The formation of the structure of the housing system was carried out in different ways. Historically, separate, broadly oriented publications arose first, and then, in the process of the development of the media, new newspapers, magazines, radio and television programs of various thematic, program, and audience orientations began to appear. If the media is a system, then we single out the components in it : material and technical base of the media. To date, the state of printing, television and radio communications is not completely satisfied in the information sphere. This is evidenced by the numbers: 40% of the capacity of large printing houses and 70% of local printing houses is obsolete letterpress. Equipment is worn out 80% - not high quality printing works. For this reason, many editorial offices of gas and railways turn to foreign printers. According to 1997 data, 56% of magazines were printed abroad. Serious difficulties are experienced by the delivery system and consumer knowledge. Ek-ka media: the most serious changes occurred in the 90s (perestroika). Along with state and general organizations, the media today are owned by private individuals, CJSC, OJSC, LLC, joint ventures. The share of state funding has noticeably decreased. On the face of competition, the media market. Significant commercialization. Now the media exists as a means of making a profit and as a means of protecting and implementing commercial projects. Audience- the influence of the audience factor on the media is very noticeable. The number of all-Russian TV and radio programs has increased; the number of all-Russian newspapers also increased. The local press is actively developing, the topics have also expanded, and the number of publications and programs addressed to various groups of the population is growing.

Typologically diverse mass media together form a system of housing. All of them interact with each other. There are several groups in the railway system: 1st - press (newspapers and magazines) 2nd audiovisual media (on-air TV, cable, radio, documentary and video broadcasting) 3rd information services (telegraph agencies, advertising bureaus, press services, PR agencies, professional clubs, etc.). if you look at the history of the media, the first appeared periodicals, radio and TV. At present, information services are developing very rapidly. They usually have extensive networks of correspondents throughout the country and abroad, maintain contact with authorities, banks and firms, etc. Depending on the variety of publications and programs, several layers can be distinguished: 1-depending on the subject, universal programs and publications are distinguished , where all spheres of society are affected (Khypar, owls of Chuvashia, MK in Cheboksary; programs-Chuvash Yen, Vesti) 2nd multidisciplinary, which cover a number of problem-thematic lines and are interconnected in a unified direction and the nature of information. (MK in Cheboksary, My Family) 3rd specialized, which refer to the thematic line (Medical messenger-gas, Health-transmission). The audience has to choose from the totality of media some according to their needs and interests.

In order for print, radio, TV to function normally, there is an extensive infrastructure (substructure). In another way, this life support system of the activity is well - ki. This system performs 2 functions: provides newspapers, magazines, radio, TV with information, technology, communication system, etc.; ensures the delivery of information to consumers.

The most important parts of the infrastructure:

Information part (information agencies and services - telegraph agencies, press agencies, radio, TV, press centers, press bureaus, etc.)

Technical part (printing enterprises, TV and radio technical centers, communications enterprises, post office, organizations engaged in bookselling, newspapers and magazines)

The system of work with personnel (faculties and departments of journals at universities, creative unions of women, writers, etc.)

Organizational and managerial. (Ministry of press mass information, associations for the protection of intellectual property, all kinds of associations).

Media typology

Typology is a classification of objects or phenomena according to the commonality of any signs. Each journalist should be able to competently give a typological description of each specific publication or broadcast program. It should be noted that: 1) the typological features are informal (infrequent) in nature, i.e. a change in one feature entails the transformation of other features, 2) the typology of the press depends on the internal (female) and external (social) causes and facts, 3) the movement in the typology of the press is continuous.

Typology criteria: 1) the region of distribution (federal, national, regional, local) here, not the place of publication, but the audience served is taken as the basis. Regional publications (Western Siberia) can be regional, local press is city and regional publications. 2) founder, 3) audience, 4) publishing characteristics.

Typology is considered in the journal as a scientific method. The basis of typology is the division of systems into separate parts and vice versa grouping using a generalized model or type. In print, this unit is a periodical, on TV it is a channel, a program, on radio it is a radio program. The type of well is used in science to study the essential features of the media: 1) this is the character of the audience, its subject-thematic orientation (har-r of information), purpose, release time, frequency.

According to the nature of the audience, types are distinguished: international, all-Russian, interregional, ethnic, territorial communities, for professional production groups, for social groups, for age groups, for women and men, for parents, for small groups, for various groups of believers .

By the nature of information: universal (Peasant, Worker), specialized (by subject: ek-ie, ecol-ie, by industry, by transport, by sports, literature, medicine, politics and etc.). The intended purpose of publishing programs differentiates the media in accordance with their character of the functions carried out. Depending on this, such television and radio programs are formed: journalistic, literary, artistic, public, cultural, educational, educational, methodological, etc.

5.9Periodical press in the media system. Its functions. Main types. Newspapers, weeklies, magazines as the main types of publications

Newspaper- a periodical text edition containing up-to-date information, articles on current, socio-political, scientific, industrial and other topics, as well as literary works, photos, advertisements. Weekly is a periodical published once a week. Journal- a periodical containing text and illustrative materials devoted to social political, social economics, scientific, industrial, cultural, aesthetic and other issues. Consists of bound printed sheets and covers, has permanent titles, profile, periodicity (from 2 issues per year to 1 issue per week), volume (in physical, conditional printed and publishing sheets), a certain thematic focus, corresponding artistically - graphic direction. Periodicals- this is a type of printed journalism publication - gas, journal, weekly, news bulletin, etc.

Printing (newspapers, magazines, weeklies, almanacs, books) Here, information is recorded on a paper sheet using typographic techniques. Infra-tion is stored in the form of figures, tables, etc. Features: 1- the text is perceived without the help of additional means; 2nd possibility of a quick overview of the materials and the choice of interest from them; 3rd opportunity to return to what was read at a convenient time for the reader; 4th opportunity to choose the optimal pace, the order of familiarization with the materials; The 5th is not fast enough due to technology and delivery, the 6th is available only to the literate. 7th opportunity to have with you at any time.

4) cultural and educational;

5.10.TV in the media system. Its functions. Main types. Development trends. The business of radio is to inform, the business of TV is to demonstrate, the business of newspapers and the press is to analyze and explain.

TV-ie is (from the point of view of technical implementation) a method of transmitting optical images at a distance using special means for receiving, converting transmission, storing (recording) and reproducing the object of observation. TV LCD functions: 1) communicative function (communication), communication, contact, communication.

2) directly-organizational;

3) ideological; (in order to constantly contribute to the growth and development of the consciousness of the masses through a comprehensive orientation in reality with an accentuated attention to the development of a common opinion)

4) cultural and educational;

6) utilitarian (helping the audience at the household level: knitting, embroidery, useful tips);

7) recreational (entertainment, stress relief, enjoyment).

Using its ability to present visual information to viewers, TV quickly intercepted a number of its most important functions from the press. The latest technical media allow TV to expand the regions of its influence and increase its audience.

Features of TV: 1- the possibility of organizing operational programs. 2- creating a great "presence effect". 3- the ability to access TV only in your free time. The inability for the viewer to change the time of watching programs. 4- ease of perception of information. 5- the possibility of combining with other activities.

The main types: according to the method of broadcasting a) on-air (all broadcasting organizations using the traditional method of broadcasting a television signal from a TV tower to a consumer's television system), b) satellite (for example, Kosmos TV is a Russian-American joint venture, In Russia in 1996. NTV plus "") c) cable (Company "KTV-1", cable networks in the cities of Russia)

By type of activity: broadcasters, program producers, distributors.

According to the principle of education: from old structures (VID, ATV, etc.), newly formed (TV-6 Moscow),

In terms of audience coverage: all-Russian (RTR), interstate (with a stretch to include ORT), regional and local.

According to the method of distribution: nationwide (ORT, RTR), network, local.

By specialization of programs: general (TYPE, etc.), specialized.

By form of ownership: state, non-state (private-REN-TV, CJSC, OJSC)

5.11. Broadcasting in the media system. Its functions. Main types. Development trends. The business of radio is to inform, the business of TV is to demonstrate, the business of newspapers and the press is to analyze and explain.

Peculiarities: the carrier of information is sound. 1- high efficiency of information. 2 - the possibility of a more complete and deep perception of pure sound. 3- the impossibility of listening at a convenient time, in the desired order, pace and returning to information if necessary 4- the possibility of listening at one moment only one transmission. 5- the possibility of combining listening with other types of activities. 6- the ability to carry with you at any time.

Zh-ki functions: 1) communicative function (communication), establishing communication, contact, communication.

2) directly-organizational;

3) ideological; (in order to constantly contribute to the growth and development of the consciousness of the masses through a comprehensive orientation in reality with an accentuated attention to the development of a common opinion)

4) cultural and educational;

6) utilitarian (helping the audience at the household level: knitting, embroidery, useful tips);

7) recreational (entertainment, stress relief, enjoyment).

Radio broadcasting function - the word function in the dictionary is interpreted as obligations, activities, role, range of activities. Based on this definition, we ... on a variety of f. radio. . in the foreground functions: information, educational, entertaining. All of them are connected with providing the audience with maximum information about the life and activities of the society: 1) info, 2) f. expression and formation of a general opinion (they said on the radio), f. communication (telephone calls, SMS), propaganda fund, educational fund, organizational fund.

Types: franchised - commercial network FM stations, local commercial FM stations, available in large cities, media holdings, nationwide or central radio stations, including state-owned Radio of Russia, commercial

Russian Radio, regional radio stations, local local radio stations (covering a limited audience of small cities, towns, settlements, rural areas, etc.).

1920 the first radio station in Cheboksary, 12 Oct. 1924 daily broadcast of the Moscow radio station named after. AS Popova, on November 23, the regular radio programs of the station or the Comintern were opened.

social reality (or social reality) - social phenomena and processes that actually exist. Currently, the term "social reality" is used in two senses: ontological, reflecting all objectively existing social processes and phenomena, and epistemological, which is the subject of specific social and humanitarian sciences and theories.

