The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced the further development of Russia and became the direct cause for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant gap between Russia and Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Course of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The reason for the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was necessary economically. The strengthening of Russia would allow it to expand its influence in this region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised the Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the government of Turkey that he recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Course of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia brings troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks the Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are worrisome in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and the Far East. The blockades were demonstrative in nature, landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danubian principalities. There is a real threat of creating a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate the main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea is becoming the main arena of the war. The allies block the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the autumn of 1854 the heroic defense of Sevastopol began.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties makes the allies abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all the bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses to Russia, a serious moral blow was inflicted. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for a long time, and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all its shortcomings. In society, there was an understanding of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

	Crimea, Balkans, Caucasus, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far East
	Coalition victory; Treaty of Paris (1856)
Changes:	Accession of a small part of Bessarabia to the Ottoman Empire
Opponents
french empire	Russian empire
Ottoman Empire	Megrelian Principality
british empire
Sardinian kingdom
Commanders
Napoleon III	Nicholas I †
Armand Jacques Achille Leroy de Saint Arnaud †	Alexander II
François Sertin Canrobert	Gorchakov M. D.
Jean-Jacques Pelissier	Paskevich I.F. †
Abdul Mejid I	Nakhimov P. S. †
Abdul Kerim Nadir Pasha	Totleben E.I.
Omer Pasha	Menshikov A.S.
Victoria	Vorontsov M.S.
James Cardigan	Muraviev N. N.
Fitzroy Somerset Raglan †	Istomin V. I. †
Sir Thomas James Harper	Kornilov V. A. †
Sir Edmund Lyons	Zavoyko V.S.
Sir James Simpson	Andronikov I. M.
David Powell Price †	Ekaterina Chavchavadze-Dadiani
William John Codrington	Grigory Levanovich Dadiani
Victor Emmanuel II
Alfonso Ferrero Lamarmora
Side forces
France - 309 268	Russia - 700 thousand
Ottoman Empire - 165 thousand.	Bulgarian brigade - 3000
UK - 250,864	Greek legion - 800
Sardinia - 21 thousand
German brigade - 4250
German brigade - 4250
Slavic Legion - 1400 Cossacks
France - 97,365 dead, who died of wounds and diseases; 39,818 wounded	Russia - an estimated 143,000 dead: 25,000 killed 16,000 died of wounds 89,000 died of disease
Ottoman Empire - 45,300 dead who died of wounds and disease
Great Britain - 22,602 dead, who died of wounds and diseases; 18,253 wounded
Sardinia - 2194 dead; 167 wounded

Crimean War 1853-1856, also Eastern war- a war between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, on the other. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, Azov, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, and only direct military assistance from Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued. These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

During a diplomatic conflict with France over control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853, followed by Great Britain and France on March 15 (27), 1854.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Allies succeeded, using the technical lag of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to successfully land an airborne corps in the Crimea, inflict a number of defeats on the Russian army, and after a year siege to capture the southern part of Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the terms of peace imposed by the allies. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856, demanded that Russia return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Danube River and in the Caucasus; the empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, proclaimed neutral waters; Russia stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea, and much more. At the same time, the goals of separating significant territories from Russia were not achieved. The terms of the treaty reflected the virtually equal course of hostilities, when the allies, despite all efforts and heavy losses, could not advance further than the Crimea, and were defeated in the Caucasus.

Background of the conflict

Weakening of the Ottoman Empire

In the 1820s and 1830s, the Ottoman Empire experienced a series of blows that called into question the very existence of the country. The Greek uprising, which began in the spring of 1821, showed both the internal political and military weakness of Turkey, and led to terrible atrocities on the part of the Turkish troops. The dispersal of the Janissary corps in 1826 was an undoubted boon in the long term, but in the short term it deprived the country of an army. In 1827, the combined Anglo-French-Russian fleet at the Battle of Navarino destroyed almost the entire Ottoman fleet. In 1830, after a 10-year war of independence and the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, Greece became independent. According to the Adrianople peace treaty, which ended the war between Russia and Turkey, Russian and foreign ships received the right to freely pass through the Black Sea straits, Serbia became autonomous, and the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) passed under the protectorate of Russia.

Taking advantage of the moment, in 1830 France occupied Algeria, and in 1831 its most powerful vassal, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, broke away from the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman forces were defeated in a series of battles, and the inevitability of the capture of Istanbul by the Egyptians forced Sultan Mahmud II to accept Russian military assistance. The 10,000-strong corps of Russian troops, landed on the banks of the Bosphorus in 1833, prevented the capture of Istanbul, and with it, probably, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, which was favorable for Russia, concluded as a result of this expedition, provided for a military alliance between the two countries if one of them was attacked. The secret additional article of the treaty allowed Turkey not to send troops, but required the closure of the Bosphorus for the ships of any countries (except Russia).

In 1839, the situation repeats itself - Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the incompleteness of his control over Syria, resumes hostilities. At the Battle of Niziba on June 24, 1839, the Ottoman troops were again utterly defeated. The Ottoman Empire was saved by the intervention of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, who signed a convention in London on July 15, 1840, guaranteeing Muhammad Ali and his descendants the right to inherit power in Egypt in exchange for the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Syria and Lebanon and the recognition of formal subordination to the Ottoman Sultan. After Muhammad Ali refused to comply with the requirements of the convention, the combined Anglo-Austrian fleet blockaded the Nile Delta, bombarded Beirut and stormed Acre. On November 27, 1840, Muhammad Ali accepted the terms of the London Convention.

On July 13, 1841, after the expiration of the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, under pressure from European powers, the London Convention on the Straits (1841) was signed, depriving Russia of the right to block the entry of warships of third countries into the Black Sea in case of war. This opened the way for the fleets of Great Britain and France to the Black Sea in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict and was an important prerequisite for the Crimean War.

The intervention of European powers thus twice saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse, but led to the loss of its independence in foreign policy. The British Empire and the French Empire were interested in the preservation of the Ottoman Empire, for which the appearance of Russia in the Mediterranean was unprofitable. Austria feared the same.

Growing anti-Russian sentiment in Europe

An essential prerequisite for the conflict was that in Europe (including the Kingdom of Greece) since the 1840s there had been an increase in anti-Russian sentiment.

The Western press emphasized Russia's desire to capture Constantinople. In reality, Nicholas I did not initially set the goal of annexing any Balkan territories to Russia. The conservative-protective principles of Nicholas's foreign policy dictated to him restraint in encouraging the national movements of the Balkan peoples, which caused discontent among Russian Slavophiles.

