Attention is the selective focus of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena.(Fig. 3.12).

Physiological basis of attention

Attention does not have such a special nerve center as visual, auditory and other sensations and perceptions, as well as movements that are associated with the activity of certain areas of the cerebral cortex.

Rice. 3.12.

Physiologically, attention is conditioned by the work of the same suture centers with the help of which mental processes accompanied by attention are carried out. But it means the presence of areas with increased and decreased excitability, interconnected in their activity according to the law of negative induction: when a strong excitation begins in some particular area of ​​the cerebral cortex, then at the same time, by induction in other areas of the cortex that are not associated with the performance of this activity, inhibition, attenuation, or even complete cessation of the nervous process occurs, as a result of which some centers are excited, others are inhibited.

Attention provides due to the phenomenon of dominant the presence in each this moment in the cerebral cortex of the area (center) with increased nervous excitability, dominating (dominant) over the rest of the cortex. As a result, the concentration of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena is carried out.

Attention is focused and selective. cognitive processes. Attention is given to:

• accuracy and detail of perception (attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish image details);
• strength and selectivity of memory (attention acts as a factor contributing to the preservation of the necessary information in short-term and short-term memory);
• orientation and productivity of thinking (attention acts as an obligatory factor in the correct understanding and solution of the problem).

In the system of interpersonal relations, attention contributes to better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. An attentive person achieves more in life than an inattentive one.

Main functions of attention:

• selection of significant (i.e. corresponding to the needs of this activity) impacts and ignoring others - insignificant, side, competing;
• retention of this activity, preservation in the mind of images of a certain content until the completion of the activity, the achievement of the goal;
• regulation and control over the course of activities.

Attention is inextricably linked with consciousness as a whole. This connection

is revealed in the most famous psychological theories of attention.

According to motor theory T. Ribot the intensity and duration of voluntary attention are directly determined by the intensity and duration of those associated with the object of attention emotional states. The state of attention is always accompanied not only by emotional experiences, but also by certain changes in the state of the body.

IN According to theory L.L. Ukhtomsky the physiological basis of attention is the dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, which intensifies under the influence of extraneous stimuli and causes inhibition of neighboring areas.

According to concept of attention P.Ya. Galperin attention is one of the components of orienting-research activity. It is a control over the content of an image, thought, another phenomenon that is currently in the human psyche. This control is carried out with the help of a pre-compiled criterion, a sample, which makes it possible to compare the results of an action and refine it.

Attention Properties (Fig. 3.13):

concentration attention - this is the ability of a person to focus on the main thing in his activity, being distracted from everything that is currently outside the task he is solving;

Rice. 3.13.

selectivity attention is his focus on the most important subjects. It plays an important role in law enforcement;

distribution attention is the ability of a person to have several heterogeneous objects in his mind at the same time or to perform a complex activity consisting of many simultaneous operations.

The distribution of attention depends on the psychological and physiological state of the person. With fatigue, the area of ​​​​its distribution is significantly narrowed.

Volume attention is characterized by the number of objects or their elements that can be simultaneously perceived with the same degree of clarity and distinctness at one moment.

The numerical characteristic of the average amount of attention is 5-7 units of information.

Intensity attention is characterized by a relatively greater expenditure of nervous energy to perform this type of activity, and therefore the mental processes involved in this activity proceed with greater clarity, clarity and speed.

Sustainability attention is his ability to linger on the perception of a given object.

Stability of attention is determined by various reasons:

• individual physiological characteristics of the organism (properties nervous system and the general state of the body at the moment);
• mental state (excitation, lethargy, etc.);
• motivation (the presence or absence of interest in the subject of activity, its significance for the individual);
• external circumstances in the course of the activity.

Overall attention span is most often determined by a combination of all these factors.

Distractibility attention is most often the result of a lack of volitional effort and interest in an object or activity.

focus of attention - it is keeping attention on one object or one activity while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention depends on age and work experience (it increases slightly over the years), as well as on the state of the nervous system (with a slight neuropsychic tension, it slightly increases, and with high tension, it decreases).

Switching attention - the ability to quickly switch off from some activities and join in new ones, corresponding to changed conditions. Switching attention depends on the mobility of the nervous system, and, therefore, it is higher in younger people. In a state of neuropsychic stress, this indicator decreases due to increased stability and concentration.

The various properties of attention are largely independent of each other. So, high concentration can be combined with weak switching.

Attention can be intentional, focused or unintentional. Each of the types of attention depends at the same time on a number of conditions in which it is carried out (Fig. 3.14).

Rice. 3.14.

Deliberate (arbitrary) attention - This is the attention that arises as a result of a person's conscious efforts aimed at the best performance of a particular activity. It is characterized by purposefulness, organization, increased stability.

Purposefulness determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity. Not all objects cause intentional attention, but only those associated with the task currently being performed; from many objects, those that are necessary for the performance of this type of activity are selected.

organization intentional attention means that we prepare in advance to be attentive to one or another object, consciously direct our attention to it, and show the ability to organize the mental processes necessary for this activity.

Increased stability of deliberate attention allows you to organize work for a more or less long time. It is related to the planning of this work.

focused attention - it is attention directed to any one object or activity. It is dynamic and static.

dynamic attention is called such attention, which at the beginning of work is characterized by low intensity, and only with the help of great efforts does a person increase its intensity.

static attention is such attention, the high intensity of which easily arises at the very beginning of work and is maintained throughout the entire time of its execution.

unintentional (involuntary) attention - this is attention caused by external causes - those or other features of objects that affect a person at the moment. They can be the intensity of irritation, and novelty, and the unusualness of the object, and its dynamism.

The intensity of irritation consists in the stronger action of the object (for example, a stronger sound, a brighter plan), which attracts attention to itself.

The novelty and unusualness of the object, even if it is not distinguished by the intensity of its action, it also becomes a stimulus for attention.

abrupt change, object dynamism, observed during complex and lengthy actions (for example, when watching sports, perceiving a movie, etc.), also always causes special attention.

Attention is one of the most important mental functions and has a significant impact on mental processes, providing focus and concentration. cognitive activity person, enhancing perception and memory, activating thinking.

How to develop attention?

• 1. Ensuring high performance of all human organs and systems:
  • the correct daily routine, good nutrition and rest;
  • timely diagnosis and treatment of visual impairment, hearing impairment, diseases of internal organs;
  • taking into account the daily rhythm of working capacity (the peak of our activity falls on 5 and 16, 20 and 24 hours);
  • alternation of mental and physical activities.
• 2. Creating a favorable working environment:
  • the absence of strong external stimuli - ensuring silence (light noise contributes to concentration), transferring other things to a different time;
  • ensuring hygienic working conditions (clean air, comfortable air temperature);
  • the optimal physical factor (a posture in which nothing distracts, the absence of unnecessary movements);
  • usual working conditions.
• 3. Finding ways to generate interest in the task: you should pay attention to curious and unusual details, look at what is happening in a new way.
• 4. Organization of activities:
  • set priorities (determine what is important and what is secondary, giving preference to the main);
  • set specific tasks (determine what needs to be done to solve a particular issue);
  • define the final goal and break it down into stages of the way to achieve it.
• 5. Raising a critical attitude towards oneself and work: after the completion of the activity, it is necessary to analyze whether the goal has been achieved, what contributed to its achievement, and what hindered it.
• 6. The development of sensations (music, works of art), the development of receptivity and observation, as well as an increase in the intellectual level are of great importance for the development of attention.

Attention is a complex, multifaceted mental function. It characterizes the state of mental processes and is one of the aspects of mental activity. Attention characterizes the general warehouse of personality, social orientation person. It can be expressed in observation (an intellectual quality) and attentiveness (a moral property of a person, which manifests itself in sensitivity, responsiveness, understanding of another person). Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any kind of activity. Changes in attention depend on individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person.