The mass media are considered the most valuable source of social information, on the basis of which the study of various phenomena of social reality is carried out. On the one hand, there is a scientific knowledge of society (within the framework of social and humanitarian research), on the other hand, based on the analysis of the spectrum of collective opinions presented in the media, specific practical and managerial decisions are made that regulate the activities of a wide range of social (political, economic and other) subjects .

We will designate scientific knowledge of social reality through the study of information represented by the media as theoretical-analytical approach. Within the framework of this approach, specialized activities are carried out for the production of humanitarian scientific knowledge. The study of current media discourse as one of the most significant aspects of the comprehensive work to determine the effectiveness of the communicative activity of social subjects can be conditionally called pragmatic approach to the study of social reality. Here, the main goal is no longer a scientific description of the reality under study, but the development of specific management decisions based on the operational data obtained, short-term and long-term (strategic) planning of communication processes.

Let's take a closer look at the above approaches.

Theoretical-analytical approach

Historical and philological tradition of studying social reality based on media materials

Social reality is at the center of research attention of a large number of social sciences and humanities. Philosophy and psychology, political science, cultural studies, etc. are engaged in the analysis of various aspects of the functioning of society and the identification of the patterns of its development, the study of a person as a subject of social life, included in the system of social relations. Texts of mass communication become an important source of information for these disciplines. As the outstanding Russian philosopher and researcher M. M. Bakhtin rightly noted, "in the field of humanitarian knowledge, intellectual operations with someone else's description of one or another fragment of social life are the main source for the formation of one's own judgments about what is not given to the researcher as a fragment of his direct experience ". With the help of their own scientific procedures, social and humanitarian disciplines construct a subject of research specific to a particular scientific field, i.e. on the basis of social information gleaned from the media, they produce scientific knowledge that is significant for a given discipline.

From the point of view of the development of the analysis methodology, standards and norms of scientific activity and principles for interpreting the results obtained, the problem of studying media materials is most fully represented in source studies.

source study - this is the doctrine of the source, a field of social and humanitarian knowledge devoted to the study of the entire set of sources created by man, a specific method of cognizing social reality. Source study as a special discipline has developed within the framework of the methodology of historical research, since it is historical science that systematically uses documents for the purposes of knowledge (in this case, historical sources). However, at present, the problems that are specially developed by historical source studies are becoming a sphere of interdisciplinary scientific interest, which makes it possible to speak of source studies as a special method of social and humanitarian scientific knowledge that goes beyond the scope of historical science.

Humanitarian knowledge aims to increase and systematize knowledge about a person (in the fullness and integrity of this phenomenon) and society (a phenomenon of humanity in its temporal and spatial unity), and source study enriches this industry with its specific cognitive means. Thus, the basic source concept a source (in the narrow sense, "historical source") as an integral set of works created in the process of purposeful human activity, as a material carrier of retrospective information, today becomes a universal interdisciplinary category. In sociology, psychology, ethnography, ethnology, cultural studies, linguistics, the concept of "source" includes material objects that carry information not only of a retrospective, but also of an operational and prospective nature. The method of cognition of the surrounding world through fixed sources of information, reflecting the interaction of a person with nature, society, the state and with another person, becomes general scientific.

Under the guise of a historical source, as a rule, a historically established set of sources is understood, characterized by the similarity of the internal form (structure) arising from the unity of the source during its creation. The species commonality of the sources, based on the repeatability of the properties of the sources, makes it possible to develop common methods their research.

Species division is not applicable to every type of sources. From the middle of the XIX century. the most significant for historical science are written sources, that is why the classification of types of written sources becomes basic. The latter include the following:

• - annals,
• - legislative acts,
• - business documentation
• - private deeds
• - static sources,
• - periodicals,
• – documents of personal origin (memoirs, correspondence, etc.),
• - literary monuments,
• - journalism
• - political essays
• - scientific works.

Different types of sources prevailed in different historical epochs. So, as society develops, old types of sources (chronicles) disappear, new ones are formed (statistical materials, periodicals, photographic and film documents). Over time, the carrier of almost all types of written sources becomes press, and the further development of the mass media system contributes to an increase in the proportion of sources originally intended for publication in one form or another.

Social reality as historical experience and social practice is reflected in media materials in all its variety of aspects, therefore, not only historians, but also sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, psychologists, political scientists, art historians, language researchers and literary texts. The goal of any social and humanitarian research is not only to extract from the press all the social information useful for a particular research, but also to critically evaluate and correctly interpret it.

In practical terms, the above suggests a differentiated approach to the development of an analysis methodology. different types written (and, in a broad sense, media) sources of information accumulated in the media.

Relatively easy to collect and process information chronicle. For a long time, a literary genre has been called a chronicle - works containing a consistent presentation of social or family events. By the beginning of the XX century. the term acquired a new and most significant meaning for us: a special department of newspapers and magazines began to be called a chronicle. In the first quarter of the XX century. dictionaries already record the genre and thematic features of materials published in the chronicle section: "Chronicle (as a special department of newspapers and magazines. - Z . X.) affects the area of ​​the artistic word no more than any other literary work: the subject of description in the magazine and newspaper chronicle are the events of today, both in the field of socio-political, and in others: in literary, musical, theatrical, scientific ... There is a chronicle mod, sports chronicle, chess game chronicle. In English and French magazines, a chronicle of high society life is common. The main purpose of such a chronicle is to inform the reader. Creativity is manifested here to a very small extent, the topics and material are only chosen by the compiler, but they are supplied by reality. The language and style of the chronicle is, for the most part, stereotyped." modern dictionaries the concept acquires a generalizing character: a chronicle in the periodical press, radio, cinema, etc. These are informational messages about current events.

Thus, the chronicle, as an important part of the content of the media, is a rich source of facts necessary in the process of understanding different sections of social reality. And the main method by which social and humanitarian disciplines isolate the necessary knowledge from the array of publications is factual analysis.

Along with the materials published in the "Chronicle" section, the function of representing factual information is performed by those published in the media. official information : legislative acts, statistical data, etc. The fact that the Russian press traditionally presents a large amount of official information is quite understandable. Russian newspapers arose not only later than European ones, but, unlike them, not in the public, but in the state sphere. The origin and formation of the Russian press took place in conditions of a radical transformation of the entire state structure. The reforms of Peter the Great gave rise to a new form of relationship between the individual and the state and completely changed the nature of lawmaking. Gradually, the law becomes the only source of law. There is a growing conviction that laws can reshape the life of the state and influence the formation of the individual. In addition, the discrepancy between custom and law makes the state take special care of the publication of legislative acts. From the beginning of the XVIII century. publication of the texts of laws becomes mandatory. Consolidated statistical data are also beginning to be published systematically.

Gradually, laws and statistics become important components of periodicals. Formal assignment to newspapers of the function of replicating legal (and partly statistical) information takes place in the first half of the 19th century. So, since 1838, by the highest order of the reformer Tsar Alexander II, the Gubernskiye Vedomosti began to be published in large provincial cities - official periodicals designed to acquaint the general population with state laws, orders and orders of local authorities. The official section was supplemented by an unofficial one, which published materials on local history, geography, ethnography, and statistics (Fig. 3.1).

Rice. 3.1. "Penza Provincial Gazette", 1855

Later, the system of provincial newspapers was supplemented by a new edition, which over time became the main element in the system of disseminating information of a state nature. By the decree of the same Alexander II of October 27, 1869, the daily official newspaper "Government Bulletin" was established at the main department of press affairs. Along with government orders and messages, reports on meetings of the Council of Ministers and the State Council, the newspaper presented unofficial materials: domestic and foreign news, articles and book reviews, stock index, weather reports, etc.

It is quite obvious that in this case Russia adopted the advanced experience of European countries. TO early XIX in. in some of them, a special type of periodicals was already successfully functioning, in which the daily activities of state (usually legislative) authorities were recorded and important results of this activity were published. Such publications were called official messengers (official bulletins, official newspapers, or diaries). Official messengers were not always designed for a wide audience. Most often they were published in the interests of specific state bodies or departments.

The most famous European publication of this type is considered to be the Bulletin of the Parliament of Great Britain, which since 1803 has been regularly published under the title "Parliamentary Debates. Official Report" (Fig. 3.2).

The fate of this publication is very curious. By the end of the XVIII century. - century of European Enlightenment - in the UK, the interests of readers became much more diverse, British newspapers of that period began to publish unofficial reports on parliamentary hearings. Lacking permission to release official parliamentary reports and transcripts ( long time for military purposes, information about the activities of the parliament was classified), journalists posted materials on behalf of fictitious political clubs. The first indulgence in the observance of the principle of secrecy in covering the activities of the British Parliament was noted during the Napoleonic Wars. Then the journalist William Cobbett (William Cobbett) published materials on the history of the British Parliament and received the right to publish his own records of the parliamentary hearings.

The texts of parliamentary debates are published by Cobbet as an appendix to his weekly Political Register, which, at that time, has a huge circulation of 6,000 copies, is sold for only one shilling, and is considered a popular and influential publication. In 1809, Cobbet enters into a contract for the publication of his reports on the meetings of the Houses of Parliament of Great Britain with the famous publisher Thomas Curson Hansard (Thomas Curson Hansard) and then sells him the right to their further publication. In 1829, Hanzard decides to put his name on the title page of the publication "Parliamentary Debates. Official Report". Since that time, "Hansard" (Hansard) has become a recognized name for public

Rice . 3.2. "Parliamentary debate. Official report", 1832

of parliamentary reports in countries with the British parliamentary model - Australia, New Zealand, Canada.

If at first "Hanzard" simply reprinted unofficial recordings of speeches of parliamentarians during debates from daily newspapers, then later it was specially prepared by parliamentary journalists. To this day, Hanzard is the official publication of the British Parliament: the materials of the hearings of the House of Lords published in it have the status of legal documents (Fig. 3.3).