Great Britain

Great Britain in 1838 concluded a free trade agreement with Turkey, which granted Great Britain the most favored nation treatment and exempted the import of British goods from customs duties and duties. As historian I. Wallerstein points out, this led to the collapse of Turkish industry and to the fact that Turkey found itself in economic and political dependence on Great Britain. Therefore, unlike the previous Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), when Great Britain, like Russia, supported the liberation war of the Greeks and Greece's independence, now it was not interested in separating any territories from the Ottoman Empire, which in fact was a state dependent on it and an important market for British goods.

The dependent position in which the Ottoman Empire found itself in relation to Great Britain at that time is illustrated by a cartoon in the London magazine Punch (1856). The drawing depicts an English soldier saddling one Turk and holding another on a leash.

In addition, Great Britain was concerned about the expansion of Russia in the Caucasus, the strengthening of its influence in the Balkans and was afraid of its possible advance into Central Asia. In general, she considered Russia as her geopolitical adversary, against whom the so-called. The Great Game (in accordance with the terminology adopted by the then diplomats and modern historians), and was conducted by all available means - political, economic and military.

For these reasons, Great Britain sought to prevent any increase in Russian influence in Ottoman affairs. On the eve of the war, she increased diplomatic pressure on Russia in order to dissuade her from any attempts at the territorial division of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, Britain declared its interests in Egypt, which "go no further than securing speedy and sure communications with India."

France

In France, a significant part of society supported the idea of ​​revenge for the defeat in the Napoleonic wars and was ready to take part in the war against Russia, provided that England would come out on their side.

Austria

Since the time of the Congress of Vienna, Russia and Austria have been in the Holy Alliance, the main purpose of which was to prevent revolutionary situations in Europe.

In the summer of 1849, at the request of the Emperor of Austria Franz Joseph I, the Russian army under the command of Ivan Paskevich took part in the suppression of the Hungarian National Revolution.

After all this, Nicholas I counted on the support of Austria in the Eastern Question:

But Russian-Austrian cooperation could not eliminate the contradictions that existed between the two countries. Austria, as before, was terrified by the prospect of the emergence of independent states in the Balkans, probably friendly to Russia, the very existence of which would cause the growth of national liberation movements in the multinational Austrian Empire.

Immediate causes of the war

The prelude to war was the conflict between Nicholas I and Napoleon III, who came to power in France after the coup on December 2, 1851. Nicholas I considered the new French emperor illegitimate, since the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne by the Congress of Vienna. To demonstrate his position, Nicholas I in a congratulatory telegram turned to Napoleon III "Monsieur mon ami" ("dear friend"), instead of the permissible according to the protocol "Monsieur mon frère" ("dear brother"). Such liberties were regarded as a public insult to the new French emperor.

Realizing the fragility of his power, Napoleon III wanted to divert the attention of the French with the then popular war against Russia and at the same time satisfy the feeling of personal irritation against Emperor Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon III sought to repay his ally by protecting the interests of the Vatican arena, in particular in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and, directly, with Russia. At the same time, the French referred to an agreement with the Ottoman Empire of 1740, giving France the right to control Christian holy places in Palestine, and Russia - to the Sultan's decree of 1757, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine, and the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty of 1774, which gave Russia's right to protect the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

France demanded that the keys to the church (which at the time belonged to the Orthodox community) be given to the Catholic clergy. Russia demanded that the keys remain with the Orthodox community. Both sides backed up their words with threats. The Ottomans, unable to refuse, promised to fulfill both French and Russian demands. When this ploy, typical of Ottoman diplomacy, was exposed, at the end of the summer of 1852, France, in violation of the London Convention on the Status of the Straits of July 13, 1841, brought an 80-gun ship of the line under the walls of Istanbul " Charlemagne". In early December 1852, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were handed over to France. In response, Russian Chancellor Nesselrode, on behalf of Nicholas I, stated that Russia "will not tolerate the insult received from the Ottoman Empire ... vis pacem, para bellum!" (lat. If you want peace, prepare for war!) The concentration of the Russian army began on the border with Moldova and Wallachia.

In private correspondence, Nesselrode gave pessimistic forecasts - in particular, in a letter to the Russian envoy in London Brunnov dated January 2, 1853, he predicted that in this conflict Russia would fight against the whole world alone and without allies, since Prussia did not care about this issue, Austria would be neutral or benevolent to Port. Moreover, Britain will join France in asserting its naval power, since "in the remote theater of operations, apart from the soldiers needed for the landing, it will require mainly the strength of the fleet to open the Straits, after which the combined fleets of Britain, France and Turkey will quickly end the Russian Fleet in the Black Sea.

Nicholas I counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Britain and France impossible. However, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia.

On February 11, 1853, Prince Menshikov was sent to Turkey as an ambassador, demanding recognition of the rights of the Greek Church to holy places in Palestine and granting Russia protection over 12 million Christians in the Ottoman Empire, who accounted for about a third of the entire Ottoman population. All this had to be formalized in the form of a contract.

In March 1853, having learned about Menshikov's demands, Napoleon III sent a French squadron to the Aegean Sea.

On April 5, 1853, Stratford-Redcliffe, the new British ambassador, arrived in Constantinople. He persuaded the Ottoman sultan to satisfy Russian demands, but only partially, promising England's support in case of war. As a result, Abdul-Mejid I issued a firman (decree) on the inviolability of the rights of the Greek Church to holy places. But he refused to conclude an agreement on protection with the Russian emperor. On May 21, 1853, Menshikov left Constantinople.

On June 1, the Russian government issued a memorandum on the severance of diplomatic relations with Turkey.

After that, Nicholas I ordered the Russian troops (80 thousand) to take the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan "as a pledge until Turkey satisfies the fair demands of Russia." In turn, the British government ordered the Mediterranean squadron to go to the Aegean.

This caused a protest by the Porte, which, in turn, led to the fact that a conference of commissioners from England, France, Austria and Prussia was convened in Vienna. The result of the conference was viennese note, a compromise for all parties, requiring Russia to evacuate from Moldavia and Wallachia, but giving Russia the nominal right to protect the Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.

The Vienna note allowed Russia to get out of the situation without losing face and was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Ottoman sultan, who hoped for the military support of Britain promised by Stratford-Redcliffe. The Porte proposed various changes in the said note. These changes were not agreed by the Russian sovereign.

Trying to use the favorable opportunity to "teach" Russia through the hands of the Western allies, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul-Mejid I on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the Danubian principalities within two weeks, and after Russia did not fulfill this condition, on October 4 (16), 1853 announced Russian war. On October 20 (November 1), Russia responded with a similar statement.

