Meanwhile, the main theater of military operations was in southern Russia. In 1788, the military operations of the Russian army focused on the assault on the most important Turkish fortress of Ochakov. The 132,000-strong army of G.A. operated here. Potemkin and the Black Sea Fleet, since the main forces of the Turkish fleet (about 100 combat units) were stationed in Ochakov harbor. Fighting started at sea.
In the battle at Fr. Zmeiny was defeated by the squadron of the famous F.F. Ushakova. The Turkish rowing flotilla was destroyed in the Dnieper-Bug estuary. The Turks suffered huge losses in manpower (about 6 thousand killed and wounded and about 2 thousand prisoners).
In December 1788, Russian troops launched a decisive and successful assault on Ochakov. Somewhat earlier, the 50,000-strong army of P.A. Rumyantseva took Khotyn. In the summer of 1789, when Turkish troops numbering 30 thousand people, having crossed the Danube, headed towards Focsani, the Austrians retreated and called on the Russians for help. The Allies were rescued by the 10,000-strong corps of A.V. Suvorov. who immediately attacked the Turks at Focsani. After 9 hours of stubborn resistance, the Turks could not withstand the bayonet attack and fled. Unfortunately, the success of this victory is due to the position of G.A. Potemkin was not developed by the offensive of Russian troops.
An even more significant victory was won by the brilliant strategist A.V. Suvorov over an army of 100 thousand Ottoman Empire. In the fall of 1789, joining his forces (7 thousand people) with the Austrian ones (18 thousand people), A.V. Suvorov, using reconnaissance, suddenly attacked the Turks standing in three groups between the Rymna and Rymnik rivers, losing 45 people killed and 133 wounded. The Turks killed about 17 thousand people. The secret of this phenomenal success was the high training of the troops and the fighting qualities of the Russian soldier.
Such a huge defeat decided the success of the campaign of 1789. Russia advanced its troops to the lower reaches of the Danube. The fortresses of Hajibey, Akkerman, and Bendery were taken. Russian troops took strong positions between the Dniester and Seret rivers. Under the influence of defeats Ottoman Empire She entered into peace negotiations, but under pressure from England and Prussia she abandoned them. The war for Russia continued with both the Ottoman Empire and Sweden.
England and Prussia continued vigorous actions against Russia. Prussia worked hard to ensure that anti-Russian forces sharply increased in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia was forced to withdraw its troops from there in 1789. In 1790, Prussia even managed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Double pressure from England and Prussia and direct threats of declaring war forced Austria to withdraw from the war in 1790. This complicated the situation for Russia, however, the 1790 campaign was successful for it. First of all, it was a series of important victories of the Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov, the capture of a number of fortresses and the famous assault on the Izmail fortress with its 8-meter rampart and ditch, 12 m wide. The Turks put up desperate resistance, giving up every house and every stone in battle. As a result of the 6-hour battle, the fortress was taken by the “weapon of Russian bayonets,” which was terrible for the Turks. The losses of the Turks were enormous - 26 thousand killed and 9 thousand prisoners. Losses of troops A.V. Suvorov - 5 thousand killed. This assault went down in the history of Russian military art as an unprecedented heroic feat of Russian soldiers led by one of the greatest commanders of Russia.
Russia's actions in the war with Sweden were also successful. In 1789, Russian troops launched an offensive in Finland. The Russian fleet won the battle in Rochensalm. In the spring of 1790, Russian sailors won two more naval battles with the Swedes (at Krasnaya Gorka), but lost one battle.
The assault on Izmail, and most importantly, the successes of the Russians in Sweden had a sobering effect on the Swedish government. Peace negotiations began in March 1790, ending in August with the conclusion of peace on status quo ante bellum terms. This was an undoubted defeat for British and Prussian diplomats. However, England was far from admitting this defeat. On the contrary, she again strained all her strength to achieve her goal. W. Pitt now focused on creating an anti-Russian coalition in Europe, which was to include Prussia, the Ottoman Empire, Denmark, Sweden and even the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They also sought a break with Russia from Austria. For Russian diplomacy this was the most difficult test. It took inexhaustible flexibility, dexterity and caution to neutralize the pressure of England and Prussia. And we were talking about presenting Russia with an ultimatum within 10 days, demanding that it abandon the conquered Ochakov and accept English mediation in negotiations with the Porte. England itself was already preparing a war with Russia. Catherine's government urgently redeployed troops to the west and rearmed the Baltic Fleet (up to 32 battleships).
But the war did not take place, firstly, because a pan-European coalition did not work out: only the Ottoman Empire was ready to fight. Secondly, W. Pitt underestimated the rapidly growing opposition to his policies within the country.
The failure of William Pitt's plans immediately led to the collapse of the Triple Alliance. The situation for Russia has become more favorable. True, Turkey still remained, but the campaign of 1791 and new victories of the Russian army and Russian fleet forced Porto to talk about peace.
In July 1791, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Prince N.V. Repnin signed the preliminary conditions for peace in Galati. Following this, a congress began in Iasi. The Ottoman Empire, according to the Treaty of Yassy of December 23, 1791, ceded to Russia all the lands of the Black Sea region up to the river. Dniester, gave Ochakov. The Ottoman Empire also pledged to prevent attacks by the Akhaltsikhe Pasha on the King of Kartli and to compensate for damages for raids in the North Caucasus. But at the same time, Moldova, Bessarabia and Wallachia remained in the hands of the Porte, and the question of the protectorate of Georgia was not resolved.
Thus ended the second most difficult war for Russia with the Ottoman Empire.
CHAPTER 4. RUSSIA AND THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE. SECTIONS OF THE Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
In the attitude of Russian tsarism to the events in France, two stages can be traced. At the first, which lasted, however, not for long, the royal court considered the revolution that had begun as an event Everyday life, that is, as a revolt of the hungry mob, which the royal power is able to quickly cope with. Neither Catherine nor her entourage considered what was happening in Paris to be the result of deep social contradictions, but associated it with temporary financial difficulties and the personal qualities of the hapless king. “What a king Louis XVI is,” exclaimed the empress, having received news of the overthrow of the king, “he is drunk every evening and he is ruled by whoever wants.” Moreover, the Empress considered it possible to continue the policy of rapprochement with France in order to oppose the alliance with England to England.
As the revolution developed and the feudal order was decisively broken, the mood of the ruling circles in St. Petersburg changed. They soon became convinced that the revolution threatened the fate of the throne not only in Paris, but also in all the feudal-absolutist regimes of Europe. Catherine was also convinced of something else: Louis XVI and the French nobility could not restore the old order on their own. The fears of the Russian court were shared by the holders of the thrones of Austria and Prussia.
In 1790, an alliance between Austria and Prussia was concluded with the aim of military intervention in the internal affairs of France. It was not possible to immediately realize these intentions, since Austria, Russia and Prussia were preoccupied with the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia, in addition, was at war with the Ottoman Empire. At this stage, the absolutist regimes limited themselves to developing plans for intervention and providing material assistance to the French emigration and the counter-revolutionary nobility within the country. Catherine loaned the French princes 2 million rubles to build a mercenary army. She became the soul of the coalition created to fight revolutionary France.