For objective reasons, the tradition of public coverage of the activities of the legislature came to Russia only a hundred years later. At the beginning of the XX century. the practice of public coverage of the activities of the State Duma is being formed. During the work of the Duma, a detailed record was kept of the speeches of the parliamentarians and the course of each session. Subsequently, the transcripts were transcribed and printed. The typewritten text and the basic manuscript were reviewed by deputies who could make comments. Then the final version was approved by the Chairman of the Duma and published under the heading "Printed by order of the Chairman of the State Duma." Reports published under this heading were sent to government departments, scientific institutions, libraries, etc. After that, the transcripts fell on the pages of newspapers.

The availability of records of Duma sessions supported freedom of speech and the press in tsarist Russia. However, due to the right of deputies to correct the texts of their speeches, transcripts printed in newspapers sometimes differed from the originals and might not convey the true meaning of their speeches.

In Soviet times, the role of an official state body was carried out by the newspaper Izvestia, the first issue of which was published on February 28 (March 13), 1917 in Petrograd. It was in Izvestiya of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies, as the official print organ of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies, that the

Rice. 3.3. Modern British "Hunzard"

Rice. 3.4.

Pic. 3.5.

"To the population of Petrograd and Russia", which ended with the well-known appeal: "All together, with common forces, we will fight for the complete elimination of the old government and the convening of a constituent assembly elected on the basis of universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage."

After the October Revolution, on October 27 (November 9), 1917, Izvestia became an organ of the Central Executive Committee and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. The newspaper acquired the status of one of the official printed organs of the new government - along with the "Newspaper of the Provisional Worker and Peasant Government", which was the official organ of the Council of People's Commissars. It was in Izvestia that the founding documents of the Bolshevik government were published: the Decree on Peace (Fig. 3.4) and the Decree on Land (Fig. 3.5).

Since March 10, 1918, when the newspaper of the Provisional Worker and Peasant Government was discontinued, Izvestia was assigned the status of the only official government publication, but in fact this function was performed by the press organ of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) - the newspaper Pravda.

At present, official information is still a significant component of the content of the media. Just like 170 years ago, Russian laws, government decrees, instructions and statistics are published in the official publication, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, on a mandatory basis. Regional authorities also have their own official publications-publishers. And, despite the fact that official information has been published and continues to be published in an abbreviated version adapted to the interests of the general reader, they are unconditional and quite operational from the point of view of the formation of "everyday knowledge" that precedes any theoretical research.

However, it is worth making a reservation: the historical and philological tradition of studying the press as an integral part of the process of cognition of social reality involves turning not only and not so much to the materials that are simple in form and method of analysis, which were mentioned above, but also to the most complex texts in terms of genre and content. , created specifically with the expectation of publication in the media. As the researchers note, "thanks to the efforts of the scientific-historical school and a method that has no equal at any stage of intellectual history, the past turned out to be a “recreated present” for modern man with an amazing variety of forms of thinking" . The procedure for verifying the data contained in the analytical and artistic and journalistic materials of the media is complex. In contrast to chronicles, statistics and official documentation, journalistic publications themselves are highly likely to distort facts. A serious problem is the identification of hidden, implicitly present in journalistic texts goals, motives, motives, attitudes. And some genres, such as journalistic ones, require an individual research approach in each specific case.

Despite the lack of a unified research methodology journalism in the press, domestic source studies have accumulated extensive experience in the analysis of this type of written sources. Thus, the journalism of the era of Catherine II, the period when journalistic thought is firmly included in the content of the press, has been studied in detail. Journals "Droten" (1769-1770) and "Painter" (1772-1773) II. I. Novikov or "Mail of the Spirits" (1789) and "The Spectator" (1798) by I. A. Krylov were carefully considered by researchers as examples of bright author's journalism. No less attention was paid to the journalism of the 19th century, which is represented, for example, by the controversy between Westerners and Slavophiles, revolutionary democrats and liberals, speeches by the ideologists of the populist movement, and so on.

For a long time, researchers paid special attention to the problem that originated at the beginning of the 20th century. journalism of party leaders. In the party press there was a maximum combination of journalism with periodicals. In Soviet times, the journalistic activities of V. I. Lenin and his associates became one of the most actively developed topics in press studies (Fig. 3.6).

Rice. 3.6.

The methodology of the source study of journalistic works involves a precise definition of their species (author's, journalism of mass popular movements, projects of state reforms and constitutions), the most complete identification of the author's intentions, determination of the purpose of creating the work and the intended circle of its readers. As you can see, the proposed methodology is based on a given algorithm of actions, but does not contain clear criteria for analysis.

More operational in this regard methodology of linguistic analysis. The language and stylistic features of the media are constantly the object of research, media materials are actively used by scientists (linguists, ethnologists and culturologists) in the process of recreating the linguistic picture of the world of certain communities. The traditional philological aspect of the study of the language of the media is supplemented by a number of scientific problems philosophical, culturological, political science, psycholinguistic character.

• Sociology: encyclopedia / comp. L. L. Gritsanov [i dr.]. Minsk, 2003. URL: mirslovarei.eom/content_soc/SOCIALNAJA-REALNOST-10732.html.
• Bakhtin M. M. The problem of text in linguistics, philology and other humanities // Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979. S. 281.
"The newspaper of the Provisional Worker and Peasant Government" began to be published on the basis of the newspaper "Bulletin of the Provisional Government" from October 28 (November 10), 1917. The publication completely retained the format and artistic style of its predecessor, the Government Bulletin.
• Bergman P., Lukman T. Social construction of reality. M., 1995. S. 16.

A.V. Kuznetsov

Saratov State University, Department of Political Sciences

Over the past fifty years, the pace of world development has accelerated tenfold, which in turn has left its mark on all spheres of public life. The state, civil society, business and the media are facing or are already in a state of change. The reason for this state of affairs is that the process of change is taking place at different speeds in different regions of the world. This allows us to assert that the information society has fully manifested itself where industrial development has reached the highest levels. These leading states include the United States, a number of countries European Union, Japan, as well as states demonstrating high rates of economic growth. In these states, in addition to changes in the production-consumption sector, trends that have not taken place before have become actualized, namely, the pluralization of public structures, a high level of public needs and expectations, a large scale of uncertainty and risk, informatization of society, and a decline in public confidence in government bodies. . These trends can be combined under one common denominator, such as the growth of the diversity of society, namely the diversity of its interests and needs. An exhaustive description of this phenomenon can only be given in the future, but some conclusions can be drawn today.

At the end of the last century, the world entered the era of administrative reforms. This was due to the crisis symptoms in the public administration system, which was expressed in the excessive growth of the administrative apparatus, in the increase in the costs of its maintenance and the low quality of the services provided by the state. All of the above was expressed in the growth of distrust in the public sector and its representatives.

The phenomenon of the diversity of society can be viewed in different ways, the growth of the diversity of public interests is one of the modern trends in the development of the social system. An analysis of social processes gives grounds to single out a number of phenomena that affect the complication of the social structure in the direction of an increase in the pluralization of social attitudes and opinions.

Modern technologies, namely the means of communication based on them, have become an accelerator of change. The ability to quickly receive and exchange information affects the consciousness of society and each individual and contributes to the formation of many opinions and views. The amount of information gives the right to choose a point of view or makes an individual think independently, draw conclusions and create his own image of reality, because the world around us is a reflection of our consciousness. To analyze the influence of the means of communication on the growth of the diversity of public interests, we will focus on the media and the Internet.

Mass media is an important element of the social system.

This is not just an intermediary between the event and the audience, a means of mass communication. It is a factory for the production of images and points of view. Society consciously or unconsciously accepts them.

Within the framework of the industrial economic structure, through the media, the state constructed a unified society, since the mass media were a powerful lever of influence on the mass consciousness. A unified society is easily manageable, controllable, mass character is convenient for a representative system of democracy. Already in the 1960s. in the US and Western Europe, the media began to lose their monopoly on the formation of public opinion. Rather, it survived, but lost its mass character. This was written by the American sociologist E. Toffler, who described this phenomenon as “the demassification of the mass media”1. It was expressed in the fact that traditional media were gradually losing their audience, whose interest shifted towards television and radio. Subsequently, cable television came to homes and began to rapidly capture the interest of the audience.

The dominance of American media moguls like NBC has been undermined. The demassification of the media was the result of the demassification of society, and perhaps vice versa, it is like a chicken and egg dilemma.

The phenomena studied by E. Toffler back in 1980 still exist today. It should be noted that the continuation of the above process is observed. This is expressed not only in “demassification”, but also in the democratization of the mass media. The Internet played a huge role here. Dale Peskin and Andrew Natchison, directors of the American Press Institute's Media Center in Reston, Virginia, introduced a new concept: "we are the media"2. It is used to describe the emerging phenomenon of global access to information content from an infinite number of sources (mobile phone, PC), content that involves citizen participation in the creation of news and information that has an impact on society.

Direct proof of a new phenomenon - search system Google. Its main task is how to organize world information, that is, to enable people to organize the world in which they live. People are empowered to search, find information that reflects their personal preferences, and act accordingly.

Blogs are another manifestation of diversity. These virtual diaries allow you to formulate ideas and connect people around the world. Sites such as Global Voices http://www. globalvoicesonline.org collect stories and opinions from ordinary citizens who speak in the first person about unique situations, preserving the identity of their culture. So persuasive is their power that sites such as http://www.technorati.com have been created on the Internet to track over 25 million blogs, which make up only about a quarter of the ezines in the "blogosphere". Global networks allow people to post news, thoughts, ideas and images anywhere, anytime.

In the new chain of information transfer, the role of the editor is performed by the Internet through the “blogosphere”. In this sense, digital media inherently undermine the interests of any institution based on power and control. Traditional media are being replaced by companies such as Google, MSN and Yahoo as the main custodians of information.

Another process that can also be an argument in defense of the thesis about the growth of the diversity of public interests is the rapid development of civil society throughout the civilized world. This process is most active in countries that have chosen a democratic path of development, as well as in countries classified as non-democratic.