Russia's goals

Russia sought to secure the southern borders, ensure its influence in the Balkans and establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, which was important both from a military and economic point of view. Nicholas I, realizing himself a great Orthodox monarch, sought to continue the cause of the liberation of the Orthodox peoples under the rule of Ottoman Turkey. However, despite the existence of plans for decisive military action, providing for landings in the Black Sea straits and Turkish ports, a plan was adopted that provided only for the occupation of the Danube principalities by Russian troops. According to this plan, the Russian troops were not supposed to cross the Danube and were supposed to avoid clashes with the Turkish army. It was believed that such a "peaceful-military" show of force would force the Turks to accept Russian demands.

Russian historiography emphasizes Nicholas' desire to help the oppressed Orthodox inhabitants of the Turkish Empire. The Christian population of the Turkish Empire, which was 5.6 million people and absolutely predominated in its European possessions, desired liberation and regularly rebelled against Turkish rule. The uprising of the Montenegrins in 1852-53, suppressed with great cruelty by the Ottoman troops, became one of the reasons for Russian pressure on Turkey. The oppression by the Turkish authorities of the religious and civil rights of the civilian population of the Balkan Peninsula and the murders and violence that took place at that time caused outrage not only in Russia, but also in many other European countries.

At the same time, according to the Russian diplomat Konstantin Leontiev, who was in 1863-1871. in the diplomatic service in Turkey, the main goal of Russia was not the political freedom of fellow believers, but the predominance in Turkey:

Goals of Great Britain and its allies

During the Crimean War, British policy was effectively concentrated in the hands of Lord Palmerston. His point of view was presented by him to Lord John Russell:

At the same time, the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Clarendon, without objecting to this program, in his great parliamentary speech on March 31, 1854, emphasized the moderation and disinterestedness of England, which, according to him,

Napoleon III, who from the very beginning did not sympathize with Palmerston's fantastic idea of ​​dividing Russia, for obvious reasons refrained from objecting; Palmerston's program was drawn up in such a way as to gain new allies: Sweden, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia were attracted in this way, Poland was encouraged to revolt, Shamil's war in the Caucasus was supported.

But it was almost impossible to please all potential allies at the same time. In addition, Palmerston clearly overestimated England's preparations for war and underestimated the Russians (Sevastopol, which was planned to be taken in a week, was successfully defended for almost a year).

The only part of the plan that the French emperor could sympathize with (and was quite popular in France) was the idea of ​​a free Poland. But it was precisely this idea that the allies had to abandon in the first place, so as not to alienate Austria and Prussia (namely, it was important for Napoleon III to win them over to his side in order to put an end to the Holy Alliance).

But Napoleon III did not at all want to strengthen England too much, nor to weaken Russia beyond measure. Therefore, after the Allies managed to capture the southern part of Sevastopol, Napoleon III began to undermine Palmerston's program and quickly reduced it to zero.

During the war, a poem by V.P. Alferyev, published in the Northern Bee and beginning with a quatrain, gained wide popularity in Russia:

In England itself, a significant part of society did not understand the meaning of the Crimean War, and after the first serious military losses in the country and in parliament, a strong anti-war opposition arose. Later, the English historian D. Trevelyan wrote that the Crimean War “was just a stupid expedition to the Black Sea, undertaken without sufficient reason, because the English people were bored with the world ... Bourgeois democracy, excited by its favorite newspapers, incited a crusade for the sake of Turkish domination over the Balkan Christians ... "The same misunderstanding of the goals of the war on the part of Great Britain is expressed by the modern English historian D. Lieven, who claims that "the Crimean War, first of all, was a French war."

Apparently, one of the goals of Great Britain was the desire to force Russia to abandon the protectionist policy pursued by Nicholas I and introduce a regime favorable for the import of British goods. This is evidenced by the fact that already in 1857, less than a year after the end of the Crimean War, a liberal customs tariff was introduced in Russia, which reduced Russian customs duties to a minimum, which was probably one of the conditions imposed on Russia by Great Britain in during the peace negotiations. As I. Wallerstein points out, during the 19th century. Britain has repeatedly resorted to military and political pressure on different countries to conclude a free trade agreement. Examples are the British support for the Greek rebellion and other separatist movements within the Ottoman Empire, which ended with the signing of a free trade agreement in 1838, the British opium war with China, which ended with the signing of the same agreement with China in 1842, etc. The same character was the anti-Russian campaign in the UK on the eve of the Crimean War. As the historian M. Pokrovsky wrote about the period preceding its beginning, “Under the name of“ Russian barbarism ”, for the protection against which English publicists appealed to the public opinion of both their country and all of Europe, it was, in essence, about the fight against Russian industrial protectionism."

The state of the Russian armed forces

As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army (which included the incapable of combat corps of the internal guard) was far from the million people and 200 thousand horses listed; the reserve system was unsatisfactory. The average death rate among recruits in the years of peace between 1826 and 1858. was 3.5% per year, which was explained by the disgusting sanitary condition of the army. In addition, only in 1849 the norms for issuing meat were increased to 84 pounds of meat per year for each combat soldier (100 grams per day) and 42 pounds for a non-combatant. Previously, even in the guards, only 37 pounds were issued.

Russia was forced, in view of the threat of intervention in the war by Austria, Prussia and Sweden, to keep a significant part of the army on the western border, and in connection with the Caucasian War of 1817-1864, divert part of the ground forces to fight the highlanders.

The technical backwardness of the Russian army and navy, associated with a radical technical re-equipment in the middle of the 19th century, acquired threatening proportions. armies of Great Britain and France, which carried out the Industrial Revolution.

Army

regular troops	Generals and officers	lower ranks
Operating
Infantry (regiments, rifle and line battalions)
Cavalry
Artillery on foot
Mounted artillery
Artillery garrison
Engineering Troops (sappers and horse-pioneers)
Various teams (disabled and military work companies, garrison engineers)
Internal Guard Corps
Reserve and spare
Cavalry
Artillery and sappers
On indefinite leave, not included in the state of the troops
Total regular troops
All irregular troops
Total Troops

Name		Consisted by 1853	lacked
For field troops
Infantry rifles
Dragoon and Cossack guns
carbines
Fittings
Pistols
For garrisons
Infantry rifles
Dragoon guns

In the 1840s-1850s, the process of replacing obsolete smoothbore guns with new rifled ones was actively going on in European armies: by the beginning of the Crimean War, the share of rifled guns in the small arms of the Russian army did not exceed 4-5%, while in the French rifled guns accounted for about a third of small arms , and in English - more than half.

Infantry armed with rifled guns, in oncoming combat (especially from shelters), had a significant advantage due to the range and accuracy of their fire: rifled guns had an effective range of up to 1200 steps, and smooth-bore guns - no more than 300 steps while maintaining a lethal force of up to 600 steps.