Attention- this is the focus and concentration of consciousness on a specific object.

If a person does not mobilize his attention, then mistakes are inevitable in the work, and inaccuracies and gaps in perception. Attention- one of those cognitive processes of a person, regarding the consideration of which there is still no agreement among psychologists, despite the fact that research has been going on for a long time. You can't be careful at all. Attention is always manifested in certain specific mental processes: we peer, listen, sniff, we think about a task or, forgetting about everything in the world, we write an essay. Attention not only creates the best conditions for mental activity, but also helps a person to respond in a timely manner to various changes in environment and in your own body.

Distinguish attention external And internal.

External attention is directed to the surrounding objects and phenomena, internal - on their own thoughts, feelings and experiences.

When a person is attentive to something peers, he seems to be moving towards the object of perception, his eyes open wide. All other movements are slowed down. When something amazes a person, this is again clearly expressed in the facial expressions of attention. All these are signs of manifestation of external attention. The attention directed to one's own thoughts and experiences is expressed in a completely different way: the eyebrows are slightly shifted, the eyelids are lowered - a person, as it were, peers into himself, as they say, "immersed in himself" - all these are manifestations of internal attention.

Attention develops gradually and at a certain level of its development becomes a property of the personality, its permanent feature, which is called mindfulness. An attentive person is an observant person, he perceives the environment quite fully and accurately, and his teaching and labor activity proceed more successfully than a person who does not have this personality trait. Mindfulness of a person is manifested not only in the knowledge of the world and the implementation of activities, but also in relations with other people.

types of attention. Attention may be involuntary (unintentional) And arbitrary (intentional).

involuntary attention does not depend on our desire, on our will or intentions. bright light phenomena(lightning, colorful advertising, lights);

· unexpected taste sensations(bitterness, unfamiliar taste);

· something new(a passing car of a new brand, a changed color and facial expression of a person with whom they have just spoken, etc.);

· objects and phenomena that evoke emotions(paintings by artists, music, various manifestations of nature: sunset or sunrise, picturesque river banks, gentle calm or a formidable storm at sea, etc.)

Involuntary attention can be caused and the internal state of the body. A person experiencing a feeling of hunger cannot but pay attention to the smell of food, to the sound of spoons and forks, to the appearance of a plate of food. When it comes to involuntary attention, we can say that we do not pay attention to certain objects, but they themselves capture our attention. But sometimes, and quite often, you have to make an effort on yourself - to tear yourself away from an interesting book and start doing something else, intentionally switch your attention to another object. Here we are dealing with voluntary (deliberate) attention, when a person sets himself a certain goal and makes efforts to achieve it. In other words, a person has certain intentions, and he makes efforts to fulfill this intention.

Arbitrary attention arises on the basis of willpower. Since it requires effort from a person, it is tiresome .. The main types of attention - involuntary and voluntary - are closely related to each other and sometimes pass into each other.

Basic svo-va attention and their development.

Distinguish five properties attention:

-concentration,

– stability,

-volume,

-distribution

-switching .

Concentration - this is keeping attention on one object or one activity while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention is usually associated with a deep, active interest in an activity. Sustainability - this is a long retention of attention on an object or some activity. Sustained attention is called attention, capable of remaining continuously focused on one subject or on the same work for a long time. Attention cannot linger on an immovable object for a long time if we cannot view it from different angles. The richer an object is in its various properties, the easier it is to focus attention on it for a long time.

Volume is the number of objects that are covered by attention at the same time. The amount of attention usually ranges from 4 to 6 objects in adults. For example, an advertising maker wants any passer-by to take a glimpse of a billboard and understand and remember its contents. To do this, you need to have no more than five words on the advertisement. Distribution of attention is the ability to perform two or more different activities while keeping your attention on them. In order to successfully perform two jobs at the same time, at least one of them must be known so well that it is performed automatically, by itself, and the person only occasionally controls and regulates it consciously. The ability to distribute your attention develops gradually, with age. Switching is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one subject to another. If the previous job is interesting and the next job is not, then switching is difficult, and vice versa. Switching attention is always accompanied by some tension, which is expressed in volitional effort.

Memory, its types and properties

Memory is a reflection of a person's experience by remembering, preserving and reproducing it. This is an amazing property of human consciousness, this is the renewal in our consciousness of the past, images of what once made an impression on us. No other mental function can be carried out without the participation of memory. And memory is unthinkable outside of other mental processes. The connections that underlie the activity of memory are called associations. Association is a relationship between separate views, in which one of these views calls another.

A person needs to know a lot and remember a lot, more and more every year of life. Books, records, tape recorders, cards in libraries, computers help a person to remember, but the main thing is his own memory. memory qualities. First of all, what is "good" and "bad" memory? This question is not as simple as it seems at first glance.

So, the qualities of memory:

memorization speed.

retention strength ;

memory accuracy. Absence of distortions, essential omissions;

memory readiness. The ability to quickly extract from the memory reserves what is needed at the moment.

Someone remembers faces well, but poorly remembers mathematical material, others have a good musical memory, but poor at literary texts etc.

Characteristics of memory processes . Memory functions are considered as the basis for their selection. Memory processes include:

– memorization

– playback

-preservation

-recognition

-forgetting

memorization – This is a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired. Memorization is always selective: far from everything that affects our senses is stored in memory. That which arouses our interest and emotions is fully and firmly remembered. The memorization process can proceed as an instant imprint - imprinting. The state of imprinting occurs in a person at a time of high emotional stress.

Memorization can be mechanical and semantic. Rote is based mainly on the consolidation of individual connections, associations. Semantic memorization associated with thought processes. If the main condition for mechanical memorization is repetition, then the condition for semantic memorization is understanding.

If memorization has the character of a specially organized work, then it is called memorization. Memorization depends, firstly, on the nature of the activity; secondly, from installation. It is very important to be active in the learning process.

Types of memory . All types of memory can be divided into three groups:

1.what remembers a person(object and phenomena, thoughts, movements, feelings). Accordingly, they distinguish motor, emotional, verbal-logical And figurative memory; 2.how man remembers(accidentally or intentionally). Here allocate arbitrary And involuntary. 3. how long memorized is preserved.

This short term, long term And operational memory.

Motor (or motor) memory allows you to memorize skills, skills, various movements and actions. If this type of memory did not exist, then every time a person would have to re-learn how to walk, write, and perform various activities.

emotional memory helps to remember the feelings, emotions, experiences that we experienced in certain situations. semantic, or verbal-logical memory expressed in the memorization, preservation and reproduction of thoughts, concepts, reflections, verbal formulations.

figurative memory - memory for performances. The level of its development may not be the same. Allocate 5 subspecies figurative memory:

–visual;

– auditory ;

– olfactory;

– tactile;

–taste . The human psyche is focused primarily on visual and auditory memory. The predominance of one of the named types of figurative memory in a person is easily traced in learning. … phenomenal memory is the result of some innate features of the brain. But this is also mandatory systematic exercises in the chosen specialty, persistent long-term training. Arbitrary and not arbitrary memory. If the goal is not specifically set to remember or recall this or that material, and the latter is remembered as if by itself, without volitional efforts, then this is memory. involuntary . If they set a special goal to remember, make strong-willed efforts, then this is memory arbitrary .

