On the urban levelNoise protection can be achieved by the following measures:

- zoning with the removal of noise sources outside the building;

- organization of a transport network that excludes the passage of noisy highways through residential areas;

— removal of noise sources and the arrangement of protective zones around and along noise sources and the organization of green spaces;

- laying of highways in tunnels, installation of noise-protective embankments and other noise-absorbing obstacles on the paths of noise propagation (screens, excavations, covaliers);

Architectural planningmeasures provide for the creation of noise-protective buildings, i.e. such buildings that provide the premises with a normal acoustic regime using structural, engineering and other measures (window sealing, double doors with a vestibule, wall cladding with sound-absorbing materials, etc.).

A certain contribution to the protection of the environment from noise impact is made by the prohibition of sound signals of vehicles, air flights over the city, restriction (or prohibition) of take-offs and landings of aircraft at night, and others.organizational arrangements.

Protection against electromagnetic fields and radiation

The main way to protect the population from the possible harmful effects of electromagnetic fields from power lines (TL) is the creation of security zones with a width of 15 to 30 m, depending on the voltage of the power line. This measure requires the alienation of large areas and their exclusion from use in certain types of economic activity.

The level of intensity of electromagnetic fields is also reduced using the installation of various screens, including from green spaces, the choice of geometric parameters of power lines, grounding cables and other measures. Replacement projects are under development overhead lines Power lines for cable and underground laying of high-voltage lines.

To protect the population from non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation generated by radio-television communications and radars, the method of protection by distance is also used. To this end, they arrange a sanitary protection zone, the dimensions of which should provide the maximum permissible level of field strength in populated areas. High-power shortwave radio stations (over 100 kW) are placed far from residential areas, outside the settlement.

Biological Protection

Prevention, timely detection, localization and elimination of biological pollution is achieved by comprehensive measures related to the anti-epidemic protection of the population. The measures include sanitary protection of the territory, the introduction of quarantine, if necessary, constant surveillance of the circulation of viruses, environmental and epidemiological observations, monitoring and control of foci of dangerous viral infections.

From the standpoint of biosafety, it is also essential to preliminarily substantiate and predict possible consequences, in particular, the introduction and acclimatization of plant and animal species new to a given territory.

It is forbidden to use and breed biological objects that are not characteristic of the nature of the corresponding region, as well as those obtained artificially, without developing measures to prevent their uncontrolled reproduction. In organizational terms, urgent measures are required to organize a virological service in Russia.

Preventive measures to prevent the transfer of genetic information from domestic forms to wild species and reduce the risk of genetic contamination of the gene pool of rare and endangered species are also important for ensuring biosecurity and biodiversity conservation.

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