At the same time, it is necessary to pay special attention to the fact that after the Second world war movement towards democracy is intensifying. According to the American political scientist S. Huntington, human civilization has witnessed three waves of democratization and two periods of “rollback” from democracy3. The chronological framework of the beginning of the second wave roughly corresponds to the end of the Second World War, to be precise, this is the period from 1943 to 1962. This is followed by the stage of curtailing democracy. Since 1975, a new third "wave of democratization" begins, which continues to this day.

The spread of democracy has been one of the defining geopolitical trends of the past 25 years, according to The Christian Science Monitor, a US scientific daily newspaper. In 1975, the leadership was elected by the population in 30 countries of the world. By 2005, the number of such states has increased dramatically - up to 1194. Despite the success, the Western establishment is concerned that this process has stopped and a rather long-term process of stagnation is observed.

Trends in the development and strengthening of civil society institutions signal the opposite: movement towards the expansion of democracy and an open dialogue between all sides of the political process.

Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, in his report “We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century”, delivered at the meeting of the UN General Assembly on March 27, 2000, emphasized that “the sphere of international public relations, including the UN, should be further more open to the participation of many actors whose contributions are essential to managing globalization. Depending on the issues under consideration, they may be civil society organizations, the private sector, parliamentarians, local authorities, scientific associations, educational institutions and many other types of organizations. Today, global issues are no longer the exclusive prerogative of the ministries of foreign affairs, and states have ceased to be the sole initiator of solutions to the numerous problems of our small planet. Together with national decision-making mechanisms, numerous, diverse and increasingly influential non-state actors are participating in the creative development of new forms of global governance. The more complex the issue - whether it is negotiating a ban on landmines, imposing limits on emissions that contribute to global warming, or establishing an International Criminal Court - the more often we see that non-governmental organizations, institutions are involved in the search for consensus solutions, together with states private sector and multilateral agencies”5.

Indeed, with each passing year, the growing trend in the number of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) expressing the interests of civil society more and more clearly defines itself. According to the head of Roszarubezhtsentr E.V. Mitrofanova, the number of NGOs in the world has increased 40 times over the past decade6. This is a new reality that cannot be ignored, as it represents the opportunity to make decisions and solve problems in a new way, that is, together. This applies not only to international practice, but also to domestic practice, since in the new conditions the state is not able to ensure high-quality and fair management without resorting to the help of public structures.

Describing the features of public administration at the present stage of development, experts note the desire to take into account social aspects in economic policy and structural adjustment. This is a reaction to the trend towards economic liberalization that characterized the 1980s and 1990s. the last century. This reaction is largely the result of appeals from civil society (CS) and non-governmental organizations, whose number and influence, as noted above, have increased significantly over the past decade.

The diversity of NGOs is a consequence of the diversity of public interests. Under the new conditions, the state has a radical need for additional channels for obtaining information from society.

The governments of the United States, the European Union, Russia and the entire civilized world have already faced the problem of the quality of governance. There was a disproportion incompatible with efficiency between the archaic public administration and the increased degree of diversity of its sphere of responsibility. There are only two conceivable ways of solving the manifold relation problem7:

1) complication (increasing the degree of diversity) of the subject of management (public authorities);

2) simplification (decrease in the degree of diversity) of the managed object (public structures).

The implementation of the second option in modern conditions more than utopian. Only the organizational simplification of society is possible by reducing the number of parties, economic and political units. But this will not have the expected effect, since it will not affect the evolutionary processes within society. As before, there will be an increase in political pressure on power structures, bypassing traditional systems of political representation. The development of NGOs is an outward expression of this trend. The complication of the subject of management seems, in our opinion, the most correct solution and requires detailed consideration.

There are three main ways to bring the system of public administration to the required level of complexity.

1. Extensive path: expanding the structure of government bodies and increasing the number of officials.

2. Intensive path: meaningful complication of officials, that is, the development human capital. Complicating the process of recruiting the bureaucracy, departmental training and retraining programs.

3. Network approach: it is necessary to introduce the concept of "knowledge management"8 (knowledge management), which plays a key role in revealing the meaning of this approach. Social media assume the restructuring of the system of vertical administration based on hierarchies into a system of horizontal management, involving the participation of civil society in the development of political decisions, the exchange of knowledge and cooperation based on dialogue.

The first way is the least effective, since it leads to the creation of a cumbersome clumsy machine that requires huge financial costs to maintain life and perform high-quality functions. Current practice shows that administrative reforms reject the extensive path, as they are aimed at optimizing management functions and reducing financial costs. An attempt to create a competent and responsible official is more credible than the practice of increasing their numbers. But such an approach is also unsatisfactory, since a qualitative improvement in content does not at all cancel the shortcomings of the form. The solution development system remains little responsive to signals from the external environment. The conclusion is obvious: the problem of the correlation of varieties can be solved in only one way, namely, by transforming both the form and the content of government bodies.

In our opinion, the first two ways to create an effective system of public administration should be considered as measures implemented within the framework of one general approach, which can be characterized as reforming the traditional hierarchical system of government. With this approach, the task is to preserve established practices and the existing structure of public administration, based on the principles of unity of command, clear regulation of actions, and assessment of efficiency in terms of the amount of developed resources. Innovations introduced into the old structure do not aim to radically transform it, but only to modernize individual blocks of the system, including through ongoing public sector informatization programs. It is necessary to note the special role of the network management model, the implementation of which can ensure the creation of a new system of public administration, as well as provide additional opportunities for expanding democratic practice.

Diversity, being a consequence of the increased amount of information, itself produces information, namely the diversity of public interests and attitudes. The adoption of political decisions involves the accumulation of information, its structuring and analysis, which ultimately leads to the acquisition of knowledge and its application to streamline public life. The knowledge gained is formalized into clear norms or orders, the power of which extends to the entire territory of the state.

A simplified view shows the process of political decision-making, which is fundamental in any political system in the world. The active administrative reforms of the last two decades are proof that a huge array of errors has accumulated in the mechanism for developing and making political decisions, and it requires a major overhaul. The increased volume of information produced by society often leads to ignorance of power structures in decision-making, which affects the quality of public policy. Society's response: distrust, misunderstanding, social tension. The result of bad management: system instability. The consequences may be unpredictable for the political elite. It is interested in stabilizing the situation in the long term. Accordingly, in the conditions of a diverse society, the political system should be able, in our opinion, to solve two main tasks of management:

1) obtaining the necessary amount of information about society, 2) high-quality processing of information and obtaining knowledge.

The acceleration of time is one of the features of the information society, where innovations both in the economy and in the public sector become a decisive factor in the struggle for competitiveness.

The main power is acquired by knowledge that produces innovations. There comes an understanding that investing in education, that is, in the ability of the individual, is the driving force of development. Undoubtedly, this approach is also relevant in the field of public administration. Knowledge management is becoming a necessary condition for the successful progress of administrative reforms, the purpose of which is to bring the system of public administration to the required level of complexity. The development and adoption of political decisions is already unthinkable without taking into account the cultural, economic and political diversity of society. The only way to achieve "good governance" is to expand democratic practice. This opportunity is provided by the introduction of the institution of electronic government (electronic government), which can play the role of a catalyst for change in the public administration sector9.

The formation of electronic technologies for the implementation of government activities can affect the nature of management in different ways: from strengthening established management practices to transforming the management structure in line with strengthening horizontal transactions. In the conditions of the complication of the social structure, prerequisites arise for a qualitatively new nature of interaction between the public sector and the external environment. In the process of cooperation, consent and an agreement are of key importance, which allow developing solutions on common topical issues.

The diversity of public interests brings to life precisely network types of organization and interaction. The network model expands the rights of the "minority" to participate in politics, which is difficult to achieve in hierarchical structures.

Bibliography

1 See: Toffler E. The Third Wave. M., 2004. S. 266.

2 Natchison E., Peskin D. Emerging media is changing global society // http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itgic/0306/ijgr/peskin.htm.

3 See: Huntington S. The Third Wave: Democratization at the end of the 20th century. M., 2003. 367 p.

4 The Christian Science Monitor. Global spread of democracy stalled // http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1121/p01s02-usgn.html

5 We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century // http://www.un.org/russian/conferen/millennium/2000–6.htm

6 The role of civil society structures in the dialogue between Russia and the EU // http://www.rusintercenter.ru/?lang=ru&text=16

7 Shabrov O.F. Diversity as a factor in the effectiveness of public administration // http://shabrov.info/Statji/ raznoobr2.htm

8 Smorgunov L.V. E-government, knowledge management and administrative reforms // http://politex.info/content/view/59/40/

9 See: Smorgunov L.V. Abilities of the state and criticism of the concept of e-government // Internet and modern society: Tr. X All-Russian joint conf. SPb., 2007. S. 38.

Kolesnikov Vyacheslav Alexandrovich

SOCIAL INTEREST AND PUBLIC FACTOR OF DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN RUSSIA

In the article, taking into account the activity principle, the features of social interest are characterized, species diversity is accentuated on the basis of the "spheral approach" and the subjects of positing interests in society. The dominant of state interests is singled out in relation to public interests under the conditions of an authoritarian regime. The objectivity of the influence of public interests on the sustainable functioning of civil institutions is substantiated. In order to increase the factor of public interests, the need to deepen democratic reforms and assert rule of law on the basis of a new agreement between power and society in modern Russia.

Address of the article: \m№^.agato1a.pe1/ma1epa18/3/2016/4-2/2SSht1

A source

Historical, philosophical, political and legal sciences, cultural studies and art history. Questions of theory and practice

Tambov: Diploma, 2016. No. 4 (66): in 2 parts, Part 2. C. 81-86. ISSN 1997-292X.

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5. Questions of vocal pedagogy: Sat. articles. M.: Music, 1976. Issue. 5. 260 p.; 1982. Issue. 6. 184 p.