The implementation of any activity requires attention from a person. Even in play, children must constantly keep their attention on the relevant rules, on-going events and their dynamics. Often they are so focused on this that it is difficult for them to shift their attention to anything else. All types of work require sustained attention. The inability to keep attention on the object of labor activity leads to a decrease in the quality of the product. Without focused attention, it is impossible to achieve high results in art, sports and learning. If the student is not focused on perception educational material, he will not be able to understand it, highlight the main thing in it and remember it. Appeals: "Be careful!" are able to hold attention only for a short time, after which many children (and adults) are again and inevitably distracted. Managing the attention of students is one of the important tasks that the teacher solves in one way or another during the lesson.

At any given moment, our consciousness is directed to one or another specific object. A person either perceives something, or thinks about something, remembers something or imagines something.

Attention- this is the selective orientation and concentration of a person's consciousness on a specific object that has a stable or situational significance for the individual, while simultaneously distracting from other objects.

Attention can be directed both to external objects of reality ( outside attention) as well as your inner world inner attention).

Attention is manifested as a special state of the whole organism, in which the internal mental activity, external motor activity, as well as the activity of the brain (physiological level of attention) change. Mental activity focuses on the object. The motor side of attention is manifested in specific postures of attention. With external and internal attention, postures differ. External attention is characterized by a turn of the head and a gaze focused on the object, holding the breath is possible. With internal attention, a person often closes his eyes or his gaze hovers, not concentrating on anything. teacher for these characteristics can determine whether the student's attention is directed to the content of the lesson or he is thinking about something of his own.

At the physiological level, attention is provided by the excitation of the reticular formation as a mechanism for activating brain activity; induction of nervous processes and emergence dominants.

The concept of induction was widely used by IP Pavlov to explain the patterns of higher nervous activity.

Induction It manifests itself in the fact that the process of excitation that occurs in one area of ​​the cerebral cortex causes inhibition in its other areas.

Dominant called a focus of excitation temporarily dominant in the cerebral cortex, inhibiting other reflexes and intensifying under the action of any stimuli.

The phenomenon of the dominant was discovered by the Russian physiologist A. A. Ukhtomsky (1875–1942).

attention functions. The main function of attention is establishing a psychological connection between the subject and the object, to which his consciousness is currently directed, and ensuring the clarity and clarity of the reflection of the object.

example

If a student is distracted while doing homework, imagining, for example, upcoming sports competitions, he can make mistakes, make omissions, and not notice details. As a result, his activities will be ineffective, and the task will be performed poorly.

The second function of attention is manifested in the fact that it carries out selection and systematization of perceptual data. The external world is infinite, and human consciousness is limited. Attention, like a filter, allows only the most important information to enter the mind, so the process of attention is often compared to a funnel or bottleneck.

Another important function of attention is considered to be improving the quality of the activity to which it is directed. However, it is possible that the participation of attention has a destructive effect on the activity if it is connected to the activity that was previously automated and fixed.

Attention functions in various spheres of human consciousness: sensual, mnemonic, intellectual. It does not have its own product. On this basis, some psychologists considered it expedient not to use the concept of "attention" at all. Danish psychologist E. Rubin even wrote a scientific article entitled "Non-existence of attention." One can disagree with such an "interpretation" of attention, if one admits that its specific product is improvement in performance. Attention provides completeness and depth of perception, memory, thinking and imagination and thus acts as a condition for the success of cognition of the surrounding reality. In this sense, K. D. Ushinsky called attention the door through which all knowledge and impressions from the outside world pass. The more clearly an object appears in the mind of a person, the more active and productive becomes his activity with it, which, in turn, ensures its deeper knowledge.

Establishing a connection between human consciousness and the reflected object is a two-way, interdependent process. On the one hand, the object attracts attention to itself, on the other hand, attention is directed to the object. Accordingly, the factors for the emergence and retention of attention on an object can be both the properties of the object itself and the characteristics of the subject. Some people are more subject to the direct influences of the environment and show passivity in the choice of objects of attention, while others are more active in this regard. Depending on the ratio of such factors, the role of the individual in the regulation of attention can be different: from almost complete passivity to complete consciousness and self-organization. These differences are expressed in the classification of types of attention.

types of attention. There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary, or unintentional, Attention- this is the focus of consciousness on an object or phenomenon due to some of their features. The ability for such attention is innate in a person, in connection with which L. S. Vygotsky called him natural. This kind of attention is inherent in both humans and animals. We can observe postures of attention in the latter, for example, when obtaining food or protecting from enemies.

The mechanism of involuntary attention - orientation reflex. I.P. Pavlov designated it as "what is it?", because it manifests itself as an initial reaction to a new stimulus, allowing you to tune the organs of sensitivity to the perception of a new object and make a decision regarding its usefulness or danger to the body.

Involuntary attention can occur with varying degrees of passivity of a person. At the extreme degree of passivity, it is called forced. N. F. Dobrynin (1890-1981) pointed out that the individuality and originality of the personality have a certain influence even in situations of forced attention. Factors that cause involuntary attention are divided into two groups:

• The first group consists of the properties and characteristics of stimuli. First of all, this new intense stimuli. A new building, a new thing, a new advertisement always attracts our attention. A loud sound, a bright flash, a strong push will also make you draw attention to yourself. Other factors in this group are the duration of the stimulus, its movement, contrast compared to the background. A change in the characteristics of acting stimuli, such as strength or duration, the beginning and end of an action, also causes attention;
• the second group of stimuli that cause involuntary attention is characterized by their connection with the needs and interests of the subject. If something is especially significant for a person, it will be in the sphere of his attention. For example, a collector will never pass by the objects of his passion, while other people remain indifferent to them.

example

Factors that cause involuntary attention are taken into account in architecture, construction, advertising, printing and other areas. They also play an important role in the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students, for example, in the selection and presentation of educational material in such a way as to direct attention to the necessary objects and not distract from the main content of the lesson. Interest in a subject is able to maintain a high level of involuntary attention for a long time. Bright, emotionally rich material always arouses involuntary attention in students. This is especially important for elementary school, since in younger students arbitrary cognitive processes (perception, attention, memory) are still in the formative stage.

As it expands subjects and complicating the educational material, reliance on involuntary attention becomes insufficient for effective organization knowledge acquisition processes. Not all subjects are of interest to students. Many of them have significant difficulties in understanding the material and completing the learning tasks. Overcoming them requires will and voluntary attention from students.

Arbitrary attention- this is an organized focus of consciousness on an object or phenomenon. Arbitrary attention arose in the process of labor when it was necessary to focus not on what was pleasant or interesting, but on what needed to be done at the moment; which is essential for the successful completion of the action. L. S. Vygotsky showed that voluntary attention, which he called cultural, in contrast to the involuntary - the process is mediated, i.e. carried out with the help of means: signs, speech, the task. A child can master these means only in society, in the process of communication and joint activities with adults. Arbitrary attention, as well as arbitrary perception, arbitrary memory, verbal-logical thinking, refers to the highest mental functions of a person.

example

In ontogenesis, the development of voluntary attention is carried out gradually. First, adults, with the help of verbal instructions, pointing to the desired object and setting a cognitive or practical task for the child, organize his attention and activity. Then he masters the ability to independently set a task for himself and direct attention to the desired object. Keeping attention on an object or actions with it, determined by the task, requires volitional efforts and activity of the individual, since a person consciously makes a decision and executes it. It is well known how difficult it is to maintain attention when studying complex and incomprehensible material or in the conditions of monotonous and monotonous activity. In such situations, a person not only makes efforts to keep the object of attention, but also experiences these efforts. L. S. Vygotsky associated such an inner experience of efforts with the process of mastering a person’s attention, a kind of struggle and victory over those factors and stimuli that direct attention to other objects. There are certain methods in the organization of activities that can facilitate this process for students, for example, the alternation of various types of activities, dosed assistance, and active recreation.