The Russian army, like the allies, had smooth-bore artillery, the range of a striking shot of which (when firing with buckshot) reached 900 steps. This was three times the range of the actual fire of smoothbore guns, which inflicted heavy losses on the advancing Russian infantry, while the Allied infantry, armed with rifled guns, could shoot artillery crews of Russian guns, remaining out of the reach of grapeshot fire.

It is also worth noting that until 1853 in the Russian army, 10 rounds per year per person were issued for training infantry and dragoons. However, the shortcomings were inherent in the armies of the allies. So in the British army during the Crimean War, the archaic practice of manning the army with officers by selling ranks for money was widespread.

The future Minister of War in the reign of Alexander II, D. A. Milyutin, writes in his notes: for adapting it to a combat mission, and for external only harmony, for a brilliant appearance at parades, pedantic observance of countless petty formalities that dull the human mind and kill the true military spirit.

At the same time, a number of facts indicate that the shortcomings in the organization of the Russian army were greatly exaggerated by critics of Nicholas I. Thus, the wars of Russia with Persia and Turkey in 1826-1829. ended with the rapid defeat of both opponents. During the Crimean War, the Russian army, which was significantly inferior in terms of the quality of its weapons and technical equipment to the armies of Great Britain and France, showed miracles of courage, high morale and military skills. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the main theater of operations, in the Crimea, the Allied Expeditionary Force, which, along with army units, included elite guard units, was opposed by ordinary Russian army units, as well as naval crews.

The generals who made their careers after the death of Nicholas I (including the future Minister of War D. A. Milyutin) and criticized their predecessors could do this deliberately in order to hide their own serious mistakes and incompetence. Thus, the historian M. Pokrovsky gave examples of the mediocre conduct of the Russian-Turkish campaign of 1877-1878. (when Milyutin himself was Minister of War). The losses of Russia and its allies Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, which in 1877-1878. confronted only technically and militarily weak Turkey, surpassed the Turkish losses, which speaks in favor of the poor organization of military operations. At the same time, in the Crimean War, Russia, alone opposed to a coalition of four powers that were significantly superior in technical and military terms, suffered fewer losses than its opponents, which indicates the opposite. Thus, according to B. Ts. Urlanis, combat and non-combat losses in the Russian army amounted to 134,800 people, and losses in the armies of Great Britain, France and Turkey - 162,800 people, including in the armies of the two Western powers - 117,400 people. At the same time, it should be taken into account that during the Crimean War the Russian army acted on the defensive, and in 1877 - on the offensive, which could be the reason for the difference in losses.

The combat units that conquered the Caucasus before the start of the war were distinguished by initiative and determination, high coordination of actions of infantry, cavalry and artillery.

The Russian army was armed with missiles of the Konstantinov system, which were used in the defense of Sevastopol, as well as in the Caucasus, the Danube and the Baltic.

Fleet

The ratio of forces of the Russian and allied fleets by the summer of 1854, by type of ship
Theaters of war	Black Sea		Baltic Sea		White Sea		Pacific Ocean
Ship types		Allies		Allies		Allies		Allies
battleships total
Sailing
Frigates total
Sailing
Others total
Sailing

Britain and France went to war with Russia, believing that sailing ships of the line might still be of military importance. Accordingly, sailing ships participated in 1854 in actions in the Baltic and the Black Sea; however, the experience of the first months of the war in both theaters convinced the Allies that sailing ships had lost their practical value as combat units. However, the battle of Sinop, the successful battle of the Russian sailing frigate "Flora" with three Turkish frigate steamers, as well as the defense of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, in which sailing ships participated from both sides, testify to the opposite.

The Allies had a significant advantage in all types of ships, and there were no steam battleships in the Russian fleet at all. At that time, the English fleet was the first in the world in terms of numbers, the French was in second, and the Russian was in third place.

A significant influence on the nature of military operations at sea was exerted by the fact that the belligerents had bomb cannons, which proved to be an effective weapon against both wooden and iron ships. In general, before the start of the war, Russia had time to adequately equip its ships and coastal batteries with such weapons.

In 1851-1852, the construction of two screw frigates and the conversion of three sailing ships into screw ones began in the Baltic. The main base of the fleet - Kronstadt, was well fortified. The composition of the Kronstadt fortress artillery, along with barrel artillery, also included rocket launchers designed for salvo fire on enemy ships at a distance of up to 2600 meters.

A feature of the naval theater in the Baltic was that, due to the shallow waters of the Gulf of Finland, large ships could not approach St. Petersburg directly. Therefore, during the war, to protect it, on the initiative of Captain 2nd Rank Shestakov and with the support of Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, 32 wooden screw gunboats were built in record time from January to May 1855. And in the next 8 months, another 35 screw gunboats, as well as 14 screw corvettes and clippers. Steam engines, boilers and materials for their hulls were manufactured under the general supervision of N. I. Putilov, an official for special assignments of the shipbuilding department, in St. Petersburg mechanical workshops. Russian artisans were appointed as mechanics for propeller-driven warships put into operation. The gunboat-mounted bomb cannons turned these small ships into serious fighting force. The French Admiral Penot wrote at the end of the war: "The steam gunboats so quickly built by the Russians completely changed our situation."

For the defense of the Baltic coast, for the first time in the world, the Russians used underwater mines with chemical contact fuses, developed by Academician B.S. Jacobi.

The leadership of the Black Sea Fleet was carried out by admirals Kornilov, Istomin, Nakhimov, who had significant combat experience.

The main base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol was protected from attack from the sea by strong coastal fortifications. Before the Allied landings in the Crimea, there were no fortifications to protect Sevastopol from land.

In 1853, the Black Sea Fleet conducted active combat operations at sea - it provided the transfer, supply and artillery support of Russian troops on the Caucasian coast, successfully fought the Turkish military and merchant fleet, fought with individual steam ships of the Anglo-French, shelled their camps and artillery support for their troops. After the flooding of 5 battleships and 2 frigates in order to blockade the entrance to the Northern Bay of Sevastopol, the rest of the sailing ships of the Black Sea Fleet were used as floating batteries, and the steamers were used to tow them.

In 1854-1855, mines on the Black Sea were not used by Russian sailors, despite the fact that the ground forces had already used underwater mines at the mouth of the Danube in 1854 and at the mouth of the Bug in 1855. As a result, the possibility of using underwater mines to block the entrance of the allied fleet to the Sevastopol Bay and other harbors of the Crimea remained unused.

In 1854, for the defense of the North Sea coast, the Arkhangelsk Admiralty built 20 rowing 2-gun gunboats, and 14 more in 1855.