6. Gnid B. History of vocal art. K.: NMAU, 1997. 318 p.

7. Gurenko E. G. Problems of artistic interpretation. Novosibirsk, 1982. 265 p.

8. Dmitriev L. B. Fundamentals of vocal technique. M.: Muzyka, 2004. 675 p.

9. Medushevsky V. On the regularities and means of the artistic impact of music. M.: Muzyka, 1976. 254 p.

10. Ogorodnov D. E. Musical and singing education of children in general education school: method. allowance. 3rd edition. K.: Musical Ukraine, 1989. 165 p.

INFLUENCE OF UKRAINIAN PHONETICS ON VOCAL PERFORMANCE

Kovbasyuk Andrei Mikhailovich

I. Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine [email protected] en

The article examines the phonetic and prosodic aspect of verbal intonation and its role in the process of vocal performance. The problem of studying the ethical and psychological basics of national song folklore, its importance in developing singers" vocal potentials and the genetic foundations of native speech as backgrounds for the vocal apparatus development are still beyond the sphere of scientific interest. The sound of considerable language helps to identify the artistic originality of vocal music, promotes recognizing the peculiarities of performance traditions.

Key words and phrases: vocal music; phonetics of language; verbal intonation; musical intonation; diction; articulation; singing.

UDC 101.1; 316.32 Philosophical sciences

In the article, taking into account the activity principle, the features of social interest are characterized, species diversity is accentuated on the basis of the “spheral approach” and the subjects of positing interests in society. The dominant of state interests is singled out in relation to public interests under the conditions of an authoritarian regime. The objectivity of the influence of public interests on the sustainable functioning of civil institutions is substantiated. In order to increase the factor of public interests, the necessity of deepening democratic transformations and establishing a rule of law state on the basis of a new agreement between power and society in modern Russia is argued.

Key words and phrases: social interest; activity principle; public interest; public interests; civil society; democratic development.

Kolesnikov Vyacheslav Alexandrovich, Doctor of Political Science n., k. filos. PhD, Associate Professor

Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation (branch) in Volgograd [email protected] T

SOCIAL INTEREST AND PUBLIC

DEVELOPMENT FACTOR OF MODERN RUSSIA

The relevance of the topic is due to the need for a comprehensive study of social interests, associated with the transformational processes of the Russian Federation (RF). In the spectrum of scientific research, not only the priority of state interests is significant: national security, structural restructuring of the economy, ensuring interethnic unity and interfaith relations, but the study of the entire variety of social interests in the functional subsystems of society, understanding the essential nature. In a broad sense, social interests are a polysubjective phenomenon, encompassing their specific forms in the "societal" integrity. In a narrow sense, social interests are a phenomenon of the social sphere of social existence and can be considered as relatively independent in relation to economic, political, and cultural interests. This approach correlates with the sphere of social support for the population, healthcare and education, housing and communal services, and the development of social infrastructure in the Russian Federation. Recall that social priorities were updated in our country with the goals of implementing national priority projects in the first decade of the 21st century.

An important aspect of the study of social interests is revealed in the specific form of "public interests", directly derived from society, the population of the Russian Federation. Here, the difference from state interests is also revealed, the subjects of which are the state and state institutions (the state is defined as an organized management system) that ensure the implementation of the functions of state authorities. In authoritarian states, the interests of the state dominate

bureaucracy and big capital, the interests of maintaining and retaining power are especially focused. State interests, state policy in the conditions of societies in transition to democracy may also not coincide with public interests. Stable manipulative influences and forms of coercion, the phenomenon of alienation of the population from power and property, participation in the management of state affairs.

The position of opposing “state interests” and “public interests” is revealed by V.P. Makarenko (“Russian power and the bureaucratic state”, Rostov-on-Don, 2013). "common interests of the population of the country." “Corporate, client and partner relations of interest groups with the state apparatus do not reflect the common interests of the country's population... The state apparatus does not express common interests either. Therefore, the general interests of the country's population are not expressed in Russian legislation either. System analytics also uses the “snake ball of interests” metaphor borrowed from B. Lewis: “From the point of view of the “snake ball of interests” one can consider the activities of all government departments and institutions” [Ibid.].

The statesman V. E. Chirkin, in solidarity with foreign constitutionalists, also characterizes the existing political regime in Russia as a “presidential regime with strong authoritarian tendencies” . In critical assessments, it is stated: “ Russian state only basically legal”; “legal nihilism should be added, huge corruption, the fight against which is talked about from high tribunes”; state power in the subject of the Russian Federation is “state-like non-sovereign public power” [Ibid., p. 26, 27, 29]. It should be noted that in the progressive development of democracy, the “appropriation of the public power of the people” and the functions of violence against society, carried out through special state institutions, are gradually transformed.

Without setting the task of systematizing the conceptual aspects of the topic (historical, systemic, institutional, functional-subjective contradictions, etc.), let us focus on understanding the essence of social interest. The main approaches identified in the philosophical literature in understanding the phenomenon: cognitive, value, activity. Cognitive was used by J. Locke, who defined interests as an incentive to the knowledge of truth. The value was emphasized by K. Helvetius, who characterized interests as “a way of assessing honesty and intelligence, a criterion of respect and contempt.” The activity one is substantiated by G. Hegel, who defined interests "as the source and cause of people's activity." In the 20th century, the activity approach was widely used by Western researchers J. Vincent, L. Gumplovich, G. Ratzenhofer, A. Small. “Interests,” A. Small argued, “are the primary elements to which all human actions are reducible.”

The activity approach accumulates cognitive and value approaches and allows us to consider social interests as a factor in the transformation of social relations. From the standpoint of this approach, interest reflects the relationship between objective and subjective phenomena in essence. Interest is subjective in the form of manifestation (at the same time, the “subjective” also acts as a correlate of the “subjective”), but it is objective in terms of the source of objectification of the content. Social interest is also an incentive to act with a specific focus. On an activity basis, such concepts as “the goal of interest”, “means of achieving interest” acquire certainty.

Focusing on interests municipalities and local communities in the Russian Federation as a specific form of social interests (in the statutory law "On general principles organization of local self-government in the Russian Federation ”No. 131-FZ of 06.10.2003, local self-government is defined as a form of democracy in resolving issues of local importance, based on the interests of the population), then it is essential to isolate the active principle of municipal interests. Particularly significant is the participation of small and medium businesses in local life: involvement in the local economy, improvement and integrated development of municipalities, provision of public services and the provision of public services on a competitive entrepreneurial basis (recall that municipal enterprises are nonsense in a competitive market economy).

The principle of concrete unity of the objective and the subjective makes it possible to isolate a number of features of social interest.

First, interest is always social. This feature characterizes the social nature of the formation and purpose of interests due to the fact that they are a mediating form between the needs of social subjects and the conditions of social existence. According to K. Marx, the "robinsonade" is socialized, otherwise the social being of the individual is lost.

Secondly, needs are not identical to interests. We agree with O. Yurovitsky: "The needs of social groups and classes serve as the basis of their interests." In some works, however, the identification of interests and needs is allowed, the difference is not emphasized. V. A. Lapin, examining the practice of local self-government in the Russian Federation, states: “The analysis of modern Russian legislation gives reason to interpret the concept of “municipal formation” as a relatively integral socio-economic system, including such concepts as “population”, “territory”, " municipal economy", as well as a very important, but difficult to formalize concept of "collective interest" or "collective needs"". The fallacy of identifying “collective interests” and “collective needs” was rightly noted by A. Ryakhovskaya, who believes that needs determine and form interests: “There are needs and sometimes they are satisfied (in the form of heat) individually by residents. But already in the villages there is a need

in general water supply and sanitation, fuel supply, and so on, since individual methods of provision become burdensome for most families or even technically impossible, as, for example, in large cities. And then there is a collective interest in creating a system of joint service for the needs of the team.

Thirdly, social interest is the reason for achieving goals. G. Hegel argued that interest, through the attraction of the subjective to the objective, is revealed as “a matter that has been carried out, contains an element of subjective individuality and its activity; this is the interest. Nothing is carried out, therefore, apart from interest. The subjects of activity, for example, when satisfying interests in the system of local self-government in the Russian Federation related to the economic or environmental situation, landscaping, environmental protection, public health, social security, must act purposefully, resolving issues of local importance.

Fourthly, social interest is the relation of "subject-object" and "subject-subject" interactions. On this basis, forms of interaction are realized - managerial, organizational, functional - of social subjects, contradictions are revealed (the resolution of which is the basis for the development of society). The special role of class interests - the specific form of social interests was noted by K. Marx and F. Engels, justifying the pattern of changing socio-economic formations and resolving contradictions in the mode of production: “The practical struggle of these special interests, which always really oppose common and illusory common interests, makes necessary intervention and curbing of special interests through the illusory "general" interest, acting in the form of the state"; “Every ruling class passes off its interest as universal, and the latter takes on an independent form, divorced from real interests, both individual and joint interests, and at the same time the form of an illusory community” .

Fifthly, social interest is the desire to resolve contradictions between the needs and conditions for the existence of social subjects. This quality of interest confirms that among the many objective laws, the law of interest is also revealed. The position that the law of interest takes place in social development was formulated by K. A. Helvetius: “If the physical world obeys the law of motion, then the spiritual world is no less subject to the law of interest.” This statement cannot be accepted without clarification: the social existence of subjects and social relations are concretized (the principle of concreteness) with the isolation of “special interests” and the phenomenon of “conflict of interest” from the societal integrity.

Scientific comparative material with a generalization of sustainable development and minimization of the "conflict of interest" of territorial entities in the UK (by creating "entrepreneurial zones", "special partnership zones" and improving regional infrastructure, activating local authorities based on the "Self-Government Act" of 1982; isolating " assistance zones" and "intermediate zones" in the North of England, in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland) proposed by Z. Sorokina through an effective regional policy. The original concept of the development of Russian regional and municipal territorial integrity, taking into account the interests of all subjects of the three-level system of public authority and the federal structure (which was never demanded by the authorities of the Russian Federation) was also proposed in the study by V. Lapin, Yu. Travkin, M. Fomichev.