Psychological content of voluntary attention was revealed by P. Ya. Galperin, the author of the theory of systematic, phased formation mental actions. He showed that mental actions are the result of internalization, generalization and reduction. Managing an action based on an image requires control: a constant comparison of the task with its execution. In the initial forms, control is carried out as a detailed objective action. The transformation of control into a mental and reduced action changes its nature and functions. Mental control over the course of activity ensures the focus and concentration of consciousness on its implementation and result, i.e. is attention. Such control no longer simply evaluates the activity and its result (as happens with external detailed control), but also improves them. This is due to the fact that attention

the action of mental control is carried out on the basis of previously formed criteria, images and concepts, to which the actions performed are equated, since the person understands how to act in this situation and systematically performs the required actions. External control through speech passes into the mental plane and, reduced, becomes attention.

example

The teacher can purposefully teach the child attention. To do this, along with the main tasks, students should be given special exercises to check the work done, indicating criteria, samples, a general plan and a sequence of specific actions.

Post-voluntary attention arises when, in the course of an initially unattractive activity, a person becomes interested in work. Volitional efforts for its continuation are no longer required, which brings post-voluntary attention closer to involuntary. However, unlike involuntary attention, post-voluntary attention is regulated by a consciously set goal and is carried out systematically, playing an important role as a factor contributing to the performance of difficult tasks by students for a long time. At the same time, they do not experience fatigue due to the lack of the need for strong-willed efforts. Fatigue is replaced by a sense of satisfaction and joy of knowledge. The reason for such a psychological reorganization of personality and activity is the complex phenomenon of shifting the motive to the goal (see § 7.1).

When organizing learning activities it is important to rely on all three types of attention, managing their dynamics and using the advantages of each type.

Course work

General psychology

The psychological essence of attention and its properties

Goroshkov Sergey Evgenievich

Introduction

The concept of attention

1 Attention and consciousness

2 Physiological mechanisms of attention

3 Orienting reflex

5 Development of attention

Main types

1 Types of attention

2 Main properties

3 Absence

4 Psychologist in KRO classes

Conclusion

Glossary

Appendix

Introduction

The subject of this term paper essence of attention and its properties.

Attention is the focus and concentration of consciousness on any object, phenomenon or activity. Attention can be represented as a cognitive process that ensures the ordering of information coming from outside, depending on the primacy and importance of the tasks facing the person.

Already from this definition, attention follows that it is characterized by a focus on what the consciousness is occupied with, and the concentration of consciousness on something that requires special awareness.

In the life of any person, there may be cases when something is better done with dispersed attention, and sometimes a person is required to clearly concentrate on a particular subject.

Dispersed attention is also obligatory for a person in the case when he needs to perform several actions at the same time. More difficulty in performing complex tasks is reduced in the case of constant attention training, and the performance of these tasks becomes habitual. A person achieves automatism, that is, automatic processing of information takes place, therefore, fewer cognitive resources are required to complete these tasks.

IN modern psychology Attention studies are included, along with general psychology, into engineering and labor psychology, neuropsychology and medical psychology, developmental and educational psychology.

The purpose of the study is to reveal the essence of attention and consider its properties.

Research objectives:

find out what attention is;

consider the theory of attention;

identify the properties of attention;

determine the main types of attention;

consider the development and defects of attention.

The object of this course work is attention in psychology, and the subject is the psychological essence of attention and its properties.

When writing a term paper, the ideas of such authors as M.M. Ivanova, A.N. Leontiev, R.S. Nemov, V.S. Romanova and others were used.

Main part

attention distraction

1 The concept of attention

1.1 Attention and consciousness

If we single out the common thing that stands behind all examples of the connection between attention and memory, then we cannot do without consciousness. Attention is necessary in order to keep in the mind the momentary perceived, transient - otherwise it will not be able to become the property of memory. More attention is needed in order for the memory to again be in the mind, to rise from the depths of memory. Keeping the image and thought in the mind is behind the joint functioning of attention and perception, attention and thinking.

The problem of the connection between attention and consciousness began to be developed within the framework of tail philosophy. In Eastern philosophy, tradition has a special place for attention to both “concentration” and “correct vision”, “penetration” in achieving enlightenment, true divine wisdom. Without attention, "enlightened consciousness" is impossible. It is no coincidence that the practice and technique of meditation, based on the ultimate concentration of consciousness, is defined in the Eastern religious and philosophical tradition.

In the second half of the 19th century, a line of research began to actively develop in psychology, which notes the connection between attention and consciousness. The first direction is the classical psychology of consciousness, within which a systematic experimental study of attention began. Since then, psychology has developed a number of diverse ideas about the relationship between attention and consciousness, in which attention is assigned to different roles.

The most common idea of ​​attention in modern psychology is its interpretation as a mechanism of access to consciousness, which determines what of the perceived and experienced by us at the moment reaches consciousness and will affect our behavior. This process can be represented in different ways. For example, as a kind of manhole, similar to the one through which Carroll's Alice tried to get into the magical garden in Wonderland, but did not fit completely. From the court follows the question: what and why remains outside of consciousness, occupies an important place in the modern psychology of attention.

In the classical psychology of consciousness, several more approaches to considering the relationship between attention and consciousness were identified. Consciousness ceases as a structure similar to the visual field with a focus and periphery, and attention as a part of consciousness, its focus, a zone that has the greatest clarity and reporting of the contents of consciousness. However, here the question arises: how exactly do the individual components of individual experience find themselves in this zone? To answer this question, attention must be represented as a special process of transferring a certain content of consciousness, or its element, to its central part.

Attention can also be considered as one of the properties of consciousness or its inherent features. This property is the degree of subjective clarity of the impressions that are in the mind, which, in the case of a lack of attention, turn out to be vague, and in the case of the utmost attention, they appear to us most clearly.

At the initial stage of the conversation about attention, the connection between attention and consciousness will allow us to approach the description of the subjective phenomena of attention and the fulfillment of the criteria for the presence of this elusive.

Consciousness is the ability to give an account of oneself, and therefore, it is through consciousness that we can know what it means to "be attentive" or "to be inattentive."