According to the Russian-Swedish alliance, Gustav III undertook to land troops in the Austrian Netherlands, which were to be joined by troops of the French princes, as well as Austria and Prussia. Catherine, instead of the troops engaged in the Russian-Turkish war, pledged to issue a subsidy in the amount of 300 thousand rubles until its end.
The coalition's performance did not take place for two reasons: the death of Leopold II and the assassination of Gustav III forced the postponement of the campaign; but the main reason was that the monarchical regimes discovered the advance of the ideas of revolution to the borders of their own dominions and considered it their first priority to stop this advance. We are talking about events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Included in this federal state included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in its composition, although it retained the state border, the right of external relations, its own code of laws - the Lithuanian Statute, had a separate budget, customs system and armed forces, but, having linked its fate with Poland, with its weak royal power and self-will gentry, shared her fate. The country's independence under the rule of anarchy was ephemeral - practically the Lithuanian feudal lords depended on the general Sejm, the majority of which were Poles.
The weakness of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth gave rise to interference in its internal affairs by powerful neighbors and made it possible to carry out its first partition. But even in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth there were forces interested in the weakness royal power.
In 1791, they managed to overcome their resistance and approve a new constitution at the Sejm. The Constitution of May 3, 1791 preserved the feudal privileges of the nobility, the peasants remained in serfdom, and Catholicism retained the importance of the state religion. However, the constitution prohibited the organization of separatist confederations and transferred executive power to the king. The division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was abolished, and on their basis a united Poland was proclaimed. Strengthening statehood was contrary to the interests of Prussia, Austria and Russia. They had a formal reason for interfering in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was not allowed to change the constitution and cancel the liberum veto. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry opposed the strengthening of royal power. As a sign of protest against the constitution, on May 3, 1791, with the support of Catherine II, they organized a confederation in Targowice and turned to Russia for help. At the call of the confederation, Russian and Prussian troops were sent to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for a new partition. In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was formed.
The rise of the country's economy, the creation of a regular army and navy, and the victory in the Northern War strengthened Russia's international position. The strengthening of Russia worried not only its neighbors Sweden, Poland, Turkey, but also large European countries - England, France, Austria. In solving its foreign policy problems, Russia took advantage of the contradictions that arose between the powers.
In the first quarter of the 18th century. one of the main foreign policy tasks was solved - access to the Baltic Sea was won. The following two foreign policy tasks remained unresolved.
The first of them was associated with the need to gain access to the Azov and Black Sea, annexation and development of vast expanses of land lying between the abatis and the Azov-Black Sea coast. These lands remained undeveloped and were under the rule of Turkey and its vassal Crimean Khanate, which continued an aggressive policy towards Russia. This slowed down the pace of development in the southern regions and threatened their security. Access to the Azov and Black Seas was required by the economic development of the country (access to new markets for raw materials and sales). The annexation of new fertile lands of the south was necessary for their distribution to the nobility.
The second foreign policy task was the reunification of Right Bank Ukraine with the Left Bank and the inclusion of Belarus into Russia, which was supposed to unite Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians in one state. At times, such foreign policy issues as the aggressive policy of Prussia and relations with the states of Central Asia, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia also became acute.
The solution of foreign policy problems, on the one hand, had a progressive significance, corresponding to the national interests of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it. On the other hand, foreign policy was carried out by the autocracy in the interests of strengthening this system and the dominant position of the nobility. The struggle to preserve the autocratic system and suppress protests against it were also the most important features of Russian foreign policy.
Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
Highest value in foreign policy events of the mid-18th century. had the Seven Years' War. In Europe, Prussia's aggressive policy intensified, posing a threat to Russian interests. Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev, who led Russian foreign policy in the 40-50s, made a lot of efforts to create an anti-Prussian coalition, which included Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. The war began in 1756 with the Prussian attack on Saxony and the defeat of the Austrian army. In the summer of 1757, Russia entered the war. On August 19, 1757, Russian troops defeated
Prussians near Gross-Jägersdorf. East Prussia was soon occupied by Russian troops.
The Prussians suffered a new defeat on August 14, 1758 at Zorndorf. On August 1, 1759, the Russian army reached the Oder and defeated the Prussian king Frederick II at Kunersdorf. In 1760, Russian troops occupied Berlin. Prussia was on the brink of disaster. She was saved from this on December 25, 1761 by the death of Empress Elizabeth. Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, made peace with him in May 1762, returning to Prussia all the territories conquered by Russia. After the accession of Catherine II, Russia annulled the alliance concluded by Peter III with Prussia. As a result of the Seven Years' War, the Prussian threat was ended for many decades.
Russo-Turkish Wars (1768-1774; 1787-1791)
In 1768, incited and subsidized by France, Turkey decided to resume aggression in Ukraine and the Caucasus. For Russia, the Turkish attack turned out to be
unexpected, and military actions of 1768-1769. were unsuccessful for the Russian army. The situation changed in 1770, when P.A. Rumyantsev won major victories on the tributaries of the Prut River Large and Kagul. The Russian squadron of G.A. Spiridonov, leaving the Baltic, defeated the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay on June 25-26, 1770. In 1771 Russian troops occupied all the main centers of Crimea. After some lull, military operations intensified again in 1773. In 1773, the troops of A.V. Suvorov took the Tartukai fortress, and in 1774 they won a victory at Kozludzha.
Türkiye was forced to sign a peace treaty in the village on July 10, 1774 Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. This peace eliminated Crimea's dependence on Turkey. Russia received the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, Kerch and the right to unhindered navigation of Russian merchant ships in the Black Sea. In the spring of 1783, the Crimean Khanate ceased to exist, Russian troops entered Crimea, and it was incorporated into Russia. In 1783, the Georgian king Irakli II signed a treaty with Russia in the city of Georgievsk, according to which Georgia came under the protection of Russia, which guaranteed its territorial integrity and border security.
Not wanting to accept the loss of undivided dominance in the Black Sea, Turkey began in 1787. new war with Russia. In 1787, A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish landing in the Kinburn area, after which the Russian army besieged Ochakov and took it at the end of 1788. In 1789, Suvorov won victories over the Turks at Focsani and Rymnik. On December 11, 1790, the troops of A.V. Suvorov stormed the Izmail fortress - the way to Istanbul was opened for Russian troops. The actions of the young Black Sea Fleet, commanded by F.F. Ushakov, were successful. In 1790 he defeated the Turkish fleet in Kerch Strait and at Fort Hajibey. In 1791, Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kalyakriya. In 1791 Yassakh Peace was signed between Turkey and Russia. The border between Turkey and Russia was established along the Dniester. They were annexed to Russia vast lands Azov-Black Sea coast (Novorossia and Crimea-Tavrida).
Russia and the West
In the 70s of the XVIII century. During the war for the independence of the North American states, Russia fought with England saw With Declaration of Armed Neutrality.
Taking advantage of the deep crisis and anarchy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria, Prussia and Russia in the 70-90s. XVIII century conducted three partitions of Poland, eliminating its statehood. According to the first partition of 1772, the eastern part of Belarus along the Western Dvina and the Upper Dnieper went to Russia. According to the second partition of 1793, Russia received Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus with Minsk. In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko began an uprising , trying to defend the independence of Poland. It was suppressed by Russian tsarism. In 1795, the third partition of Poland took place, according to which Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volyn were transferred to Russia and Courland was legally secured.