The state in relation to society is often characterized as a carrier of general interest and as a political form of organization of society. In the “narrow” apparatus sense, the state is identified as a concrete historical system of state authorities and state administration that does not coincide with society (as an institutional structure that acts in the interests of the ruling class and specific political forces). This aspect determines the distinctive identification of content in the categories of "state interests" and "public interests". We emphasize that in a class society the state always acts as a political institution and "apparatus" for ensuring the interests of the ruling class - ruling in the sphere of political relations, property relations and the use of society's resources.

On a primary apparatus-administrative basis, with an emphasis on the specifics of the situation, the state also acts as a subject for the implementation of “common interests”: for example, ensuring the stability and stability of a society organized territorially by state structures. The key categories are "national state interests", "state policy". The variety of forms of the latter in the Russian Federation (with the defining predicate “state”) is in the focus of interests and the Center for Problem Analysis and State-Administrative Design at the UN RAS (V. I. Yakunin, S. S. Sulakshin, V. E. Bagdasaryan, etc.) . In the concept of building a new statehood, scientists have proposed a model of the new Constitution of Russia for discussion by the scientific community.

It is necessary to distinguish between general social interests (emanating directly from society as a subject of belief) from state interests derived from the state as an institutional structure with an administrative and managerial apparatus for regulating class relations. In the context of social contradictions with the presence of "latent" goals of the ruling class, public interests can be "levelled", and state interests are focused on the preservation of the political course that does not meet the expectations of the population-citizens, the prospect of democratic development. That is why the problems of “rule of law” and “open power”, the formation of an effective system of public control over state institutions are so relevant for the development of democracy in the Russian Federation. The actualization of civil political culture and the factor of citizens' participation in the management of state affairs are also significant.

This justifies the need for the formation of new social institutions and the predictability of social development on the basis of established universal rules, which is achieved in a democracy only on the basis of a legitimate legal order. A. Auzan argues that for the elite groups that moved into power in the Russian Federation in the first decade of the 21st century, the unity of order and rules turned out to be unnecessary: ​​“then it will be very difficult and expensive to 'saw through' assets.” In a critical approach, the need for a “horizontal contract” between the authorities and civil society in the Russian Federation, the demand for a new effective strategy in relation to civil institutions and the environment for the development of small and medium-sized businesses is argued. Otherwise, it means that the “vertical contract” and authoritarian variants of the political regime are gaining points. There must be a shift, and if we choose a state again, it doesn’t matter what it is called - “the royal empire”, “ Soviet authority”, “democratic Russia”, and we represent this as a value, you can forget about modernization. "The state is an instrument, not a value" in the fullness of ensuring policies and interests coming "from society". Sustainable development today is “a matter of turning away from the value of ... power, or order, and in this sense of immutability, to democratic values. We need new institutions that would correspond to these values” [Ibid., p. 23].

To fully comprehend the situation, a comprehensive scientific understanding of the factors of development of civil society in the Russian Federation, the formation of a civil political culture with overcoming the rudiments of allegiance and patriarchy is also in demand. We agree with Ya. A. Plyais that the “servile character typical of totalitarian and authoritarian states” inherent in Russian civil society should be transformed into a partnership type of relationship with the state. It is also fair to state that real efforts are needed both by the state and no less significant societies in this direction, and this is the guarantee of Russia's development.

A change in the mentality of Russian officials (with the stereotypes of “state service”) to the values ​​and interests of the development of society through an effective civil service is especially in demand. Here, the guidelines of the development elite of modern Russia are essential. A compact sociological material on this aspect was proposed by M. Afanasyev (Director for Strategies and Analytics of the PR - the Niccolo M company) based on the results of a sociological study of Russian elite groups with a sample size of 1003 respondents (2009) . The specificity of the guidelines aims at rethinking bureaucratic stereotypes, and also makes it possible to differentiate the Russian development elite from its conservative opponents.

Public interests in the conditions of democracy in the economic sphere are oriented towards the development of equal forms of ownership. Medium and small businesses are essential here - the basic forms of entrepreneurial initiative. In a democracy, private property and the institution of fair economic competition, carried out within the framework and under the control of law, do not contradict, but act as components of ensuring public interests.

The variant model of state capitalism that has been established in Russia over the past decade and a half, combined with authoritarian tendencies in political life (re-centralization and managed democracy), has strengthened the factor of state paternalism in the economy and the potential of state corporations. The financial interests of the state bureaucracy dominate in symbiosis with big capital. State capitalism today is also a kind of correlate with state socialism (functioning on the basis of the state mode of production, planned economy, state control over the distribution and consumption of resources). As then, the state principle in the economy is still distant from the completeness of ensuring the interests of the people's welfare. Domestic economists assessed the inconsistency of the Russian model of state capitalism with the identification of its costs (see the materials of the scientific seminar "State Capitalism in Russia", dedicated to the memory of Academician V. A. Martynov, and Yu. Kochevrin's analysis "Strategy for the Economic Development of Russia").

The social costs of Russian "state capitalism" are also significant (in contrast to the productive models of "democratic socialism", "social capitalism", "people's capitalism" in Western countries). The main thing is that the Russian middle class, as the social base of democracy, does not dominate the mass of the population, and its share in the social structure of society, according to optimistic estimates in 2015, is about 25% (in the USA - 80%, while the income level of the middle class is only 10 times less income level of 10% of the wealthiest class). However, over the past decade, positions have strengthened in the country, and the incomes of the state bureaucracy and big capital have increased. The vector of social stratification also objectifies the trend towards social conflicts during the recession and economic crisis that began in 2015.

Let us recall the comparative historical situation, when F. Roosevelt's "new course" in the United States, in the most difficult crisis conditions and on the eve of the world war, ultimately showed a positive (however, there are also critical assessments). The Keynesian model of economic development, state regulation of the market and a sharp increase in taxes on the rich with the redistribution of social wealth in favor of the poorest were involved. Taken together, the measures met the public interest and society's expectations. Already in the first term of F. Roosevelt's presidency, the income tax bar for the rich was raised to 63%, in the second term - to 79%, in the mid-1950s - even to 91% (comparable to the Russian flat scale of 13%). The corporate income tax was increased from 14% in 1929 to 45%, and the property inheritance tax rate from 20% to 77%. Results: there was a sharp reduction in billionaires (recall, according to Forbes, in 2011 there were 104 dollar billionaires in the Russian Federation), the growth of the middle class was intensified (from these segments of small and medium-sized businesses), welfare was ensured

The transformation of the Russian economy in the interests of society and the development of the middle class is in demand modern development and the need to resolve contradictions between the state and society. But the conservative - "bureaucratized beginning" has not exhausted its potential in favor of "preserved" traditionalism: the resources of patriotic sovereigns, communists and Stalinists, nationalists are involved. This correlates with the instability of the middle class base and the dysfunctional impact on the mass public consciousness.

An interesting fact is that in the conditions of the failure of the perestroika course and the transition to a market economy, the domestic economist S. Menshikov (co-author of D. K. Gelbraith) in a polemic with L. Abalkin, O. Latsis, G. Popov proposed a rational model of Russia's transition to an efficient economy. Its essence is the systemic transformation of state property, the development of cooperation and the private sector, the legalization of the shadow economy, and the provision of conditions for the formation of a middle class. The groundlessness of the opponents' statements about sufficient incomes of the population, the unpromising nature of carrying out "reforms" and solving problems at the expense of citizens, the population in the interests of the state bureaucracy ("actual owners merged with tenecracy", which are "actually a dominant position in the system of social production" and "partly exploitative class). The ideologists of radical liberalization and privatization and the ruling bureaucracy did not like the scientific concepts of a rational transition to a mixed economy with a predominance of collective forms of ownership and political pluralism. A system of preventive and consistent measures in the interests of society, however, would guarantee against political decay, for example, as today free competition between different forms of ownership based on the dominant interests of the middle class in developed countries and the development of the relevant sectors of the economy prevents economic and social decay. The Soviet Union, thus, never experienced a "catharsis" - a systemic renewal in the face of accumulated internal contradictions and external pressure - and collapsed.

The post-Soviet regime of radical liberal reforms that replaced it soon revealed systemic failures. In the 2000s, with the beginning of recentralization and “managed democracy,” the post-perestroika decade of B. N. Yeltsin’s rule was reassessed from the standpoint of “restoring a strong state.” Today, however, the current period of reforming the country, criticized by liberals as counter-reformatory for excessive strengthening state principles, also shows costs and claims its own "catharsis" in the interests of the development of Russian society. This thesis is also confirmed by the guidelines for the next reform of the public administration system in Russia. At the end of 2015, G. Gref presented the President of the Russian Federation V. Putin with a report on inefficient public administration and the situation in the country's economy, and proposed the creation of a reform management center separate from the government under the head of state. The focus in the report is on the model of effective implementation of key development projects based on the experience of the Malaysian Pemandu (established in 2009 to overcome the backlog in the implementation of the development strategy until 2030). per capita grew by 37% to a level higher than that of Russia in 2015).

In conclusion, we note that the essential component of the renewal process will be the factor of public interests, the formation of an effective system of public policy, increasing the role of civil society and forms of public control in relation to the authorities and the activities of state institutions. This target is compatible with the ideal of a strong Russia, providing decent living and working conditions for citizens. Civil patriotism will also be strengthened on a public basis, with an active position of participation and responsibility of citizens for the development of the country, correlating with an activist political culture and social interests aimed at asserting democratic values ​​in the new Russia.

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SOCIAL INTEREST AND PUBLIC FACTOR OF MODERN RUSSIA DEVELOPMENT

Kolesnikov Vyacheslav Aleksandrovich, Doctor in Political Sciences, Ph. D. in Philosophy, Associate Professor The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (Branch) in Volgograd

[email protected] en

The article gives a characteristic to the peculiarities of social interest taking into account the activity principle; type diversity based on the "sphere approach" and the subjects of considering interests in the society is emphasized. The dominant of state interests in correlation with public interests in the conditions of the authoritarian regime is singled out. The objectivity of the influence of public interests on the consistent functioning of civil institutions is substantiated. The necessity of deepening democratic transformations and consolidating the law-governed state on the basis of a new agreement between the authorities and the society in modern Russia is argued in order to strengthen the factor of public interests.