1.2 Physiological mechanisms of attention

The works of the outstanding Russian physiologists A.A. Ukhtomsky and I.P. Pavlov are of great importance for understanding the physiological foundations of attention. The idea put forward by IP Pavlov about the special reactions of an uneven system of orienting reflexes already contained a proposal about the reflex nature of involuntary attention. “We peer into the emerging image, listen to the emerging sounds; we strongly draw in the smell that has touched us ... ”- wrote I.P. Pavlov. Orientation reactions are very complex according to modern data. They are associated with the activity of a significant part of the body. The orienting complex includes both external movements (for example, the head towards the sound) and changes in the sensitivity of certain analyzers; the nature of metabolism changes; breathing changes; cardiovascular and galvanic skin reactions, that is, vegetative changes occur; there are simultaneous changes in the electrical activity of the brain. According to the ideas of I.P. Pavlov and A.A. Ukhtomsky, the phenomena of attention are associated with an increase in the excitability of certain brain structures as a result of the interaction of excitation and inhibition processes. I.P. Pavlov believed that at every moment in the cortex there is some area characterized by the most favorable, optimal conditions for excitation. It is this area that arises according to the law of induction of nervous processes, according to which the nervous processes that concentrate in one area of ​​the cerebral cortex cause inhibition in other areas and vice versa. In the focus of excitation, new conditioned reflexes are easily formed, differentiation is successfully developed, this is currently the “creative department of the cerebral hemispheres”. The focus of optimal excitability is dynamic. “If it were possible to see through the skull and if the place of the cerebral hemispheres with optimal excitability shone, then we would be on a thinking conscious person, as a light spot constantly changing in shape and size of a bizarrely irregular outline, surrounded by everything else, moves around his cerebral hemispheres. more or less significant shadow in the space of the hemispheres,” wrote I.P. Pavlov. This corresponds to the center of optimal excitation, its “movement” is a physical condition for the dynamics of attention. The position of I.P. Pavlov about the movement of foci of excitation along the cerebral cortex is confirmed by modern experimental studies (data by N.M. Livanov). The dominant principle is important for understanding the physiological mechanisms of attention. In the brain, there is always a dominant, dominant focus of excitation according to A.A. Ukhtomsky. A.A. Ukhtomsky characterizes the dominant as a constellation of "centers with increased excitability." A feature of the dominant as a dominant focus is that it not only suppresses newly emerging foci of excitation, but is also capable of attracting weak excitations to itself, thereby amplifying at the expense of dominating them even more. The dominant is a stable focus of excitation. “The name “dominant” means a more or less stable focus of increased excitability…” wrote A.A. Ukhtomsky. AA Ukhtomsky's ideas about the dominant make it possible to understand the nervous mechanism of prolonged intensive attention. The high efficiency of all cognitive processes with directed concentration is determined by the most favorable conditions for brain activity that arise in centers with increased excitability. In recent years, new results have been obtained in studies by Soviet and foreign scientists that reveal the neurophysiological mechanisms of attention. Attention arises against the background of general wakefulness of the body associated with active brain activity. If active attention is possible in a state of optimal wakefulness, then concentration difficulties arise both against the background of relaxed, diffuse, and against the background of excessive wakefulness. The transition from passive to active attention provides a general activation of the brain. At a certain level of brain activity, attention is possible. Currently, psychophysiology has anatomical, physiological, and clinical data that testify to the direct relationship to the phenomena of attention of various structures of the nonspecific brain system (the reticular formation, the diffuse thalamic system, the hypothalamic structure, the hippocampus, and others). The main physiological function of the non-specific system is the regulation of various forms of non-specific activation of the brain (short-term and long-term, general, global and local, limited). It is assumed that involuntary attention is associated primarily with general, generalized forms of nonspecific brain activation. Voluntary attention is associated both with an increase general level activation of the brain, and with significant local shifts in the activity of certain brain structures.

In recent years, ideas about the leading role of the cerebral cortex in the system of neurophysiological mechanisms of attention have begun to play an important role. At the level of the cerebral cortex, attention processes are associated with the presence of a special type of neurons (attention neurons - novelty detectors and setting cells - expectation cells).

It was revealed that in healthy people under conditions of intense attention, there are changes in the bioelectrical activity in the frontal lobes of the brain. In patients with lesions, use verbal instructions to induce sustained voluntary attention. Simultaneously with the weakness of voluntary attention in case of damage to the frontal lobes of the brain, a pathological increase in involuntary forms of attention is noted. Thus, attention is associated with the activity of a number of brain structures, but their role in the regulation of various forms and types of attention is different.

1.3 Orienting reflex

The raticular formation is an accumulation of nerve cells located in the brain stem and is a trace of the nerve pathways connecting the receptors of the sense organs with areas of the cerebral cortex. It is thanks to the raticular formation that a person can be alert, react to the slightest changes in the environment. It also provides the appearance of an orienting reflex. With its ascending and descending fibers, it is a neurophysiological apparatus that provides one of the most important forms of reflex activity, known as the orienting reflex. For understanding the physiological foundations of attention, its importance is especially great.

Each unconditioned reflex, which is based on some biologically important effect for the animal, causes a selective system of responses to the stimulus with simultaneous inhibition of all reactions to side effects. Conditioned reflexes are of the same character. With them, one system of reactions, which is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, dominates, while all other side reactions are inhibited. Both unconditioned and conditioned reflexes formed on their basis create a well-known dominant focus of excitation, the flow of which is subject to the dominant.

The orienting reflex manifests itself in a series of distinct electrophysiological, motor and vascular reactions that appear every time something unusual or significant occurs in the environment surrounding the animal. These reactions include: turning the eyes and head towards a new object; alert and listening response.

In humans, the appearance of a galvanic skin reaction, vascular reactions, a change in breathing, and the occurrence of “desynchronization” phenomena in the bioelectrical reactions of the brain, expressed in depression of the “alpha rhythm”. We observe all these phenomena every time when the reaction of alertness, or the orienting reflex, is caused by the appearance of a new or usual stimulus for the subject.

Among scientists there is still no definite answer to the question whether the orienting reflex is an unconditioned or conditioned reaction. By its innate nature, the orienting reflex can be classified as an unconditioned reflex. The animal responds with a reaction of alertness to any new or usual stimuli without any training; according to this feature, the orienting reflex is one of the unconditioned, innate reactions of the body. The presence of certain neurons that respond with discharges to each change in the situation indicates that it is based on the action of special neural devices. On the other hand, the orienting reflex reveals a number of features that significantly distinguish it from ordinary unconditioned reflexes: with repeated use of the same stimulus, the phenomenon of the orienting reflex soon fades away, the body gets used to this stimulus, and its presentation ceases to cause the described reactions - this is the disappearance of the orienting reflex to repeated stimuli is called habituation.

4 Classification of attention theories

One of this direction was N.N. Lange. He proposed a motor theory of attention - a phenomenon in which the internal activity and selectivity of consciousness appear in a concentrated form.

Lange's motor theory of attention was the antipode of the interpretation of attention, which is captured in Wundt's concept of apperception. According to Lange, the initial fundamental is the involuntary behavior of the organism, which has a biological meaning, which lies in the fact that through muscle movements the organism takes the most advantageous position in relation to external objects in order to perceive them as clearly and distinctly as possible.

The subject of a special experimental study Lange made involuntary fluctuations in attention during auditory and visual perception.

This phenomenon and its explanation, proposed by Lange, caused a lively discussion in the psychological literature, in which the leaders of Western psychology were involved - W. Wundt, W. James, T. Ribot, J. Baldwin, G. Munsterberg and others.

Motor theory of attention T. Ribot. he believed that involuntary and voluntary attention are directly related to the duration and intensity of the emotional states associated with the object of attention.

In Ribot's rheory, important attention is paid to the study of the human family tree. With the help of the family tree, Ribot studied the properties of attention, character, memory, and so on for several generations of the same family. Thanks to the genogram, he found that cases of deep and sustained involuntary attention show all the signs of an indefatigable passion, constantly renewed and constantly thirsting for satisfaction.

T. Ribot defines attention as "mental monoideism" accompanied by natural or artificial adjustment of the individual.

Attention is a certain psycho-physiological combination, for which motor and subjective components are necessary elements. Attention is a psychological immobility that is contrary to the normal course of life processes.

Taking into account the importance of physiological correlates of mental processes and states for studying the mechanisms of attention, R.S. Nemov proposes to call the concentration of T. Ribot psychophysiological. As a purely physiological state, attention includes a complex of vascular, motor, respiratory and other voluntary and involuntary reactions.

Intellectual attention is also accompanied by an effort of blood circulation in the organs that provide the processes of thinking. According to T. Ribot, the motor effect of attention consists in the fact that some sensations, thoughts, memories receive special intensity and clarity due to the fact that motor activity is the concentration and delay of movements associated with their adjustment and control. The ability to control movements is precisely the secret of voluntary attention.

According to P. Ya. Galperin, when attention is denied along with other mental functions, this does not affect it in particular. And when attention is identified with other mental phenomena, then the real difficulties of the problem of attention, the impossibility of isolating it, already appear in this. An analysis of such difficulties leads to the conclusion that two cardinal facts underlie the most diverse views on the nature of attention.