After the outbreak of the revolution in France in 1789, Russia waged an active struggle against the revolutionary country. Under Catherine II, aid was provided to opponents of the revolution in France through the Russian embassy. In Russia, the works of French educators were banned, and censorship was tightened. In 1792 they were torn apart diplomatic relations with France, the import of French goods into Russia was cancelled. In 1793, Russia entered into an agreement with England, Prussia and Austria, obliging them to help them with troops and money in the fight against France. Russia was prevented from taking part in the intervention against France by the war with Sweden (1788-1790) and events in Poland.
The fight against revolutionary France became the core of Paul I’s foreign policy. A coalition consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples was created against France, which launched its actions in Italy, the Mediterranean and Switzerland. In the summer of 1789, F.F. Ushakov’s fleet entered the Adriatic Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. After the assault, the powerful French fortress of Corfu was taken. In 1799, Russian sailors captured the port of Brindisi, and a landing force was landed on the Apennine Peninsula, expelling the French from Naples and Rome.
The center of Allied action on land was French-occupied Northern Italy and Switzerland. At the head allied forces A.V. Suvorov stood up, having completed his brilliant Italian campaign. A.V. Suvorov, with an army many times inferior to the enemy, inflicted lightning strikes on him, preventing him from combining forces.
On April 16-17, 1799, the Russians won victories at the river. Adda, opening the way to Milan and Turin. In five weeks, all of Northern Italy was liberated. This success was consolidated by victories in June 1799 at Trebbia and in August of the same year at Novi.
Instead of moving to France and the Rhine, as Suvorov proposed, he was forced to carry out the order of Paul I to transfer troops across the Alps to Switzerland to join the corps of A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov. It was an unprecedented transition. On September 13, 1799, the Russians captured the Saint-Gotthard Pass, and the next day they defeated the French at the Devil's Bridge and broke into Switzerland, but were surrounded by superior French forces. Having lost 7 thousand people in fierce battles, Suvorov nevertheless escaped from encirclement.
The Swiss campaign further strained relations in the coalition and led to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Paul I entered into an alliance with Napoleon and broke off relations with England.
Related information.
In the second half of the 18th century. Russia solved several foreign policy problems:
1) the first direction is south. Russia fought for access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, development and settlement of the southern black soil steppes. This led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;
2) the second direction - the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus captured by Poland took a significant place in Russia’s foreign policy;
3) third direction. It was predetermined by the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. Russia waged an active struggle against revolutionary France. In the second half of the 18th century. The foreign policy of the Russian government in the southern direction significantly intensified. He was pushed to this by the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, who sought to take possession of the rich southern lands. Industry and trade, which developed rapidly, also dictated the need for access to the Black Sea.
Russo-Turkish wars
In the southern direction, Russia has repeatedly entered into confrontation with Turkey.
1. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Russia managed to recapture Azov and Taganrog from Turkey. In the Battle of Chesma, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. During military operations, Russian troops captured Crimea and could move to Istanbul. At this time, Türkiye asked for peace. In this war, Russian commanders showed their talent: P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, V.M. Dolgorukov; The actions of the fleet were led by: L.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridonov and I.S. Greig.
2. In 1787–1791 Russia again entered the war with Turkey. In military operations, Türkiye demanded the return of Crimea from Russia. But the Russian army under the leadership of A.V. Suvorova defeated Turkish military units at Kinburn, Fokshani and on the Rymnik River. G.A. Potemkin occupied the Turkish fortress of Ochakov on the Dnieper estuary. The capture of Izmail, a fortress that was the stronghold of Turkish rule on the Danube, was also of great importance. In this battle, the future famous commander M.I. distinguished himself. Kutuzov. Successful operations at sea were carried out by the Russian fleet, led by Admiral F.F. Ushakov.
As a result of this war:
– Crimea was annexed to the Russian Empire;
– the Crimean Khanate, which was a constant source of aggression on the southern borders of Russia, was liquidated;
– Türkiye also recognized Russian patronage of Georgia.
At the end of the 1780s. Russia waged military operations against Sweden, which sought to regain lands lost in the Northern War.
Russia also participated in resolving the Polish issue. As a result of the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), the following were annexed to Russia: Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.
Russia's participation in the active struggle against revolutionary France began under Catherine II and continued by Paul I. In 1799, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov successfully fought in Northern Italy. Under the command of Ushakov, the Russian fleet occupied the Ionian Islands and the fortress of Corfu. It was during these military operations that Suvorov made his unprecedented crossing of the Alps.
History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich
7. Foreign policy Russia in the second half of the 18th century
During the Seven Years' War, Russian actions brought Prussia to the brink of military disaster, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761. Peter III, who ascended the throne, sent an adjutant to Frederick with a proposal for “good agreement and friendship.” In May 1762, peace was signed between Russia and Prussia. Russia returned all its territories to Prussia and became its ally in the war against Austria. This increased the hostility of England and France towards Russia and extremely complicated the international situation. In addition, Peter III was preparing for dynastic war with Denmark over Schleswig, which had nothing to do with Russian national interests.
This was put to an end by the overthrow of Peter III and the rise to power of Catherine P. Russia left the war and dissolved the alliance with Prussia. N.I. Panin, a prominent statesman. He began to create the so-called “northern system”, which was based on the opposition of Russia, Prussia, England, Denmark, Sweden and Poland to the coalition of France, Spain and Austria. In 1765, Russia entered into an alliance with Denmark, and in 1766 a trade agreement with England. However, N.I. Panin failed to implement his plan, because England and Prussia absolutely did not want the strengthening of Russia, the growth of its influence in Europe.
One of important tasks Russia's foreign policy remained a struggle with Turkey, which considered itself the master of the Black Sea and, incited and subsidized by France, was waiting for an opportune moment for aggression in Ukraine and the Caucasus. The Crimean Khanate still, although less often, disturbed the Ukrainian and Russian lands with its raids. The Crimean Tatar-Turkish threat slowed down the pace of development in the southern regions of the country and threatened their security.
The needs of the country's economic development required solving a number of problems: to annex new fertile lands in the south between the abatis and the Azov-Black Sea coast; gain access to the Azov and Black Seas; ensure control over the mouths of rivers flowing into the Black Sea; achieve free navigation of Russian ships in the Black Sea and their passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. This was especially important for Russia in connection with the development of market relations and the growing demand for agricultural products, primarily bread, in European and Mediterranean countries. Russian nobles and merchants were interested in creating ports on the Black Sea and in developing the free export of Russian goods to the ports of Europe and the Middle East, where Russian interests collided with the interests of England and France. Because of this, Russia sought to create a military fleet in the Black Sea and strengthen its military-strategic positions on the southern borders.
Catherine II sought to actively support the national liberation struggle against Turkish yoke, which was led by the Orthodox Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, counting on the support of Orthodox Russia.
An important foreign policy task in the second half of the 18th century. was the annexation of the lands of Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus, which were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This task was part of a major foreign policy problem of unifying all the lands that were part of Old Russian state, within a single Russian state, set by Moscow rulers at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.
Having conquered in the first quarter of the 18th century. access to the Baltic Sea, Russia made every effort to preserve the annexed lands and strengthen its influence in the Baltic states.
At the end of the century, from 1789, for Russia the problem of fighting revolutionary France and preventing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia came to the fore.
Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. was of a dual character. On the one hand, solving national problems important for Russia was progressive in its development. On the other hand, an active foreign policy, focused not only on ensuring the security of the country, but also on the conquest of new territories, required enormous material costs, which placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the tax-paying population of Russia. It strengthened autocracy, noble land ownership, which was the basis of prevailing feudal relations, and expanded opportunities for extensive development of the Russian economy.
In 1768, the explosion of the Koliivshchyna, a liberation movement in Ukraine, forced Russia to exert all its forces to suppress it. Türkiye regarded this as an opportune moment to start a war against Russia. Even before this, Catherine II delayed the start of the conflict with Turkey, making attempts to strengthen the country’s position in Central Europe. The Turks perceived this as a weakness of Russia. In the town of Baltu, they organized a pogrom of the Orthodox population who turned to Russian troops for help, and used the Baltic incident as a pretext to start a war.
The Turkish attack was unexpected for Russia, but the military actions of 1768–1769 ended in failure for the Turks, they did not bring success to Russia either. The situation changed in 1770, when P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories on the tributaries of the Prut River Large and Kagul. The Russian squadron of G. A. Spiridov, leaving the Baltic, reached the Mediterranean Sea and completely defeated the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay in June 1770. The Dardanelles were blocked. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of Crimea. Russia, seeing the hostile attitude of Austria and the impending war with Sweden, began peace negotiations. But Turkey’s conditions did not suit her.
Military operations intensified again in 1773.
The troops of A.V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress, and the following year they won a victory at Kozludzha. Russia could easily develop its success and solve the problem of the South, but Catherine II was in a hurry to end the war in order to throw an army to defeat the Pugachev movement. Turkey and Russia signed a peace treaty on July 10, 1774 in the village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the vassal dependence of Crimea was eliminated, Russia received the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug with Kinburn, Kerch and the right to unhindered navigation of merchant ships in the Black Sea.
During the war, Russia had to take part in the first partition of Poland, although it did not want to. Prussia and Austria had long nurtured plans to increase their lands at the expense of the territories of the Polish state, which was in a state of political crisis.
At the beginning of her reign, Catherine II sought to preserve the integrity and sovereignty of Poland, ensuring Russian influence there with the help of Stanislaw Poniatowski, who was elevated to the royal throne with her support in 1764. But Russia, at the same time, was not interested in a strong Polish state and therefore signed an agreement with Frederick II on the preservation of the Polish political system, where the principle of “liberum veto” operated in the Sejm, which inevitably preserved the weakness of royal power in the country and led the country to anarchy. In 1768, the Polish Sejm, under pressure from Russia, adopted a law that equalized the rights of Catholics and dissidents (Orthodox and Protestants). In response to this, in the city of Bar (Right Bank Ukraine), deputies of the Sejm, who disagreed with his decision, created a confederation and started a war against the king. They hoped for help from Turkey and European countries. To fight the Confederates, Russian troops were sent to Poland under the command of A.V. Suvorov, who inflicted a number of defeats on the rebels.
Austria and Prussia sought to implement their plans for seizing Polish territories without Russian participation. This threat and the prolongation of the war with Turkey forced Russia to accept Frederick II's plan for the division of Poland. According to the first partition of Poland (1772), Russia received Eastern Belarus.
War 1768–1774 did not solve all controversial problems between Russia and Turkey. Georgia and Crimea became the stumbling block. Despite Turkish protests, Russia, having sent its troops into Crimea in 1783, annexed it. The Crimean Khanate, which existed through ruinous raids and the sale of captured captives into slavery, ceased to exist. In 1783, the Georgian king Irakli II signed a treaty with Russia in Georgievsk, according to which Russia accepted Georgia under its protection and guaranteed its territorial integrity and border security.
Turkey did not want to accept the loss of Crimea and undivided dominance in the Black Sea, the waters of which were already plied by military ships of the Russian fleet, the base of which was Sevastopol. In June 1787, in an ultimatum, she demanded that Russia return Crimea, recognize Georgia as a vassal possession of Turkey and grant it the right to inspect Russian merchant ships. Having been refused, the Ottoman Empire went to war.
In 1787, A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish landing in the Kinburn area, after which the Russian army besieged Ochakov and took it at the end of 1788. In 1789, Suvorov won victories over the Turks at Focsani and Rymnik, for which he received the title of Count of Rymnik. On December 11, 1790, his troops stormed Ishmael, the most powerful fortress in the world; the way to Istanbul was open for them. The actions of the young Black Sea Fleet, commanded by Admiral F. F. Ushakov, were successful. In 1790, he defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and at Fort Hajibey. The following year, Ushakov won another victory - at Cape Kaliakria near the Bulgarian city of Varna. In 1791, peace was signed between Turkey and Russia in Iasi. The border was established along the Dniester. Vast lands of the Azov-Black Sea coast (“Novorossiya” and Crimea) were annexed to Russia.
A huge role in the annexation of Crimea and Novorossiya was played by the statesman and military leader G. A. Potemkin (1739–1791), who died shortly before the signing of the Peace of Jassy. Potemkin was a favorite of Catherine II. His personal “favor” lasted two years, but he managed to maintain a high position at court and become the empress’s indispensable assistant in state affairs. He always found himself where decisive action was needed. His administrative talents manifested themselves especially in the development of New Russia, after in 1776 he was appointed governor-general of the Novorossiysk, Azov and Astrakhan provinces. On his initiative and direct participation, the Black Sea Fleet and the cities of Kherson, Nikolaev, Sevastopol, Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk) were built. G. A. Potemkin was not without shortcomings. His extravagance and vanity, desire for luxury and fear of competition from talented people (for example, A.V. Suvorov) were boundless. But despite this, Potemkin, being a statesman, subordinated his personal interests to the service of Russia. He gave her all his strength, mind, energy.
The Russian-Turkish war was complicated by the fact that in 1788–1790. Russia was forced to wage war with Sweden, which throughout the 18th century, after the Peace of Nystadt, sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War and regain dominance in the Baltic Sea. The Swedish king Gustav II, wanting to resolve controversial issues regarding Finland, treacherously attacked Russia in 1788. However, military operations were unsuccessful for the Swedes. In 1790, Russia and Sweden concluded the Treaty of Verel, which restored the status quo. Russia retained its gains made during Northern War.
In the 70s of the XVIII century. During the War of Independence of the North American States with England, Russia refused to send its troops to America and issued a declaration of armed neutrality, which was supported by most European countries. Ships of neutral countries found themselves under armed protection if they were attacked by the fleet of the warring parties. This forced England to abandon its blockade of the North American coast, which helped the United States win the Revolutionary War.
The French Revolution had an impact on European countries, including Poland, where, under the influence of the ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity, a constitution was adopted on May 3, 1791, which strengthened the statehood of Poland. The constitution abolished the election of the king and the right of “liberum veto”. The third estate was allowed to participate in the elections to the Seimas, and freedom of religion was introduced. The “unauthorized” change of the Polish constitution became the pretext for the second partition. He was associated with the preparation of European monarchies for intervention in France. Catherine II supported some of the magnates and gentry who created the Targowitz Confederation. They opposed the king and the Diet, giving Russia the opportunity to intervene.
In January 1793, the second partition of Poland was carried out. Russia received Right Bank Ukraine and central Belarus with Minsk.