The Turkish navy consisted of 13 battleships and frigates and 17 steamships. Even before the start of the war, the command staff was reinforced by British advisers.

Campaign 1853

The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war

On September 27 (October 9), the Russian commander Prince Gorchakov received a message from the commander of the Turkish troops Omer Pasha, which contained a demand to clear the Danubian principalities within 15 days. In early October, before the deadline set by Omer Pasha, the Turks began to fire on the Russian advanced pickets. On the morning of October 11 (23), the Turks opened fire on the Russian steamships "Prut" and "Ordinarets" passing along the Danube past the fortress of Isakchi. On October 21 (November 2), Turkish troops began to cross to the left bank of the Danube and create a bridgehead for an attack on the Russian army.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops defeated the Turkish Anatolian army in the battles near Akhaltsikhe, where on November 13-14, 1853, according to Art. With. the 7,000-strong garrison of General Andronikov pushed back the 15,000-strong army of Ali Pasha; and on November 19 of the same year, near Bashkadyklar, the 10,000-strong detachment of General Bebutov defeated the 36,000-strong army of Ahmed Pasha. This made it possible to spend the winter calmly. In details.

On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports.

On October 20 (31), the battle of the steamer "Colchis", carrying a company of soldiers to reinforce the garrison of the post of St. Nicholas, located on the Caucasian coast. When approaching the shore, the Colchis ran aground and came under fire from the Turks, who captured the post and destroyed its entire garrison. She repelled a boarding attempt, refloated and, despite the losses among the crew and the damage received, came to Sukhum.

On November 4 (15), the capture without a fight by the Russian steamship Bessarabia, cruising in the Sinop region, of the Turkish steamship Medjari-Tejaret (became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name Turk).

November 5 (17) the world's first battle of steam ships. The Russian steamship frigate "Vladimir" captured the Turkish steamship "Pervaz-Bahri" (became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name "Kornilov").

On November 9 (21), a successful battle in the area of ​​​​Cape Pitsunda of the Russian frigate Flora with 3 Turkish steamships Taif, Feyzi-Bakhri and Saik-Ishade under the overall command of the English military adviser Slade. After a 4-hour battle, Flora forced the ships to retreat, taking the flagship Taif in tow.

November 18 (30) squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov during Sinop battle destroyed the Turkish squadron of Osman Pasha.

Allied Entry

The Sinop incident served as a formal basis for the entry of England and France into the war against Russia.

Upon receiving news of the battle of Sinop, the English and French squadrons, together with a division of the Ottoman fleet, entered the Black Sea on December 22, 1853 (January 4, 1854). The admirals in charge of the fleet informed the Russian authorities that they had the task of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. When asked about the purpose of such an action, the Western powers replied that they meant not only to protect the Turks from any attack from the sea, but also to help them supply their ports, while preventing the free navigation of Russian ships. On January 17 (29), the French emperor presented an ultimatum to Russia: to withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and start negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with England and France.

At the same time, Emperor Nicholas appealed to the Berlin and Vienna courts, offering them, in case of war, to maintain neutrality, supported by weapons. Austria and Prussia declined this proposal, as well as the alliance proposed to them by England and France, but concluded a separate treaty between them. A special article of this treaty stipulated that if the Russians from the Danubian principalities did not soon follow, then Austria would demand their cleansing, Prussia would support this demand, and then, in the event of an unsatisfactory response, both powers would proceed to offensive actions, which could also be caused the accession of principalities to Russia or the transition of Russians beyond the Balkans.

On March 15 (27), 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.

Campaign 1854

At the beginning of 1854, the entire border strip of Russia was divided into sections, each subordinate to a special chief as commander-in-chief of the army or a separate corps. These areas were as follows:

• The coast of the Baltic Sea (Finland, St. Petersburg and Ostsee provinces), the military forces in which consisted of 179 battalions, 144 squadrons and hundreds, with 384 guns;
• Kingdom of Poland and the western provinces - 146 battalions, 100 squadrons and hundreds, with 308 guns;
• The space along the Danube and the Black Sea to the Bug River - 182 battalions, 285 squadrons and hundreds, with 612 guns (departments 2 and 3 were under the command of Field Marshal Prince Paskevich);
• Crimea and the Black Sea coast from the Bug to Perekop - 27 battalions, 19 squadrons and hundreds, 48 ​​guns;
• the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov and the Black Sea - 31½ battalion, 140 hundreds and squadrons, 54 guns;
• Caucasian and Transcaucasian Territories - 152 battalions, 281 hundreds and a squadron, 289 guns (⅓ of these troops were on the Turkish border, the rest were inside the region, against hostile highlanders).
• The shores of the White Sea were guarded by only 2½ battalions.
• The defense of Kamchatka, where there were also insignificant forces, was in charge of Rear Admiral Zavoyko.

Invasion of the Crimea and siege of Sevastopol

In April, the allied fleet, consisting of 28 ships, conducted bombing of Odessa, during which 9 merchant ships were burned in the harbor. The Allies 4 frigates were damaged and taken to Varna for repairs. In addition, on May 12, in conditions of dense fog, the English steamer Tiger ran aground 6 miles from Odessa. 225 crew members were taken into Russian captivity, and the ship itself was sunk.

On June 3 (15), 1854, 2 English and 1 French steam frigates approached Sevastopol, from where 6 Russian steam frigates came out to meet them. Taking advantage of the superiority in speed, the enemy, after a short skirmish, went to sea.

On June 14 (26), 1854, the battle of the Anglo-French fleet consisting of 21 ships took place with the coastal fortifications of Sevastopol.

In early July, the allied troops, consisting of 40 thousand French, under the command of Marshal Saint-Arnaud, and 20 thousand English, under the command of Lord Raglan, landed near Varna, from where part of the French troops undertook an expedition to Dobruja, but cholera, which developed on a terrible scale in French landing corps, forced to abandon for a while any offensive actions.

The failures at sea and in Dobruja forced the Allies to turn now to the fulfillment of a long-planned enterprise - the invasion of the Crimea, all the more so since British public opinion loudly demanded that, in reward for all the losses and expenses caused by the war, the naval institutions of Sevastopol and Russian Black Sea Fleet.

On September 2 (14), 1854, the landing of the expeditionary force of the coalition began in Evpatoria. In total, in the first days of September, about 61 thousand soldiers were transported ashore. September 8 (20), 1854 in battle on the Alma the allies defeated the Russian army (33 thousand soldiers), who tried to block their path to Sevastopol. The Russian army was forced to retreat. During the battle, for the first time, the qualitative superiority of the rifled weapons of the allies over the smooth-bore Russian had an effect. The command of the Black Sea Fleet was going to attack the enemy fleet in order to disrupt the Allied offensive. However, the Black Sea Fleet received a categorical order not to go to sea, but to defend Sevastopol with the help of sailors and ship guns.