The first one. Attention is nowhere as an independent process. It reveals itself both to oneself and to external observation as the direction, attunement and concentration of any mental activity, therefore, only as a side or property of this activity.

Second fact. Attention does not have its own separate product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins. Meanwhile, it is the presence of a characteristic product that is the main evidence of the presence of the corresponding function. Attention does not have such a product, and this is most of all against the evaluation of attention as a separate form of mental activity.

One cannot deny the significance of such facts and the legitimacy of the conclusion that follows from them and is so discouraging. We always have some kind of inner disagreement with him, and in favor of such a disagreement, a number of considerations about the strange and plight into which this understanding of attention puts us. But as long as facts are opposed to considerations, and psychology has no other sources of facts than observation, the above facts retain their absolute significance, and the denial of attention as a separate form of mental activity seems both inevitable and justified.

Let us note that this disappearance of the orienting reflex, as one gets used to it, may be a temporary phenomenon, and the slightest change in the stimulus is sufficient for the orienting reaction to arise again. This phenomenon, the occurrence of an orienting reflex with a slight change in irritation, is sometimes called the “awakening” reaction. It is characteristic that such an appearance of an orienting reflex can occur not only with an increase, but also with a weakening of the habitual stimulus and even with its disappearance. Thus, it is sufficient first to "extinguish" the orienting reflexes to rhythmically presented stimuli, and then, after the orienting reactions to each stimulus have died out as a result of habituation, to skip one of the rhythmically presented stimuli. In this case, the absence of the expected stimulus will cause the appearance of an orienting reflex.

5 Development of attention

Cultural development of attention is called that, with the help of an adult, a child learns a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), with the help of which he further directs his own behavior and attention.

A.N.Leontiev presented the process age development attention on the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky. with age, the child's attention improves, but the development of externally mediated attention goes much faster than its development as a whole, especially natural attention.

At school age, there is a turning point in development. It is characterized by the fact that initially externally mediated attention gradually turns into internally mediated attention, and with time this last form of attention probably occupies the main place among all kinds.

The difference in the characteristics of voluntary and involuntary attention increases, this begins with preschool age, and reach a maximum at school age, and then again show a tendency towards equalization. This is due to the fact that in the process of its development, the system of actions that provide voluntary attention gradually turns from external into internal.

A baby from the cradle is surrounded by unknown objects that attract his attention with their brightness or unusual appearance, he also pays attention to his relatives, rejoicing at their appearance in sight or starting to cry so that they take him in their arms.

Close people pronounce words, the meaning of which the child gradually comprehends, they guide him, direct his involuntary attention. That is, his attention from an early age is directed with the help of special stimulus words.

Comprehending active speech, the child begins to control the primary process of his own attention, and first - in relation to other people, orienting their own attention to them in the right direction, and then - in relation to himself.

Initially, the processes of voluntary attention directed by the adult's speech are for the child processes of his external discipline rather than self-regulation. Gradually, using the same means of mastering attention in relation to himself, the child passes to self-control of behavior, that is, to voluntary attention.

The sequence of the main stages of development children's attention:

the first weeks - months of life. The appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective, innate sign of the child's involuntary attention;

end of the first year of life. The emergence of orienting-research activity as a means of the future development of voluntary attention;

the beginning of the second year of life. Detection of the rudiments of voluntary attention under the influence of the adult's speech instructions, the direction of the gaze on the object named by the adult;

second or third year of life. A fairly good development of the above initial form of voluntary attention;

four or five years. The emergence of the ability to direct attention under the influence of a complex instruction from an adult;

five or six years. The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction;

school age. Further development and improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional.

2 Main types

2.1 Types of attention

Involuntary attention, in the occurrence of which our intention does not take any part, and arbitrary, arising due to our intention, as a result of our efforts. Therefore, what is remembered is what involuntary attention is directed to, what, it is necessary to remember, is necessary in voluntary attention (see Appendix A).

Involuntary attention is a low form of attention that occurs as a result of the impact of a stimulus on any of the analyzers. It appears according to the law of the orienting reflex common to man and animals.

The emergence of involuntary attention can be caused by the peculiarity of the acting stimulus, and be determined by the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the psychological state of a person.

Involuntary attention can be useful at work, at home. It gives us the opportunity to timely identify the appearance of an irritant and take the necessary measures.

At the same time, involuntary attention can have a negative effect on the success of the activity performed, distracting us from the main thing in the task being solved, reducing the productivity of work in general.

The reasons for the occurrence of involuntary can be:

unexpected stimulus;

the relative strength of the stimulus;

novelty of the stimulus;

moving objects (T. Ribot singled out this factor, believing that as a result of purposeful activation of visions, concentration and increased attention on the subject occur);

contrast of objects or phenomena;

the inner state of a person.

The French psychologist T. Ribot believed that the nature of involuntary attention occurs in the deep recesses of our being. Directing the involuntary attention of a given person reveals his character, or at least his aspirations.

Based on this feature, one can conclude that a person is frivolous, banal, narrow-minded, or sincere and deep.

Arbitrary attention is possible only in a person, and it arose due to conscious labor activity. To achieve a specific goal, a person has to deal not only with what is interesting in itself, but with everything that is necessary.

Voluntary attention is more complex and is formed in the learning process: at home, at school, at work. It is characterized by the fact that it is directed to the object under the influence of our intention and goal.

The physiological mechanism of voluntary attention is the beginning of optimal excitation in the cerebral cortex, which is supported by signals that come from the second signaling system. From this one can see the role of the word of the parents or the teacher for the formation of voluntary attention in the child.

The emergence of voluntary attention in a person is historically associated with the labor process, since without controlling one's attention it is impossible to carry out conscious and planned activity.

Psychological feature voluntary attention is accompanied by its experience of greater and lesser volitional effort, tension, and prolonged maintenance of voluntary attention causes fatigue, often even more than physical stress.

It is helpful to change a strong concentration of attention with less strenuous work, by switching to easier or more interesting activities, or by creating a strong interest in a person in an activity that requires intense attention.

People make significant efforts of will, concentrate their attention, understand the content necessary for themselves, and then, without volitional tension, carefully follow the material being studied.

This attention now becomes secondarily involuntary, or post-voluntary. It will greatly facilitate the process of the condition of knowledge, and prevent the development of fatigue.

Post-voluntary attention is an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, which does not require volitional efforts due to a high interest in activity. According to K.K. Platonov, post-voluntary attention is the highest form of voluntary attention. The work of a person absorbs him so much that interruptions in it begin to annoy him, as he has to be re-engaged in the process, to work in. Post-voluntary attention occurs in situations where the purpose of the activity is preserved, but there is no need for volitional effort.

N.F. Dobrynin argues that in this case, the direction of activity remains consistent with consciously accepted goals, but its implementation no longer requires conscious mental efforts and is limited in time only by the depletion of the body's resources.

But not all psychologists consider post-voluntary attention to be an independent type, since it resembles voluntary attention in the mechanism of occurrence, and involuntary attention in terms of the way it functions.

2 Main properties

The main properties of attention include: concentration, stability, intensity, volume, switching, distribution (see Appendix B).

Concentration of attention or concentration is the selection by consciousness of an object and directing attention to it. The role of concentrated attention is different. On the one hand, it is necessary for a more complete study of a particular object, and on the other hand, excessive concentration of attention leads to a sharp narrowing of the field of attention, which creates difficulties in the perception of other important objects.

Sustainability of attention is the length of time during which a person can maintain their attention on an object. It is needed in conditions of monotonous and monotonous work, when complex, but the same type of actions are performed for a long time.