After the second partition of Poland, it found itself practically dependent on Russia and Prussia. In Poland, as a sign of protest, a powerful national liberation movement began in March 1794, led by one of the participants in the War of Independence in North America, Tadeusz Kosciuszko. The rebels managed to win a number of victories. However, the lack of a clear program among the rebels weakened the movement, and it lost supporters. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov suppressed the uprising in early November.
The consequence of the uprising was the third partition of Poland in October 1795. According to it, Western Belarus, Volyn, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland went to Russia. After this partition, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist as an independent state.
After the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Russia became involved in an active struggle against revolutionary France. Under Catherine II, aid was provided to opponents of the revolution in France through the Russian embassy. In Russia, the works of French educators were banned, and censorship was tightened. In 1792, diplomatic relations with France were severed, and the import of French goods to Russia was stopped. In 1793, Russia entered into an agreement with England, Prussia and Austria, pledging to help them with troops and money in the fight against France. Russia was prevented from taking part in the intervention against France by the war with Sweden (1788–1790) and events in Poland.
The fight against revolutionary France became the core of Paul I’s foreign policy. A coalition consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples was created against France, which launched its actions in Italy, the Mediterranean and Switzerland. Russian-French relations became even more strained after Napoleon captured the island of Malta, which was patronized by Paul I. In the summer of 1798, F. F. Ushakov’s squadron entered the Adriatic Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. After a two-day assault, a powerful French fortress on the island of Corfu was taken. In 1799, Russian sailors captured the port of Brindisi, and troops were landed on the Apennine Peninsula, expelling the French from Naples and Rome.
The center of Allied action on land was French-occupied Northern Italy and Switzerland. The allied troops were led by A.V. Suvorov, who completed his brilliant Italian campaign. With troops many times inferior to the enemy in numbers, he inflicted lightning strikes on him, preventing him from joining forces.
In April 1799, the Russians won a victory on the Adda River, opening the way to Milan and Turin. In 5 weeks, all of Northern Italy was liberated. This success was consolidated by victories in June 1799 on the Trebbia River and in August of the same year near the city of Novi.
Instead of moving to France and the Rhine, as Suvorov proposed, he was forced to carry out the order of Paul I to transfer troops across the Alps to Switzerland to join the corps of General A. M. Rimsky-Korsakov, who was abandoned by the Austrian allies. It was an unprecedented transition. In September 1799, the Russians captured the Saint Gotthard Pass, defeated the French at the Devil's Bridge and broke into Switzerland, but were surrounded by superior French forces. Having lost 7 thousand people in fierce battles, Suvorov nevertheless escaped from encirclement.
The Swiss campaign strained relations in the coalition and led to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Subsequently, Paul I entered into an alliance with Napoleon and broke off relations with England.
As a result of Russia's active foreign policy in the 18th century. its geopolitical influence as a great power increased. It had a decisive influence on the system of international relations. Achievements in the country's foreign policy were unthinkable without a powerful, modern, well-armed and equipped army and navy. In the 18th century The Russian model of the army and navy was created, where the main emphasis was on total initiative, conscious subordination, and the camaraderie of higher and lower ranks. The Russian army was distinguished by high morale and patriotism. The army and navy were led by outstanding military leaders - P. A. Rumyantsev, A. V. Suvorov, G. A. Spiridov, F. F. Ushakov, who made a huge contribution to the development of domestic military art.
In the 18th century a powerful multinational empire was created. But it was different from the colonial empires of England, France, Spain, Holland, and Portugal.
The Russian people were not imperial in spirit. The Russians, exploring new lands, settled “alternately” with the indigenous inhabitants, coexisting peacefully with them, passing on their experience and management skills to them, and perceiving their experience. The peoples that became part of Russia did not experience national humiliation. They were often subjected to less oppression than the Russian serfs, who made up the majority of the population of Russia and experienced unprecedented oppression and arbitrariness of the landowners and the official bureaucracy. Russian empire in the 18th century was created through social assimilation. Ordinary workers joined the tax population. The elite of non-Russian peoples were part of the ruling noble Russian nobility.
Russian government authorities, as a rule, did not interfere in the internal life and structure of small nations. During the administrative-territorial division, the government deliberately abandoned the national principle of creating governorates, provinces, and districts. All this contributed to the consolidation of the empire in the 18th century. However, it must be said that the policy of the Russian state towards non-Russians was not always flexible, which led to discontent or uprisings, which very often became part of all-Russian anti-state protests, where Russian and non-Russian peasants jointly fought against oppression.
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From the book Course national history author Devletov Oleg Usmanovich4.3. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century. In the second half of the 19th century. The foreign policy priorities of the Russian Empire are changing. Talented politician and diplomat A.M. Gorchakov, who headed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856, tried to take Russia out of
At the beginning of the 18th century. it is very difficult to separate internal and
foreign policy, economic development and Russia's entry into
wide arena of international relations. Many events
in the field of economics were inspired by the war, but also
the war was necessary for further economic
development of the state.
Turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. is an important period in the history of Russian foreign policy. The vast territory of Russia was virtually deprived of convenient sea routes. Under these conditions, the struggle for access to the sea acquired paramount importance for the fate of the Russian state. Overcoming the country's economic backwardness largely depended on its success.
The main foreign policy problems solved by Russia in the 18th century were inherited from the previous century. They consisted of the struggle for access to the Black and Baltic seas, the return to the fold of Russian statehood of the East Slavic lands (Belarusian and Ukrainian) with an Orthodox population, which were part of the Ancient Rus', and later became part of Poland and Lithuania. The tasks of strengthening Russia’s positions on the southern borders of the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus, as well as in the Far East, have acquired great importance. The implementation of these tasks was associated with the desire to prevent new invasions of Russian lands, and to ensure Russia’s full entry into the European system of international relations.
The relevance of the choice of topic is determined by modern events taking place in the West Russian Federation
The outstanding Russian historian, professor at Moscow University V.O. Klyuchevsky wittily noted in one of his diary entries that, although they say that history has not taught anyone anything, life, however, takes even more revenge on those who do not know at all stories. The famous scientist, excellent lecturer and wit wrote: “It is not the flowers’ fault that the blind man does not see them. History teaches even those who do not learn from it: it teaches them a lesson for ignorance and neglect.” I would like to remind you of another aphorism: “A lie in the interpretation of the past leads to failures in the present and prepares a disaster in the future.”
The subject of research of this work is the foreign policy of the rulers of the Russian state in the 18th century.
The objects of the study are Russia in the 18th century, its international position, and the implementation of Russian international interests in the south and north.
The goal is to analyze the foreign policy of Russia in the 18th century and
try to give it an objective assessment.Tasks:
1. Study the theoretical principles on this topic.
2. Identify the main directions of Russian foreign policy during the 18th century.
3. Find out what are the causes and consequences of wars for the history of the country.
When preparing the material using the most effective methods
research began: problem-chronological, synchronistic, structural-historical, periodization method.1. Foreign policy of the first half of the 18th century.
1.1 Grand Embassy.
To search for allies in the west, Peter I organized a great embassy. In March 1697, the great embassy left Moscow. There were more than 250 people in it; among them 35 “valantirov” (volunteers), including the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment Pyotr Mikhailov Tsar Pyotr Alekseevich, who decided to go incognito. Like other volunteers, he had to study shipbuilding and marine science in the West. In fact, from beginning to end, he headed the embassy and directed its work in everything.