Key words and phrases: social interest; activity principle; state interest; public interests; civil society; democratic development.

Historical sciences and archeology

The article is devoted to the study of the process of transformation of priority directions in Pakistan's policy towards the states of Central Asia, which took place in 1999-2008. under the influence of a number of internal and external factors. As a result of the study, priorities were identified in the regional policy of Pakistan during the specified period, and the main conditions for the formation of Pakistan's foreign policy towards the states of Central Asia were identified. The first place in the Central Asian direction of Pakistan's policy in the period from 1999 to 2008 began to be occupied by Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan. Uzbekistan, along with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, has taken the place of the "second echelon" in Pakistan's foreign policy strategy.

Key words and phrases: Pakistan; Central Asia; USA; PRC; RF; foreign policy. Kryzhko Evgeny Vladimirovich, Ph.D.

Crimean Federal University named after V. I. Vernadsky [email protected] ail. com

PRIORITY DIRECTIONS OF FOREIGN POLICY COURSE OF PAKISTAN RELATED TO THE STATES OF CENTRAL ASIAN IN 1999-2008

The direction of the development of the situation in each of the states of Central Asia and in the region as a whole largely determines the prospect of a balance of power in Eurasia. global importance has a concentration of hydrocarbon resources in the region. In Central Asia, the interests of the United States, China, Russia, India, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan intersected. Thus, there is a need to study Pakistan's policy towards the states of Central Asia during this period.

National interests are traditionally considered one of the most important imperatives in the process of making foreign policy decisions. However, the specific content of national interests differs,

The diversity of social groups is primarily due to the variety of tasks for which these groups were formed. What united, separated the members of this group community - professional interests, common ideology, ethnic characteristics?

On this basis, three types of groups can be distinguished (see Fig. 1, p. 279):

Social groups that are formed, so to speak, according to an ascriptive (assigned from birth) sign: racial, ethnic groups, territorial, groups based on kinship, socio-demographic groups, etc.;

status (and professional) groups, arising as a result of the social division of labor, the institutionalization of social ties, i.e. groups formed on the basis of the similarity of social status, positions in society: the working class, the peasantry, engineering and technical workers, teachers, officials, entrepreneurs, etc.;

target groups(organizations), i.e. groups organized to solve certain problems - economic, scientific research, political, educational, etc. The deliberateness of the creation of these groups determines, as a rule, the presence of a more or less rigid formalized system of mutual rights and obligations of the group members, control over the fulfillment of these obligations, the presence of an official structure, separation of functions, statuses and roles of employees of the organization, the presence of a leader-manager etc. Interactions in the target groups are highly institutionalized, which increases the reliability of obtaining group effects.

The above list of groups indicates a huge variety of tasks, interests, goals for which people can unite in groups. This is especially necessary to take into account when studying specific social problems, the role of social groups in their solution. In other words, this classification of groups is based on the substantive aspects of social processes.

At the same time, there is another classification of groups - on the basis of those properties that characterize social groups, regardless of whether we are talking about the working class, entrepreneurs, youth, pensioners, etc. In this case, social groups differ on the basis of how group members interact - directly or indirectly.

So, for some social groups, the presence of direct personal solidarity interactions is characteristic, which, naturally, can develop only among a small number of partners. Accordingly, they are called small groups. The presence of direct communication affects intra-group interactions - their personalized nature, the possibility of a more complete identification of the individual with "We".

Large groups - these are groups of thousands of people scattered over vast areas, which is why they are characterized by mediated solidarity interactions. A large group (and this is primarily class, territorial, national communities), as a rule, includes small groups (a team of workers, a national-cultural community, etc.).

Groups can be formal And informal which is especially important for small groups. In large groups that have a complex macrostructure, formalized subgroups (trade unions, parties) can only constitute a kind of backbone of the community.

SMALL GROUP

The role of small groups in the life of an ordinary person, and indeed of the whole society, cannot be overestimated.

Like any social group, a small group is a constant, self-renewing system of interactions between its members, not a random set of people, but a stable association.

The main features of social groups are also characteristic of small groups. But there are also a number of specific features, which are unanimously pointed out by J. Homans, R. Merton, R. Bales, G.M. Andreeva, M.S. Komarov, A.I. Kravchenko, S.S. Frolov and others.

First, in small groups it is necessary direct interactionaction, good acquaintance of partners with each other.

Secondly, in a small group, relatively a small number ofnicknames(this allows them to know each other and be in a certain renewable system of direct connections) - from 2-3 to 20-25 people. According to a number of authors, the maximum number is 10-15 people, and the optimal number is 7-9 people.

These features determine a number of distinctive features of intragroup interactions in a small group:

they are wearing personified character;

from a group member "We-consciousness" is easily formed, for "We" is easily and personally palpable. Any member of the group easily identifies with it;

in a small group can be effectively carried out group-new control (and self-control). A person is constantly in sight, he constantly mentally loses the probable reaction to his actions on the part of partners, has reliable expectations regarding the possible reaction of each partner;

the structure of a small group, the status-role standards of behavior developed in it, traditions, group norms, to a large extent uniquely individualizedus, those. adequate to the specific composition of the participants, their psychological, moral, professional characteristics. This is typical for both an informal small group and a formal one (to a lesser extent). But in any small group, group norms and standards of behavior are largely formed by trial and error,

"customized" to the individual-personal characteristics of specific individuals. Therefore, group norms have a low ability to reproduce themselves (especially in an informal small group).

The synthesis of these features is the uniqueness of the atmosphere of a small group. True passions and preferences boil here, the norms of behavior here are not imaginary, but tangible. It is a real, easily perceived and deeply experienced environment of social action. This explains the special role of small groups in the formation of personality, its socialization: it is in small groups that a person receives the most impressive life lessons, individual experience, joins the collective experience of generations.

The connection "personality - society" is carried out mainly through dozens of small groups in which the individual is involved. A real, empirically tangible society is necessarily represented through small groups, appears in connections, norms of behavior of its members. Any macro-processes are implemented to the extent that small groups are involved in them, i.e. work their way through the processes that take place in small groups.

The ability of a small group to act as an intermediary in the relationship between an individual and an enterprise, a social stratum (class), and society as a whole has been confirmed by a number of sociological studies*.

The Hawthorne experiment, in particular, showed that the identification of ordinary employees with the company depends on the degree of respect and commonality between the trusted representatives of the company and the small group.

Studies conducted during the Second World War showed that combat effectiveness depends on a network of overlapping connections in a small group, the loyalty of a fighter in relation to his comrades: he should not let his guys down.

The significance of a small group in the interaction of an individual with macroprocesses, the nation, and society as a whole facilitates understanding of the processes of integration of large social groups.

But a larger aspect of understanding the role of a small group in public life is also important. Is it possible to speak, for example, of well-being in the army, if hazing and desertion take on a massive scale in its microgroups? Is it possible to talk about

See: Mills G. On the sociology of small groups. In: American Sociology. Prospects, problems, methods. - M., 1972.

See the adapted translation of C. Cooley's "Primary Groups". In the book: Kravchenko A.I. Fundamentals of sociology. - M., 1997, p. 261-265.

a truly healthy society, if nepotism, intrigues, etc. often flourish in it?

Among small groups, it is customary to single out primary and secondary (which, in our opinion, corresponds to primary and secondary social interactions, connections, relationships).

The American sociologist C. Cooley was the first to point out the presence of primary small groups. Emphasizing the importance of primary relations between people in which true human nature is realized (we are talking about such feelings as love, indignation, vanity, affection, ambition, etc.), C. Cooley first drew attention to the role of those social groups that are built on the basis of interpersonal integration**.

Meanwhile, the ideas of C. Cooley and his analysis are rather contradictory, and sometimes simply illogical. In fact, speaking of primary groups, he means any small groups, putting forward the presence of direct interpersonal contact as a sign of primary relationships. In another place, he calls trusting, intimate relationships the main feature of primary groups, contrasting them with formal relationships. But not all informal relationships are of a trusting, intimate nature. The behavior of a student in relation to the rector, as we have already said, according to an unwritten rule, will be emphatically respectful, even with some elements of fawning, respect, but by no means trusting. We can agree with G.M. Andreeva, that the grounds proposed by C. Cooley for distinguishing primary groups led to serious, rather dramatic contradictions*. Therefore, modern sociologists, recognizing the "copyright" of Ch. Cooley to the term "primary group", this term is actually interpreted differently.

Under primary group(more precisely, by a group based on primary relationships) it is customary to mean a small group integrated on the basis of such initial (primary) signs as family affinity, sympathy, emotional attachment, trust. Relationships in primary groups (family, peers, friends, etc.) are the most emotionally colored and, as a rule, do not have any utilitarian value for their participants, which is why they are attractive. Interactions in the primary groups are the least "coarse", due to social and rational considerations of profit, self-interest, career. Most primary groups are created on the basis of voluntary consent, personal affection.

As a result, the primary group is characterized by:

The effect of the indissolubility of "I" and "We";

"See: Andreeva G.M. Social psychology. - M., 1980, pp. 242-243.

a sufficiently high level of recognition by each of its participants of the opinions of group members (parents, friends), their deep experience;

a high level of recognition of the norms, rules, style of behavior, fashion, tastes adopted in the group.

As a result, the primary group plays a huge role in the formation of a person's basic value orientations, moral principles, tastes, preferences, etc. and exercises appropriate social control, which, although informal, is rather profound.

Secondary groups arise on the basis of secondary social relations. If primary groups in modern society exist only in the form of a small group formed on the basis of interpersonal relationships, then the secondary group can be both large and medium (ZIL, Moscow State University, etc.), and small (department, department, brigade).