September 22nd. The attack of the Anglo-French detachment consisting of 4 steam-frigates (72 guns) on the Ochakov fortress and the Russian rowing flotilla located here, consisting of 2 small steamers and 8 rowing gunboats (36 guns) under the command of Captain 2nd Rank Endogurov. After a three-hour firefight at a long distance, the enemy ships, having received damage, went to sea.

started siege of Sevastopol. On October 5 (17), the first bombardment of the city took place, during which Kornilov died.

On the same day, the Allied fleet tried to break through to the inner roadstead of Sevastopol, but was defeated. During the battle, the best training of Russian gunners was manifested, exceeding the enemy in more than 2.5 times in rate of fire, as well as the vulnerability of Allied ships, including iron steamers, from the fire of Russian coastal artillery. So, a Russian 3-pound bomb pierced all the decks of the French battleship Charleman, exploded in his car and destroyed it. The rest of the ships involved in the battle also received serious damage. One of the commanders of the French ships assessed this battle as follows: "One more such battle, and half of our Black Sea Fleet will not be good for anything."

Saint Arnaud died on September 29. Three days before, he had handed over command of the French forces to Canrobert.

October 13 (25) happened Battle of Balaclava, as a result of which the Allied troops (20 thousand soldiers) thwarted an attempt by Russian troops (23 thousand soldiers) to unblock Sevastopol. During the battle, the Russian soldiers managed to capture some positions of the allies, defended by the Turkish troops, which they had to leave, consoling themselves with the trophies captured from the Turks (banner, eleven cast-iron guns, etc.). This battle became famous thanks to two episodes:

• Thin Red Line - At a critical moment for the Allies in the battle, trying to stop the breakthrough of the Russian cavalry into Balaklava, the commander of the 93rd Scottish Regiment, Colin Campbell, stretched his shooters into a line not of four, as was then customary, but of two. The attack was successfully repulsed, after which the phrase "thin red line", denoting defense with the last forces, entered the English language.
• Light brigade attack - the execution of a misunderstood order by an English light cavalry brigade, which led to a suicidal attack on well-fortified Russian positions. The phrase "charge of the light cavalry" has become in English a synonym for a desperate hopeless attack. This light cavalry, which fell down near Balaklava, included in its composition representatives of the most aristocratic families. Balaclava Day has forever remained a mourning date in the military history of England.

In an effort to disrupt the assault on Sevastopol planned by the allies, on November 5, Russian troops (totaling 32 thousand people) attacked British troops (8 thousand people) near Inkerman. In the ensuing battle, the Russian troops had initial success; but the arrival of French reinforcements (8 thousand people) turned the tide of the battle in favor of the allies. The French artillery was especially effective. The Russians were ordered to retreat. According to a number of participants in the battle on the Russian side, the decisive role was played by the unsuccessful leadership of Menshikov, who did not use the available reserves (12,000 soldiers under the command of Dannenberg and 22,500 under the command of Gorchakov). The withdrawal of Russian troops to Sevastopol was covered by their fire steam frigates "Vladimir" and "Khersones". The assault on Sevastopol was thwarted for several months, which gave time to fortify the city.

On November 14, a severe storm off the coast of Crimea led to the loss of more than 53 ships by the allies (of which 25 were transports). Additionally, two ships of the line (the French 100-gun "Henry IV" and the Turkish 90-gun "Peiki-Messeret") and 3 Allied steam corvettes crashed near Evpatoria. In particular, stocks of winter clothes and medicines sent to the Allied landing corps were lost, which, in the conditions of the impending winter, put the Allies in a difficult situation. The storm of November 14, for the heavy losses it inflicted on the Allied fleet and supply transports, was equated by them with a lost naval battle.

On November 24, the steam frigates "Vladimir" and "Khersones", leaving the Sevastopol roadstead into the sea, attacked the French steamer stationed at Pesochnaya Bay and forced it to leave, after which, approaching the Streltsy Bay, they fired bombing guns at the French camp located on the shore and enemy ships .

On the Danube in March 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria in May. At the end of June, in view of the increased danger of Austria entering the war, the siege was lifted and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldavia and Wallachia began. As the Russians retreated, the Turks slowly moved forward, and on August 10 (22) Omer Pasha entered Bucharest. At the same time, the Austrian troops crossed the border of Wallachia, which, by agreement of the allies with the Turkish government, replaced the Turks and occupied the principalities.

In the Caucasus, on July 19 (31), Russian troops occupied Bayazet, on July 24 (August 5), 1854 they fought a successful battle near Kyuruk-Dar, 18 km from Kars, but so far have not been able to begin the siege of this fortress, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich 60- thousandth Turkish army. The Black Sea coastline was abolished.

In the Baltic, two divisions of the Baltic Fleet were left to strengthen the defense of Kronstadt, and the third was located near Sveaborg. The main points on the Baltic coast were covered by coastal batteries, and gunboats were actively built.

With the clearing of the sea from ice, a strong Anglo-French fleet (11 screw and 15 sailing ships of the line, 32 steam-frigates and 7 sailing frigates) under the command of Vice Admiral C. Napier and Vice Admiral A. F. Parseval-Deschen entered the Baltic and blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing battleships, 9 steam-frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg.

Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. On July 26 (August 7), 1854, an 11,000-strong Anglo-French landing force landed on the Åland Islands and laid siege to Bomarsund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganges, Gamlakarleby and Abo) ended in failure. In the autumn of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea.

On the White Sea, the actions of the allied squadron of Captain Omanei were limited to the capture of small merchant ships, the robbery of coastal residents, and the double bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery. There were attempts to make a landing, but they were abandoned. During the bombing of the city of Kola, about 110 houses, 2 churches (including the masterpiece of Russian wooden architecture, the Resurrection Cathedral of the 17th century), and shops were burned by enemy fire.

On the Pacific Ocean, the garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky under the command of Major General V.S. Zavoyko on August 18-24 (August 30-September 5), 1854, repelled the attack of the Anglo-French squadron under the command of Rear Admiral David Price, defeating the landing force.

Diplomatic efforts

In 1854, in Vienna, with the mediation of Austria, diplomatic negotiations were held between the warring parties. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouth).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855) opened a conference of ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia, but the negotiations did not produce results and in April 1855 were interrupted.

On January 26, 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allies, having concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, were to go to Sardinia for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

Campaign 1855

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, the Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. The Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II.