Experiments have established that intensive forty-minute attention can be maintained arbitrarily without noticeable weakening and involuntary switching. In the future, the intensity of attention liquefies the faster, the less trained a person is and the less stable his attention is.

One of important values to achieve success in any activity, it has concentration and stability of attention, which characterize the depth, duration and intensity of a person's mental activity. It is they that distinguish people who are passionately passionate about their work, who are able to disconnect from numerous side stimuli for the sake of the main thing.

Even with very stable and concentrated attention, there are always short-term involuntary changes in the degree of its intensity, tension - this is a fluctuation of attention.

You can force yourself to read the same text carefully several times if you set new tasks before each repetition.

The amount of attention is the number of objects that a person can be simultaneously aware of when perceiving in connection with any one task. At the same time, you can realize 3-7 objects, although the objects are different. And they don't get the same amount of attention. Much depends on the experience of a person, his professional training, which makes it possible to form a volume of attention that combines several objects into one, more complex one.

For some occupations, high intensity and a high amount of attention are needed almost all the time of work, and motor skills are of much less importance. These professions belong to the psychology of work.

High intensity of concentrated attention for other professions is needed only in some moments of work.

it is the ability to perform several actions at the same time. The distribution depends on the individual characteristics of the individual and on professional skills. No one can do two things at the same time without being able to do each separately.

The ability of a person to keep a certain number of different objects in the center of attention at the same time allows you to perform several actions at once, while maintaining the form of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of the simultaneity of performing several is due to a quick sequential switch from one to another.

W. Wundt showed that a person cannot focus on two limiting stimuli at the same time. But sometimes a person is really able to perform two types of activity at the same time. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed must be fully automated, and do not require attention. If this condition is not met, then the combination of activities is impossible.

A large group of professions associated with the management of moving mechanisms is called driving in labor psychology. For them, such qualities of attention as a wide distribution and rapid switching, which determine the success of controlling mechanisms under conditions of multifaceted influence in the conditions of the outside world.

The physiological mechanism of the distribution of attention is related to the fact that habitual actions that do not cause any difficulties due to already developed strong systems of temporary connections can be controlled by areas of the cortex that are outside of optimal excitation.

The dynamics of any work leads to the need to constantly change the objects to which a person pays attention. This is expressed in switching attention.

Switching is the conscious process of attention from one object to another. The involuntary switching of attention is called distraction.

Physiologically, voluntary switching of attention is explained by the movement of an area with optimal excitability along the cerebral cortex. High mobility of nervous processes as an individual trait of temperament allows you to quickly move from one object to another. In such cases, it is mobile attention.

For example, if a person has insufficient mobility of nerve fibers, then this transition occurs with effort, difficultly and slowly. Such attention is called inert. When a person has poor switchability in general, this is sticky attention. Sometimes poor switching in a person is due to poor preparedness for work.

3 Absence

Absent-mindedness is the inability of a person to focus on anything specific for a long time.

There are two types of absent-mindedness imaginary and genuine. Imaginary absent-mindedness is a person's inattention to the immediate surrounding objects and phenomena, which is caused by the extreme concentration of his attention on some object.

Imaginary absent-mindedness is the result of great concentration and narrowness of attention. Sometimes it is called "professional", as it is often found in people of this category. The attention of a scientist can be so concentrated on the problem that occupies him that he does not pay attention to anything.

Absent-mindedness as a result of internal concentration does not cause much harm to the cause, but it makes it difficult for a person to orient himself in the world around him. Much worse is genuine absent-mindedness. A person suffering from absent-mindedness of this type has difficulty establishing and maintaining voluntary attention on any object or action. To do this, he needs much more willpower than an undistracted person. The voluntary attention of an absent-minded person is very unstable and easily distracted.

The causes of truly distracted attention are very different. The causes of true absent-mindedness may be a general disorder of the nervous system, anemia, diseases of the nasopharynx, which impede the flow of air into the lungs. Sometimes absent-mindedness appears as a result of physical and mental fatigue and overwork, any difficult experiences.

One of the reasons for true absent-mindedness is overload with a lot of impressions. Therefore, children should not be allowed to go to the cinema, the theater often during school hours, take them to visit, and be allowed to watch TV every day. Scattered interests can also lead to genuine absent-mindedness.

Many students enroll in several circles at once, take books from many libraries, are fond of collecting and at the same time do nothing seriously. The reason for true absent-mindedness can also be the wrong upbringing of the child in the family: the lack of a regimen in the activities, entertainment and recreation of the child, the fulfillment of all his whims and more. Boring teaching, which does not awaken thought, does not affect feelings, does not require effort of will, is one of the sources of absent-mindedness of students.

4 Psychologist in KRO classes

The concentration of correctional and developmental education (CRO) in schools, which includes the principle of complex diagnostics, correction and rehabilitation of children with persistent learning difficulties, was developed at the Institute of Developmental Education of the Russian Academy of Education and approved by the RF Ministry of Defense in 1994. The KRO system is a form of differentiation that allows solving the problems of modern active assistance to children with learning difficulties and adaptation to school.

One of the main places in the KRO system is given to the psychologist. The work of a psychologist in the KRO system is not easy to carry out psychological help support for children with learning difficulties. This is the psychological support of children at all stages of education as a complex process of interaction, the result of which should be the creation of conditions for the development of the child, mastering his activities and behavior, for the formation of readiness for life self-determination, including personal, social and professional aspects.

Producing psychological support for the educational process in the KRO system, the psychologist conducts individual and group preventive, diagnostic, consultative, corrective work with students; expert, advisory, educational work with teachers and parents on the development, education and upbringing of children in educational institution; participates in the work of the psychological-medical-pedagogical council of the educational institution.

The work of a psychologist in the KRO system cannot proceed in isolation from the work of other specialists of a general education institution. A collegial discussion of the results of the examination by all PMPK specialists makes it possible to develop a unified idea of ​​the nature and characteristics of the child's development, to determine his developmental defects.

Conclusion

So, with the help of our research, we found out that attention is the concentration of the subject's activity at a given moment in time on some real or ideal object. Attention also characterizes the consistency of various links in the functional structure of an action, which determines the success of its implementation. The range of problems in the study of attention emerged as a result of the differentiation of the broader philosophical concept of apperception. In the developments of Wundt, this concept was attributed to the processes through which a clear awareness of the content of the perceived and its integration into the integral structure of past experience is carried out. A significant contribution to the development of ideas about attention was made by the Russian psychologist Lange, who developed the theory of volitional attention. Like the French psychologist Ribot, he connected attention with the regulation of ideomotor movements.

There are three types of attention. The simplest and genetically initial is involuntary attention. It is passive. The physiological manifestation of this fork of attention is the orienting reaction. If the activity is carried out in line with the conscious intentions of the subject and requires volitional efforts on his part, then they speak of arbitrary attention. As the operational and technical side develops due to its automation and the transition of actions into operations, as well as as a result of changes in motivation, the so-called post-voluntary attention may appear.

Among the characteristics of attention, determined by experimental studies, are selectivity, volume, stability, the possibility of distribution and switchability.

In modern psychology, a theory of attention has been developed as a function of internal control over the correspondence of mental actions to programs for their implementation (P. Ya. Galperin). The development of such control improves the effectiveness of any activity, in particular, its systematic formation, allows you to overcome some defects in attention, such as absent-mindedness.

Glossary

No. p / n Concept Definition 1 Attention is the focus of the subject's activity at a given point in time on some real or ideal object 2 Concentration of attention<#"justify">List of sources used

1Gippenreiter Yu.B., Romanov V.Ya. Psychology of attention, - M.: CheRo, 2001, 858 p.

Gonobolin F.N. Attention and its upbringing, - M .: Pedagogy, 2002, 600s.