Difficulties in identifying and defining a secondary group are associated with the definition of secondary relationships. Secondary relations are by no means a synonym for formal relations (let us recall the example of the relationship between a student and a rector, regulated by unwritten norms, these are secondary relations, but informal).

It seems to us that the division of groups into primary and secondary is similar to the classification of human interactions proposed by F. Tennis: a community with its instinctive will and a society with its rational (selective) will. In the primary Troupes, relations between people are individually targeted, particularistic (a person may feel more sympathy for one of his friends than for another), and secondary groups unite people who are “involuntarily” connected by virtue of performing certain functions, statuses, roles, rather than having likes or dislikes. The basis of the secondary groups is rational calculation, social contacts here are impersonal, one-sided and utilitarian*. Relations between members of secondary groups are both formal and informal (for example, the head of a department is guided in his relations with his subordinates by both law, instructions, and unwritten rules adopted in this community).

The secondary group is organized in the main social institutions (economic, political, education) on the basis of various institutions, enterprises, schools, party organizations, etc.

* Frolov S.S. Sociology, p. 160. 322

Two special remarks should be made.

1. Secondary small groups, like all small groups, are characterized by emotional full-bloodedness, tangibility, empirical, practical reliability. But this emotionality secondary mediated by functional considerations, norms. Emotionality most often acts as a background for the implementation of pragmatic, functionally expedient calculations.

In secondary groups, primary relationships between partners can form, parallel primary groups can arise that unite people on the basis of sympathy, joint spending of free time. Here is a different world, a different logic of relations.

The analysis of secondary relations and, accordingly, secondary groups is essential for both social science and social practice. In reality, primary and secondary (service-functional) interpersonal relationships are closely intertwined in a small group. But they must be clearly separated: the former are focused on the “other”, on his individual personal qualities, sympathies, and the latter on the goal for which the organization exists. Without such a separation, primary relationships can be detrimental to the cause (for example, friendships between a manager and one of the employees create special opportunities for the promotion of this employee through the ranks). The tradition of mixing primary and secondary relations, subordinating the latter to the former is a sign of ascriptive-particularistic motivation, harms the cause and, ultimately, the functioning of the social institutions within which these institutions and organizations arose. The combination of secondary (service-functional) and primary (emotional-ascriptive) relations, the subordination of the former to the latter is a sign of underdevelopment, immaturity of achievement-universalist motivation, immaturity of the social organization of social life. It still strongly manifests "communal" features.

2. Often, the role of primary groups in the process of socialization of an individual is especially emphasized and the role of secondary groups is underestimated. Without belittling the role of primary groups, we can assert that it is the secondary relations, which are characterized by deindividualized, service-functional requirements and strict control over their fulfillment, that form labor morality, discipline, responsibility, and many other important features of modern society. worker, citizen. Teacher at school, commander in the army, foreman, colleague

LARGE GROUPS

AND SPECIFICITY THEM

INTEGRATIONS

at work - they are all connected with us by secondary (although emotionally colored) relationships, and much is determined by what business and general human qualities, what culture this teacher, commander, foreman, etc. has. Speaking about the main role of social groups in the emergence of social macroprocesses and changes, we, of course, had in mind large social groups of many thousands, which in many respects are the main subjects of history. We would like to draw your attention to the following.

1. A large group is the bearer and keeper of the main socio-typical characteristics of culture. The content of socially significant features of the human psyche, as rightly emphasized by G.G. Diligensky, is formed precisely at the macrosocial level. No matter how great the role of small groups and direct interpersonal communication in the processes of personality formation, these groups themselves do not create historically specific initial social norms, values, attitudes, and needs. All these and other meaning-forming elements arise on the basis of historical experience, the bearer of which is not individual individuals, not small groups of 10-20 people, but large groups. The range of interests and dependencies implemented in a small group is so narrow that the establishment of norms, standards of behavior unique to this small group is meaningless. What will it be like for a person involved in dozens of small groups if each of them adopts a unique system of norms, values, a special language? It is in large social groups (ethnic, professional, urban, etc.) that a person finds himself in a space whose social scale is sufficient for the existence of a special system of norms, values, standards of behavior, and cultural experience. According to G.G. Diligensky, this experience is only "brought" to the individual through a small group and interpersonal communication*. It is a large group that selects, selects, approves as acceptable, passes from generation to generation the main customs, traditions, values, etc.

In this regard, the role of the ethnic community, primarily the nation, in the formation, preservation, development and transmission of culture is indicative. Can each small group as a community have its own language? What to do with traditions, customs, norms, if they are not of a mass nature, are not recognized in other small groups of this ethnic community?

* See: Diligensky G.G. Mass political consciousness...//Questions of psychology. - 1991. - No. 9.

At the same time, it would be wrong to deny in general the existence of specific aspects of culture in one or another small group. A company of youth adheres to a certain style of clothing, uses a certain slang, but these are, as a rule, insignificant variations within the youth as a large socio-demographic group; each brigade of workers may have its own characteristics, but they do not go beyond the unity of behavior and culture of the working class.

2. A rather difficult problem is the integration of large groups.

It is often assumed that mass large communities, as a rule, are weakly integrated, while small groups are highly integrated. But, for example, a family (small group) on the eve of a divorce is by no means an example of a highly integrated community.

On the other hand, there are many examples of highly integrated large social groups, in particular nations, whose representatives are ready to sacrifice their personal interests in the name of their people.

For example, the working class of Russia in 1917 was a well-organized community on the territory of the entire Russian Empire, capable of acting as a single whole, and not as a mass of disparate proletarians.

How do you manage to unite in one impulse the huge masses of people who have never seen each other, scattered over a vast territory?

Of course, the integration of large communities is subject to general sociological trends in the integration of group communities: the formation of a group structure, the emergence of an effective leader, management bodies, effective group control, conformity, subordination to group goals, etc., the transformation of a coinciding goal into a group goal, etc. At the same time, a small group is integrated according to one scheme, and a large one, according to a more complex, multistage one.

There are two points that, in our opinion, distinguish integration processes in large groups from similar processes in small groups.

First. Special Role ideologies in rallying, integrating the masses into a large social group of many thousands, capable of acting as a single whole. It is ideology, ideological work that largely ensures cohesion, solidarity, self-identification with the “We”, which in a small group are achieved through direct sensory contact, which facilitates the awareness of the members of a small group of their community, unity.

Scattered representatives of this or that mass, having coinciding social and status positions, reproduce certain standards of behavior, this is enough to organize a contact community. But at the same time, there are still no common clear and precise ideas about how to achieve individual goals, what is the main and secondary in life, who is an ally and who is a rival, etc. People who do not have common values, norms, common ideas about how to solve problems cannot unite into a single combat-ready force.

Therefore, in order to unite the disparate masses of many thousands, to endow them with the ability to act as a single whole over a vast territory, it is necessary to introduce united ideas about goals, ways of development, etc. This function is performed by ideological work. Without a unifying ideology, the activity of the leader, the party cannot be effective. Moreover, in large groups the leader is in many respects the ideologist himself, i.e. a person capable of working out a single program of action and rallying thousands of people on its basis.

Moreover, ideology should explain not only the current situation, ways and methods of overcoming it, etc., but also the importance and necessity of unification, solidarity. It was precisely this function that was largely performed by slogans like "Proletarians of all countries, unite!". The solidarist impulse of ideology, which contributes to the separation of this group from society, can also be associated with the recognition of the special role of this group, which makes the “We” attractive for the “I” (this role was played by the ideas about the world-historical role of the proletariat as the hegemon of the socialist revolution).

All ideologies that have played the role of an effective catalyst for the unification of the masses into a combat-ready social group combine an explanatory-evaluative, program-oriented and solidaristic-rallying component. Thanks to a single ideology, the implementation of ideological work of various forms, scattered individuals with similar status-role positions, scattered over a vast territory, turn out to be ready for solidarity group actions.

Examples of the ideologies of large groups that have become symbolic, ideological integrators of the masses scattered over a vast territory are the ideology of the French bourgeoisie in the form of the teachings of the French materialists of the 18th century, the proletarian ideology (Marxism-Leninism) in Russia, Zionism, the Palestinian national ideology, etc.

Second. There is an opinion that a large group cannot provide good effective group control over the implementation of

the understanding by all its participants of the general group goals adopted in the group of norms, standards of behavior, and, consequently, conformal behavior, etc.

But the experience of successful, efficient large groups shows that such control can be achieved to varying degrees in large groups in multistage form. At the group level, in the form ideologies the main criteria, requirements for the behavior of individual members of the group are laid down. Control can be effectively exercised through small groups(brigade, church community, family, etc.). In this case, a small group acts as a kind of translator of national, general class, etc. goals, opinions of the whole people, class. Thus, the integration of a large group largely depends on how within it the general group (general class, national, etc.) orientation of the small group is ensured.

Thus, the viability of one or another ethnic group is determined to a decisive extent by the extent to which the family honors the national language and national customs, controls the observance of national traditions, participates in the work of the community, and so on.

Thus, the small group maintains and preserves the viability of the large group, its ability to act as a single entity.

The Soviet-party system functioned thanks to a clear vertical, at the base of which was the primary party organization, which was tightly controlled from above. All processes affecting the interests of a large group (CPSU) were successfully, timely and, as a rule, at the appropriate level resolved due to the fact that the primary party organizations actively carried out the decisions of the governing bodies, its ideologists and leaders, controlled the activities of local leaders, ordinary members of the party , their implementation of the main ideological guidelines.

The examples given show that the organization, combat capability of a large group depends, in addition to what was said in the previous sections (institutionalization, leadership, group authority, personal effectiveness, etc.), and on the organization of small groups around the goals, ideals, values ​​and norms of large groups. groups.

It is difficult to logically strictly analyze solidarity relations that unite people in a variety of communities (a cheerful company of friends, a demonstration of many thousands, a family, etc.). We only tried to determine the general logic of the analysis of communities in which a person is involved from the first years of his life.