For the first time, the ruler of the Moscow state went to foreign countries. The official goal of the embassy is to confirm the alliance directed against Turkey and Crimea.
1The Tsar and the embassy visited Riga and Courland, the German principalities and the Netherlands, England and Australia. They became acquainted with European industry, in particular with shipbuilding, museums, theaters, observatories and laboratories. More than 800 craftsmen of various specialties were hired to work in Russia.
Peter learned that his allies were negotiating peace with Turkey, and Russia had no choice but to come to terms with this. The anti-Turkish alliance was falling apart before our eyes, the European powers were preparing for war with each other for the Spanish inheritance.
2In Rava Russkaya, Peter met with Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. The result of this meeting was an alliance against Sweden. After the Great Embassy, the southern direction of Russian foreign policy changes to the northern. Following his allies, Peter begins negotiations with Turkey to end the war. The leading Western powers England, Austria, France, the Netherlands, Sweden pushed the Sultan to continue the war with the Russian Tsar. Anticipating the War of the Spanish Succession, these countries wanted to secure their eastern flanks, free up their own forces, and “occupy” Russia and Turkey fighting each other. However, E.I. Ukraintsev, an old and experienced clerk sent by Peter, after long and difficult negotiations (lasted eight months), concluded a truce with Turkey for 30 years. On August 9, 1700, Peter I declared war on Sweden. The struggle for access to the Baltic began.
31.2 Northern War.
Having concluded a truce with Turkey (1700), Russia, in alliance with Saxony, its elector Augustus II was at the same time the Polish king, and Denmark (the so-called Northern Alliance) declared war on Sweden in 1700. Charles XII King of Sweden decided to defeat the opponents one by one with the help of the Anglo-Dutch fleet. He bombarded Copenhagen and took Denmark, Russia's only ally with a fleet, out of the war.
An attempt by Augustus II to take Riga was repulsed by Swedish troops who landed in the Baltic states. Under such unfavorable circumstances for the allies, Russian troops besieged the city of Narva. Charles XII, taking advantage of the lack of experience of the low organization of the Russian troops and the betrayal of foreign officers, inflicted a cruel defeat on Peter's army with a sudden blow.
All artillery and convoys were lost. Only the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments were able to provide worthy resistance to the enemy. Charles XII, considering the Russians a frivolous enemy, moved his troops against Poland and here, in the figurative expression of Peter, “got stuck for a long time.” However, Peter did not lose heart, but actively and energetically set about reorganizing the army. New regiments and national officer cadres were created, cities were fortified. Artillery was being revived; In conditions of metal shortages, even church bells were melted down.
4Successes on the Baltic coast were not long in coming. In 1702, the offensive of Russian troops began. They captured a fortress at the source of the Neva from Lake Ladoga, called by Peter the “key city” Shlisselburg (formerly Oreshek, now Petrokrepost).
On May 16, 1703, the city of St. Petersburg was founded at the mouth of the Neva, becoming the capital of the Russian state. The construction of the Russian fleet began, which entered the Baltic: the “window to Europe” was cut through.
In 1704, the Russians took Narva and Dorpat (now Tartu). The Northern War entered its decisive phase after the defeat of the Polish king. In 1704, power in Poland passed into the hands of the Swedish protege Stanislav Leszczynski, and in 1706 Augustus “lost” the Saxon crown. Russia was left alone, having lost its last ally. The main forces of the Swedish army moved towards Moscow. Minsk and Mogilev were busy. The Russian army retreated in accordance with the adopted strategy of “tormenting the enemy.” However, Karl did not dare to go further to Smolensk and Moscow. He took the army to Ukraine, where, counting on the support of the traitor I. Mazepa, he intended to spend the winter, joining with the corps of General Levengaupt, who was coming to him from the Baltic states with a large supply of ammunition and food.
However, Karl's plans were not destined to come true. On September 28, 1708, near the village of Lesnoy (near Mogilev), Levengaupt’s corps was intercepted and defeated by a “flying detachment” led by Peter himself. As a result of the battle near the village of Lesnoy, Charles XII lost the reinforcements and convoy he needed so much. The Swedes' confidence in their invincibility was undermined, but the morale of the Russian army rose. Peter called this victory “the mother of the Poltava battle” (it occurred exactly nine months before Poltava). Charles XII's hopes of strengthening the Swedish army in connection with the defection of Hetman of Ukraine I. Mazepa to its side did not come true: only a small part of the Cossacks, deceived by the hetman, went over to the side of the Swedes.
Battle of Poltava. In the early morning of June 27, 1709, a decisive battle took place between the troops of Peter I and Charles XII near Poltava. By 11 o'clock, Russian troops completely defeated the Swedes. Showing miracles of courage, in a fierce hand-to-hand battle the Russian army overthrew the Swedes and put them to flight. Of the 30 thousand Swedish soldiers, 9 thousand were killed and 3 thousand were captured on the field of the Battle of Poltava. The Russians captured another 16 thousand Swedes during the persecution. Charles XII himself, together with the traitor I. Mazepa, fled to Turkey.
5The Poltava victory, as a result of which the Swedish ground forces were destroyed, determined the outcome of the Northern War. It demonstrated the increased power of the Russian army, strengthened the international authority of Russia, to whose side Poland and Denmark, as well as Prussia and Hanover, again went over. Military operations against Sweden continued for another 12 years. This was explained by the forced war with Turkey, as well as the need to end Swedish dominance at sea.
Prussian campaign. In 1710, at the instigation of European powers, primarily France and Sweden, Turkey declared war on Russia. On the Prut River in 1711, an almost 130,000-strong Turkish army surrounded Russian troops. Only by returning Azov to Turkey and destroying Taganrog did Russia achieve a truce. Charles XII was returning to Sweden.
Battles at sea. The Russian Land Army conducted successful operations in Finland. The center of the Northern War moved to the Baltic. In 1714 the young Russian fleet won the first of its remarkable victories. In the Battle of Cape Gangut on July 27, Peter I brilliantly used the advantage of galley ships over sailing ships in calm conditions.
The Battle of Gangut gave impetus to the further development of the Russian fleet, which soon doubled the Swedish one in the number of warships. The Swedes also became vulnerable from the sea. With the mediation of France, peace negotiations with Sweden began in 1718 (Aland Congress). However, the absurd death of Charles XII from an accidental cannonball in Norway and. the rise to power in Sweden of the “war party” forced them to take up arms again. Especially important The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish one off the island of Grengam in 1720 played a role in ending the war. Russian sailors, boldly going on board, managed to capture four large Swedish ships. The victory was won “in front of the eyes of the English gentlemen,” whose fleet was located not far from the battle site.
6Nystadt world. In 1721, on August 30, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden in the Finnish city of Nystadt. Russia was assigned the coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga: part of Karelia and Ingria (along the Neva), Estland (Estonia), Livonia (part of Latvia). Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the acquired lands. Finland returned to Sweden. The Baltic nobility and townspeople, mainly Germans, were granted their rights and privileges. Celebrations on the occasion of the victory took place in St. Petersburg for a whole month. Along the first sleigh route, Peter went to Moscow, where the celebrations continued. The Senate awarded Peter the rank of admiral, the title of “Father of the Fatherland, Emperor Peter the Great of All Russia.” Russia became one of the world powers.