Dormashev Yu.B., Romanov V.Ya. Psychology of attention, - M .: Education, 2005, 765s.

Dubrovinskaya N.V. Neurophysiological mechanisms of attention: an ontogenetic study, - St. Petersburg: Academy, 2005, 469s.

5Ivanov M.M. Technique of effective memorization, - M .: Enlightenment, 2003, 308s.

Leontiev A.N. Reader for attention, - St. Petersburg: Academy, 2002, 402s.

Nemov R.S. Psychology, -M .: Education, 2006, 378s.

Petrovsky A.V. Introduction to psychology, -M: Education, 2004, 346s.

Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human psychology, -M: Sphere, 2005, 367p.

10Rogov I.E. General psychology (course of lectures), - M .: Vlados, 2008, 500s.

11Romanov B.C., Petukhov B.M. Psychology of attention, - M .: Education, 2006, 630s.

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Attention is a special property of the human psyche. This is the focus and concentration of human consciousness on certain objects while simultaneously distracting from others.

Attention how mental process related to cognitive processes. Forms of manifestation of attention are diverse. It can be directed to the work of the sense organs (visual, auditory, olfactory attention), to the processes of memorization, thinking, and motor activity.

attention functions.

The main functions of attention are to ensure the selectivity of cognitive processes, the purposefulness of human activity and its activation. Due to the selectivity of cognitive processes, a person deals only with the information that plays the most important role for him at a given moment in time. By focusing and holding his attention on something, switching it from one action to another, a person maintains and maintains the purposefulness of his activity. If he needs to work for a long time while maintaining high efficiency and quality of work, then a person chooses a certain level of activity and maintains it.

Orientation should be understood, first of all, as the selective nature of mental activity, the deliberate or unintentional choice of its objects. The concept of orientation also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough just to choose this or that activity in order to be attentive, it is necessary to keep this choice, to keep it. It is comparatively easy to direct attention to one or another object or action. It is much more difficult to maintain it for the required time.

When we talk about attention, we also mean concentration, deepening into activity. The more difficult the task facing a person, the more intense, intense, deeper will be his attention, and, conversely, the easier the task, the less deep is his attention.

At the same time, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. The more we are focused on solving this problem, the less we notice everything around, or rather, we notice what is happening, but indistinctly. Thus, with an attentive attitude to any object, it (this object) turns out to be in the center of our consciousness, everything else is perceived at this moment weakly, It turns out to be on the periphery of the perceived. Thanks to this, the reflection becomes clear, distinct, ideas and thoughts are held in consciousness until the activity is completed, until its goal is achieved. Thus, attention provides another function - control and regulation of activity.

Attention is usually expressed in facial expressions, in posture, in movements. It is easy to distinguish an attentive listener from an inattentive one. But sometimes attention is directed not to the surrounding objects, but to the thoughts and images that are in the mind of a person. In this case, we speak of intellectual attention, which is somewhat different from sensory (external) attention. In some cases, when a person shows an increased focus on physical actions, it makes sense to talk about motor attention. All this indicates that attention does not have its own cognitive content and only serves the activity of other cognitive processes.

types of attention.

A person has different types of attention, each of which he needs and each of which plays a role in his life. These types include: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention; direct and indirect attention; natural and socially conditioned attention.

There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary. Involuntary attention, the most simple and genetically original, is also called passive, forced, since it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing the person. Activity captures a person in these cases by itself, because of its fascination or surprise. A person involuntarily gives himself to the objects, phenomena, and activities that affect him.

Unlike involuntary attention, voluntary attention is controlled by a conscious goal. It is closely connected with the will of a person and developed as a result of labor efforts, therefore it is also called strong-willed, active, deliberate. Having made a decision to engage in some activity, we carry out this decision by consciously directing our attention even to what we are not interested in at the moment, but what we need to do. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes.

Another type of attention, which, like arbitrary, is purposeful and requires initial volitional efforts, but then the person, as it were, “enters” the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. Such attention was called post-voluntary (N. F. Dobrynin). Having first shown voluntary attention and forcing himself to engage in some business without expressed interest in it, a person is more likely to be interested in this business so much that there is no need to make efforts to keep attention on it. Attention from arbitrary becomes involuntary. However, unlike truly involuntary attention, post-voluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. At the same time, it is also dissimilar to voluntary attention, since there is no or almost no volitional effort here.

Post-voluntary attention is characterized by prolonged concentration, intense intensity of mental activity, and high labor productivity.

Direct attention is called such attention, which is attracted and retained by the very object to which it is directed. In this case, between the object that attracts attention to itself and the process of attention itself, there is nothing else that would participate in its regulation.

Mediated attention is called attention, the processes of which (attracting attention, switching, distraction, concentration, distribution) are regulated with the help of additional means that are not given to a person by nature. Attention controls include speech, special signs that direct a person’s attention, for example, an arrow pointing in a certain direction, a gesture ...

Natural attention is called the attention that is given to a person from birth, from nature, which is included in the work early and gradually improves as the brain matures. Such attention practically does not depend on the experience acquired by a person in the process of life, on his training and education. It has been proven that already at the end of the 1st month of a child's life, natural attention is included in the work, when the child begins to pay attention to new stimuli.

Socially conditioned attention is the attention that a person acquires after birth and improves in the process of life. This is attention to objects and phenomena related to the cultural life of a person (books, music, instruments, devices, things made by human hands, events taking place in society).

Basic properties of attention.

Attention means the connection of consciousness with a certain object, its focus on it. The features of this concentration determine the properties of attention. These include: stability, concentration, distribution, switching and attention span.

Each of these properties can be represented by two opposite variants of its manifestation in life. For example, attention can be stable and unstable, concentrated and scattered, switchable and rigid, with large and with small volume.

Sustainability is a temporal characteristic of attention, the duration of attracting attention to the same object. Stability can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations (according to N. Lange) are 2-3 seconds, reaching a maximum of up to 12 seconds. If you listen to the ticking of the clock and try to focus on it, then the person will either hear or not hear them. For attention to any subject to be maintained, its consciousness must be a dynamic process. The object of attention must develop, reveal its new content before us. The stability of attention depends on a number of conditions: the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, acquaintance with it, the subject's attitude towards it, as well as individual characteristics of the individual.

Concentration of attention is its property, thanks to which a person can focus it on one thing, distracting from everything else that he is aware of or perceives at a given moment in time.

The distribution of attention is understood as the subjectively experienced ability of a person to keep a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.

Switchability is understood as his conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another. In general, the switchability of attention means the ability to quickly navigate in a complex, changing situation. The ease of switching attention in different people is different and depends on a number of conditions. This is, first of all, the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them. How more interesting activity, the easier it is to switch to it, and vice versa. Switching attention is one of the well-trained qualities. Rigidity as the opposite property of switchability is manifested in the fact that attention, on the contrary, hardly moves from one object to another. This takes a lot of time, and the distraction of attention from one object is not complete, as well as the concentration of attention on a new object.

All these properties of attention (stability, concentration, switchability, distribution) are its qualitative features. But human attention also has a quantitative characteristic - volume.

The volume of attention is understood as the average number of objects that a person is able to keep in the sphere of his attention at the same time. It is estimated that the average amount of attention of an adult is from 3 to 7 objects (sounds, numbers, simple images).

Attention is an important component of human activity, requiring organization and accuracy. At the same time, attention is considered one of the main indicators of the overall assessment of the level of development of the individual's personality.

Attention is not an independent cognitive process, since it does not reflect anything by itself and does not exist as a separate mental phenomenon. At the same time, attention is one of the most important components of human cognitive activity, since it, arising on the basis of cognitive processes, organizes and regulates their functioning.