Other important foreign policy events of Peter's government include the Caspian (Persian) campaign of 1722-1723. Taking advantage of the internal political crisis in Iran, Russia intensified its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In 1722, she undertook a campaign in the Caucasus and Iran, as a result of which she received the western shore of the Caspian Sea with Baku, Rasht, and Astrabad. Further advancement in
Transcaucasia was impossible due to Turkey's entry into the war. The Caspian campaign played a positive role in strengthening friendly ties and cooperation between the peoples of Russia and Transcaucasia, in the fight against Turkish aggression. In 1724 the Sultan concluded
Peace of Constantinople with Russia, recognizing its territorial acquisitions during the Caspian campaign. Russia, for its part, recognized Turkey’s rights to western Transcaucasia.
7The news of the death of Peter (1725) was greeted with relief by many European courts; the strengthening of Russia, a new great power, its successes in the military field and in international affairs aroused fear and suspicion, and opposition to the intentions of St. Petersburg politicians. The borders of Russia during the reign of Peter I changed qualitatively (Appendix 1).
At the end of Peter I's life, Russia's relations with England, Denmark, Turkey and other states worsened. After his death, a coalition of states hostile to Russia, England, France, Sweden, the so-called Hanoverian Union, was formed. In the north-west, Russian policy pursued defensive goals.
After the hostilities that unfolded for the Polish throne and lasted from 1733 to 1735, a supporter of Russia, August ΙΙΙ, again became the king of Poland.
On the other hand, Russian diplomacy, aware of the aggressive intentions of the Porte, tried to enlist the support of Iran, which by that time had expelled the Ottoman invaders from its territory. For this purpose, Russia in 1735. Returned possessions along the western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Under the terms of the agreement between the two countries, Iran pledged not to allow this territory to be used by any state for aggressive purposes. Despite this, on Turkey’s initiative, Crimean troops were sent to Transcaucasia. This prompted the start of the Russian-Turkish war.
8During the Russian-Turkish War (1735 - 1739), the Russian army managed to capture in 1736 Azov in the lower reaches of the Don, Kinburn at the entrance to the Dnieper and Bug estuary. Russian troops entered the Crimean Khanate, captured Bakhchisarai, its capital, and Gezlev (Evpatoria). But to capture all of Crimea, as they wanted in St. Petersburg, Field Marshal B.K. Minich failed; fearing the Crimeans returning from the Caucasus, he withdrew his army from Crimea.
9Soon this war, which was waged by Russia in alliance with Austria, spread to the borders of Podolia and Bessarabia. In 1739, Russian troops defeated the Turkish army at Stauci and took the fortress. But Austria, which played a double game, negotiated and concluded a separate peace with Turkey in Belgrade, Russia is forced to join this peace. The shores of the Black Sea remained in the hands of the Turks, the Russians could not maintain their fleet, in other words, the Belgrade Peace of 1739 brought nothing to Russia.
Thus, Russia, despite its resounding victories on the battlefields and heavy losses, ended the war with almost no result. She only received the right to build the fortress of St. Dmitry Rostovsky (future Rostov on Don) and small lands along the middle reaches.
In the 40s . XVIII century In Europe there was a war for the “Austrian inheritance”. Prussia began the seizure of Austrian territories. France dreamed of dismembering Austria and turning it into a minor power. The Prussian king Frederick II got Russia to sign an alliance treaty, which put it in a very difficult situation - after all, Russia had long-standing alliance obligations with Austria.
Under Anna Leopoldovna, French and Prussian diplomacy pushed Sweden, which dreamed of revenge, into war with Russia. The war that took place in 17411743. on the territory of Finland, ended with the Peace of Abos (August 1743), according to which Sweden renounced its claims, and Russia received new territories.
10From the second quarter of the 18th century. Russia's influence on Kazakhstan is increasing. Until this time, the Kazakh lands, being the scene of internecine wars, were subject to raids from stronger neighbors.
In search of protection from raids, the Kazakhs' eyes were turned to Russia, which could ensure their safety. Russia had its own motives for rapprochement with Kazakhstan; trade routes to Kazakhstan passed through its territory. Central Asia and India. In 1731, Anna Ioannovna signed a document accepting part of Kazakhstan into Russian citizenship. During 1740-1743 The middle part of Kazakhstan joined Russia.
The voluntary entry of Kazakhstan into Russia was a turning point in the historical destinies of the Kazakh people. The connection with Russia prevented the danger of new invasions and contributed to the development of economic and cultural ties between the Kazakh people and the peoples of Russia. As a result, already in the 18th century. Trade ties between Kazakhstan and Russia have increased significantly.
112. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.
2.1 Seven Years' War.
In the 50s Prussia becomes Russia's main enemy. The reason for this is the aggressive policy of its king, aimed at the east of Europe. He created a strong army for those times and aimed first at capturing nearby German principalities and creating Great Prussia, and then at conquering Eastern European territories. The aggressiveness of Prussia contributes to the emergence of an anti-Prussian coalition in Europe, which included France, Austria, Sweden, and later Russia (fearing the threat from Prussia in Eastern Europe in Poland, the Baltic states).
In 1756, Russia entered into the so-called Seven Years' War with Prussia. Russian troops entered East Prussia under the command of Field Marshal Apraksin.
12In 1757 Near the village of Gross Jägersdorf, the Russian army won a convincing victory over the army of one of the field marshals, Frederick II. At the decisive moment of the battle, Apraksin moved the reserve corps of the young general Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev into the thick of the battle. His swift strike decided the outcome of the battle. The Prussians fled. The road to the main city of East Prussia, Königsberg, was open. But Apraksin, instead of building on his success, withdrew the troops to winter quarters, explaining this by a lack of food and illnesses among the soldiers. But the matter was different: Elizabeth became seriously ill and everyone expected the accession of Peter Fedorovich, an admirer of Frederick II. Apraksin behaved like a true courtier, wanting to please the future monarch. But Elizabeth recovered, and Apraksin went to trial. Frederick II received a respite.
The year of loud victories of the Russian army was 1759. One of the largest German cities, Frankfurt on the Oder, is captured by S. Saltykov. The capital of Prussia, Berlin, was under threat. In August, Russian and Prussian troops, with the support of their allies and the Austrians, fought in a general battle near the village of Kunersdorf. Frederick 2 brought here an army of almost 50 thousand. Here Frederick II used his main striking force - the cavalry, but the Russian soldiers survived. Saltykov made a series of bold maneuvers, then gave the order for a general offensive, which ended with a bayonet attack. The Prussians could not stand it and fled. The road to Berlin was now open. The advance detachment of General Chernyshev approached the city. Without waiting for the assault, the city authorities surrendered the city to Chernyshev and handed him the keys to the Prussian capital on a pillow. This is how Russian troops captured Berlin for the first time.
The next year, Russian troops, despite delays on the part of the Austrians and the diversion of the main Russian forces from the main theater of military operations, increased their successes. Rumyantsev's corps reached the shores of the Baltic. The possibility of capturing the coastal cities of Prussia and its capital once again arose. Prussia was on the brink of disaster. Frederick II was about to abdicate the throne. However, he was saved by the death of Elizabeth Petrovna at the end of 1761. Peter Fedorovich, who became Emperor Peter III, immediately concluded a truce with the Prussian king, and then peace in 1762. Russia returned to Prussia all the territories seized from it. Former enemies became allies (Appendix 2).
The heroism and sacrifices of Russian soldiers were in vain. At the same time, the Seven Years' War itself was completely alien to the interests of Russia, and its hasty ending by Peter III spoke not only of the sympathy of the new Russian monarch for the Prussian king, but also of his common sense. Russia no longer wanted to destroy its soldiers in the name of the interests of other powers, primarily Austria, which pursued its own narrowly selfish and sometimes anti-Russian interests in this war. During this war, new Russian military talents shone forth, the principles of the military art of Peter the Great's time were revived and developed - bayonet strike, quick maneuver, and the use of loose formation against slow-moving enemy columns.
2.2 Russian Turkish wars.
The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was aimed primarily at the annexation of the Black Sea territories. This direction led to two Russian-Turkish wars (1768 1774, 1787 1791). The war, started by Turkey in 1768, was initially waged by the Russian side in the Dniester and Bug region rather passively, the main army of General Golitsyn adhered to defensive tactics. After the appointment of General Rumyantsev in his place in 1769, a turning point was reached in the war - Russian troops began an attack on the main Turkish forces located along the river. Rod.
June 17, 1770 the Turks were defeated at the Ryabaya Mogila tract, and on July 7, at the confluence of the river. Larga to Prut. The decisive battle took place on July 21, 1770 on the eastern bank of the river. Cahul, in which the army of the Grand Vizier Khalilbey (150 thousand people) was completely defeated by the 27 thousand-strong army of Rumyantsev.
On the night of June 26, 1770 Occurred naval battle in Chesme Bay off the Turkish coast on the Aegean Sea the Turkish fleet of Hassan Pasha was completely destroyed by the squadron of Admiral G.A. Spiridonova
In 1771, Russian troops actually captured Crimea. The Russian army achieved a number of important victories: A.V. Suvorov spent time at Turtukai at the mouth of the Danube in May and June 1773. Successful military operations, and on June 9, 1774, in the oncoming 10-hour battle of Kozludzha, he broke the resistance of the Turks, and at the same time the will of the Turkish government to continue the war
In 1774 Russia signed the Kyuchuk Kaynarji Peace Treaty with Turkey, which was beneficial for it. Russia was granted the right of merchant shipping in the Black Sea and through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. In the North Caucasus, Kabarda went to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent from Turkey, while Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn were transferred to Russian possession.
13On April 8, 1783, taking advantage of the internal unrest in the Crimean Khanate on the peninsula and in the Kuban and the refusal of the Russian protege of the Crimean Khan Shagin Giray from the throne, Catherine II signed a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea to the Russian Empire.
Russia's position in the Caucasus has strengthened. July 24, 1783 An agreement was signed in Georgievsk between the king of Eastern Georgia (Kartli and Kakheti) Heraclius 2 and Russia on entering under Russian protection (protectorate).
In 1787, Türkiye presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The Second Russian-Turkish War took place in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia’s position in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened Russian forces, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. At this time, only Austria provided support to Russia, and then only with insignificant forces. However, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, the military leadership talent of A.V. Suvorov especially manifested itself. In 1787, he defeated the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 he took the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789 he won two convincing victories over vastly superior enemy forces at Focshanny and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count of Rymnik.
Of particular importance was the capture of Izmail (1790), the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov set the time for the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: “24 hours freedom, the first shot already bondage, assault death.” The Turkish Pasha refused: “The Danube would sooner stop in its flow, the sky would fall to the ground, than Ishmael would surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Izmail was taken. In battle, the student of A.V. Suvorov, the future commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself. Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, operated successfully. In the battle of Cape Kalpakria in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed. According to the Treaty of Iasi (signed in Iasi), Turkey recognized Crimea as the possession of Russia; the Dniester River became the border between the two countries; the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia; Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate, a permanent source of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.
2.3 Russia in relations with other states
Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England bourgeois revolution which led to the creation of the United States of America. Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the Declaration of Armed Neutrality, supported by the majority of European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England abandoning attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution. At the same time, Russia participated in the colonization of North America.
Movement of Cossacks and Russian settlers in the XVI-XVII centuries. through Siberia and Far East led in 1784 to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the emergence of Russian America - permanent Russian settlements in Alaska, and then in California. Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to its divisions.
According to the first partition (1772) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of eastern Belarus went to Russia.
According to the second (1793) Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.
According to the third partition (1795), western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania, and Courland went to Russia.
14Almost all lands were united under the rule of Russian emperors Eastern Slavs included in Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria. The meaning of these events was controversial. On the one hand, this raised the political prestige of Russia. In addition, Russia has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. But, on the other hand, the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to an aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire.
War with revolutionary France. The Great French Revolution of 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI created a new political situation in Europe. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hotbed of ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France. At the same time, the aggressive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power in the country in 1799, gave the actions of the Allies a liberating character.
In 17981800 Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov, he captured a number of Greek islands captured by the French. Russian landing troops entered Naples and Rome. In 1799, the offensive of the Russian army began under the command of A.V. Suvorov, operating jointly with the Austrian army.
The heroic transition of Russian troops through the Alps to Switzerland ended with success. However, at this time the contradictions between England, Austria and Russia intensified. The Russian army was returned to its homeland. Emperor Paul I began a political rapprochement with France, seeing it as an ally in the fight against England. He sent Russian Cossacks to India, which was a former colony of England. However, his murder in 1801 thwarted the plans of the coalition between France and Russia. By the beginning of the 19th century, the territory of Russia expanded significantly (Appendix 3).
Conclusion.
1. In the process of reviewing theoretical material on Russian foreign policy in the 18th century, it was established that:
2. It was mostly of an aggressive nature and was aimed at solving traditional problems inherited from previous times:
Reunification of all Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia;
Establishment of Russia on the Black Sea coast;
Consolidating Russia's positions on the Baltic Sea coast.
The fight against revolutionary France in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789;
Confirmation of your interests in European politics, seeking to play the role of guarantor of the independence of the English colonies in North America; compliance with Russian interests in this region participation in the colonization of North America.
Russia's foreign policy was carried out by the autocracy and was determined primarily by the interests of the nobles. Russian tsarism, participating in the division of Poland, least of all took into account the interests of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples. Tsarism also did not wage wars with Turkey for the sake of liberating the peoples of Transcaucasia or the Balkans from Turkish oppression. With its foreign policy, the autocracy, first of all, sought to strengthen the feudal-serf system. But regardless of the intentions of the tsarist government, Russian foreign policy in a number of cases had positive consequences for peoples languishing under foreign oppression.
3. The Russian Empire entered the new 19th century as a powerful power. The borders of the empire were expanded during almost continuous military campaigns: in the west, it included Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, the southern part of the Eastern Baltic (Courland), in the south after two Russian-Turkish wars Crimea and almost the entire Northern Caucasus.
As a result, the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples were reunited with Russia, which had enormous progressive significance. These lands were historically connected by a common economic, political and cultural life. As a result, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate, a permanent source of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated.
The main result of the foreign policy of the 18th century. was the transformation of Russia into a full-fledged naval power with a powerful army and navy.
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