Crimea and the siege of Sevastopol

After the capture of the southern part of Sevastopol, the allied commanders-in-chief, who did not dare to move with the army into the peninsula due to a lack of baggage, began to threaten the movement to Nikolaev, which, with the fall of Sevastopol, gained importance, since Russian naval institutions and supplies were located there. To this end, a strong allied fleet approached Kinburn on October 2 (14) and, after a two-day bombardment, forced him to surrender.

For the bombardment of Kinburn by the French, for the first time in world practice, armored floating platforms were used, which turned out to be practically invulnerable to the Kinburn coastal batteries and the fort, the most powerful weapons of which were medium-caliber 24-pounder guns. Their cast-iron cannonballs left dents no more than an inch deep in the 4½-inch armor of the French floating batteries, and the fire of the batteries themselves was so destructive that, according to the British observers present, the batteries alone would have been enough to destroy the walls of Kinburn in three hours.

Leaving Bazaine's troops and a small squadron in Kinburn, the British and French set sail for Sevastopol, near which they began to settle down for the upcoming winter.

Other theaters of war

For operations on the Baltic Sea in 1855, the Allies equipped 67 ships; this fleet appeared before Kronstadt in the middle of May, hoping to lure the Russian fleet stationed there into the sea. Without waiting for this and making sure that the fortifications of Kronstadt were strengthened and underwater mines were laid in many places, the enemy limited himself to raids by light ships on various places on the Finnish coast.

On July 25 (August 6), the allied fleet bombarded Sveaborg for 45 hours, but apart from the destruction of buildings, almost no harm was done to the fortress.

In the Caucasus, a major victory for Russia in 1855 was the capture of Kars. The first attack on the fortress took place on June 4 (16), its siege began on June 6 (18), and by mid-August it became total. After a major but unsuccessful assault on September 17 (29), N. N. Muravyov continued the siege until the surrender of the Ottoman garrison, which took place on November 16 (28), 1855. Vassif Pasha, who commanded the garrison, handed over to the enemy the keys to the city, 12 Turkish banners and 18.5 thousand prisoners. As a result of this victory, the Russian troops began to successfully control not only the city, but also its entire region, including Ardagan, Kagyzman, Olty and the Lower Basensky sanjak.

War and propaganda

Propaganda was an integral part of the war. A few years before the Crimean War (in 1848), Karl Marx, who himself actively published in the Western European press, wrote that a German newspaper, in order to save its liberal reputation, had to "show hatred of the Russians at the right time."

F. Engels, in several articles in the English press published in March-April 1853, accused Russia of seeking to capture Constantinople, although it was well known that the Russian ultimatum of February 1853 did not contain any territorial claims of Russia itself against Turkey. In another article (April 1853), Marx and Engels scolded the Serbs for not wanting to read books printed in their language in the West in Latin letters, but only reading books in Cyrillic printed in Russia; and rejoiced that an "anti-Russian progressive party" had finally appeared in Serbia.

Also in 1853, the English liberal newspaper Daily News assured its readers that Christians in the Ottoman Empire enjoyed greater religious freedom than in Orthodox Russia and Catholic Austria.

In 1854, the London Times wrote: "It would be good to return Russia to the cultivation of inland lands, to drive the Muscovites deep into the forests and steppes." In the same year, D. Russell, leader of the House of Commons and head of the Liberal Party, said: “We must pull out the fangs from the bear ... Until its fleet and naval arsenal on the Black Sea are destroyed, Constantinople will not be safe, there will be no peace in Europe.”

Widespread anti-Western, patriotic and jingoistic propaganda began in Russia, which was supported both by official speeches and spontaneous speeches by the patriotic part of society. In fact, for the first time since the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia opposed itself to a large coalition of European countries, demonstrating its “special position”. At the same time, some of the sharpest jingoistic speeches by the Nikolaev censorship were not allowed to print, which happened, for example, in 1854-1855. with two poems by F. I. Tyutchev (“Prophecy” and “Now you are not up to poetry”).

Diplomatic efforts

After the fall of Sevastopol, disagreements appeared in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria declared its readiness to join the Allies. In mid-December, she presented an ultimatum to Russia:

• replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia by a protectorate of all the great powers;
• the establishment of freedom of navigation in the mouths of the Danube;
• preventing the passage of someone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus to the Black Sea, the prohibition of Russia and Turkey to keep a navy on the Black Sea and have arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
• Russia's refusal to patronize Orthodox subjects of the Sultan;
• concession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the section of Bessarabia adjacent to the Danube.

A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who urged the Russian emperor to accept the Austrian terms, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, in the face of depleted resources and defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.

On the evening of December 20, 1855, a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar's office. It was decided to invite Austria to delete the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15, 1856. The assembly unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions for peace.

The results of the war

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

• Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
• The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.
• Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.
• Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
• Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and temporarily deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

Consequences of the war

Russia

• The war led to the breakdown of the financial system of the Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military spending, the government had to resort to printing unsecured credit notes, which led to a decrease in their silver coverage from 45% in 1853 to 19% in 1858, that is, in fact, to more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble. Russia was able to reach a deficit-free state budget again in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble against gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during the monetary reform of Witte.
• The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, in the future, for the abolition of serfdom.
• The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis of the military reforms of the 1860s-1870s in Russia (the replacement of the obsolete 25-year military service, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the abolition of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Berlin Treaty, signed as part of the Berlin Congress, which took place following the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

• The government of the Russian Empire begins to reconsider its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in the repeated blocking of private projects for the construction of railways, including those to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa, and upholding the unprofitability and uselessness of building railways south of Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin surveys on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to start surveys on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to the Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Supreme Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

Britannia

Military setbacks led to the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The viciousness of the official system of selling officer ranks for money, which has been preserved in the British army since medieval times, was revealed.

Ottoman Empire

During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire borrowed £7 million from England. In 1858, the bankruptcy of the Sultan's treasury was declared.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid I was forced to issue a Gatti Sheriff (decree) Hatt-ı Hümayun, which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of the subjects of the empire regardless of nationality.

Austria

Austria found itself in political isolation until October 23, 1873, when a new alliance of three emperors (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary) was concluded.

Influence on military affairs

The Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of European states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled ones, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare were born.

In the ground forces, the role of small arms and, accordingly, the fire preparation of an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a small arms chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, she completely replaced the columns and the loose system.

• Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
• The use of the telegraph for military purposes began.
• Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care for the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, mortality in hospitals fell from 42 to 2.2%.
• For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
• Nikolai Pirogov, for the first time in Russian field medicine, used a plaster cast, which made it possible to speed up the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

Other

• One of the early manifestations of the information war is documented, when immediately after the battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports about the battle that the Russians were shooting the wounded Turks swimming in the sea.
• On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Düsseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
• On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Gold Schmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
• For the first time photography is widely used to cover the course of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the US Library of Congress.
• The practice of continuous weather forecasting is emerging, first in Europe and then around the world. The storm on November 14, 1854, which inflicted heavy losses on the Allied fleet, as well as the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct the leading astronomer of his country - U. Le Verrier - to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaclava, the first forecast map was created, a prototype of those that we see in the weather news, and in 1856, 13 weather stations were already operating in France.
• Cigarettes are invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the British and French troops in the Crimea from Turkish comrades.
• All-Russian fame is gained by the young author Leo Tolstoy with the Sevastopol Stories published in the press from the scene. Here he also created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.

Losses

Losses by country
	Population, as of 1853				Died of wounds	Died of disease	From other reasons
England (no colonies)
France (no colonies)
Sardinia
Ottoman Empire

According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army was 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250 thousand on the part of Russia and the allies.

Awards

• In the UK, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which to this day is the highest military award in Great Britain.
• In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal "In Memory of the War of 1853-1856", as well as the medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol" and ordered the Mint to produce 100,000 copies of the medal.
• On August 26, 1856 Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Letter of Gratitude”.

Crimean War 1853-1856 this is one of the Russian pages of the foreign policy of the Eastern Question. The Russian Empire entered into a military confrontation with several opponents at once: the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia.

The fighting took place on the Danube, the Baltic, the Black and White Seas.The most tense situation was in the Crimea, hence the name of the war - Crimean.

Each state that took part in the Crimean War pursued its own goals. For example, Russia wanted to strengthen its influence on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Ottoman Empire wanted to suppress resistance in the Balkans. By the beginning of the Crimean War, he began to admit the possibility of joining the Balkan lands to the territory of the Russian Empire.

Causes of the Crimean War

Russia motivated its intervention by the fact that it wants to help the peoples professing Orthodoxy to free themselves from the oppression of the Ottoman Empire. Such a desire naturally did not suit England and Austria. The British also wanted to push Russia off the Black Sea coast. France also intervened in the Crimean War, its emperor Napoleon III hatched plans for revenge for the war of 1812.

In October 1853, Russia entered Moldavia and Wallachia, these territories were subject to Russia according to the Treaty of Adrianople. The Emperor of Russia was asked to withdraw the troops, but was refused. Further, Great Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began the Crimean War.

CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

Causes of war and balance of power. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia participated in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated the conflict situation. Thus, it would seem that a private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute over the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.

The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were brought into Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right to protect the Danubian Principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of Alexander's are a wonderful beginning."

Peasant question. Decree "on free cultivators". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.

The foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya.Chaadaeva. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.

peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.

Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". The assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.

Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.

By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops on the border with Russia, England and France asserted their colonial power with blood and sword. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of military conflict

By the 50s of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits of the Black Sea to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :

• Turkey had the right to let the fleet of the allied powers through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in case of hostilities.
• Russia carried out open support for the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia's interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
• The Turkish government, led by Abdulmecid, was eager for revenge for the defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.

Nicholas I, preparing for the war with Turkey, counted on the non-intervention of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - the Western countries, incited by Great Britain, openly came out on the side of Turkey. British policy has traditionally been to root out the slightest strengthening of any country with all its might.

Start of hostilities

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to possess the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdulmecid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.

If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, then it can be divided into two main steps:

TOP 5 articleswho read along with this

• First stage lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. The first six months of hostilities on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasian, Russian troops invariably prevailed over the Ottoman Turks.
• Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. The number of participants in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 increased due to the entry into the war of England and France. There is a turning point in the war.

The course of the military company

By the autumn of 1853, events on the Danube front were proceeding sluggishly and indecisively for both sides.

• The Russian grouping of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. The Turkish troops of Omer Pasha, after futile attempts to go on the offensive on the border of Wallachia, also switched to passive defense.
• Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment consisting of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush the Russian troops in Transcaucasia and unite with the Chechen Imam Shamil. But the Russian General Bebutov upset the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
• But the loudest victory was obtained at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet, Osman Pasha, was captured by Russian sailors. It was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.

• The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of the English Queen Victoria and the French Emperor Napoleon III demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of the Austrian armed forces and the ultimatum of the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danubian principalities.

The following table presents the main events of the second period of the Crimean War, with dates and a summary of each of the events:

the date	Event	Content
March 27, 1854	England declared war on Russia	The declaration of war was the result of Russia's disobedience to the requirements of the English Queen Victoria
April 22, 1854	Attempt of the Anglo-French fleet to besiege Odessa	The Anglo-French squadron subjected Odessa to a long bombardment of 360 guns. However, all attempts by the British and French to land troops failed.
Spring 1854	Attempts to penetrate the British and French on the coast of the Baltic and White Seas	The Anglo-French landing captured the Russian fortress of Bomarzund on the Aland Islands. The attacks of the English squadron on the Solovetsky Monastery and on the city of Kalu located on the coast of Murmansk were repulsed.
Summer 1854	The allies are preparing a landing in the Crimea	Commander of Russian troops in Crimea A.S. Menshikov was an extremely mediocre commander in chief. He did not in any way prevent the Anglo-French landing in Evpatoria, although he had about 36 thousand soldiers at hand.
September 20, 1854	Battle on the Alma River	Menshikov tried to stop the troops of the landed allies (66 thousand in total), but in the end he was defeated and retreated to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol completely defenseless.
October 5, 1854	The allies began shelling Sevastopol	After the withdrawal of Russian troops to Bakhchisaray, the allies could take Sevastopol immediately, but decided to storm the city later. Taking advantage of the indecisiveness of the British and French, the engineer Totleben began to fortify the city.
October 17, 1854 - September 5, 1855	Defense of Sevastopol	The defense of Sevastopol entered the history of Russia forever as one of its most heroic, symbolic and tragic pages. The remarkable commanders Istomin, Nakhimov and Kornilov fell on the bastions of Sevastopol.
October 25, 1854	Battle of Balaclava	Menshikov tried with all his might to pull the allied forces away from Sevastopol. Russian troops failed to achieve this goal and defeat the British camp near Balaklava. However, the allies, due to heavy losses, temporarily abandoned the assault on Sevastopol.
November 5, 1854	Inkerman battle	Menshikov made another attempt to lift or at least weaken the siege of Sevastopol. However, this attempt also ended in failure. The reason for the next loss of the Russian army was the complete inconsistency in team actions, as well as the presence of rifled rifles (fittings) in the British and French, which mowed down entire ranks of Russian soldiers on distant approaches.
August 16, 1855	Battle on the Black River	The largest battle of the Crimean War. Another attempt by the new commander-in-chief M.D. Gorchakov to lift the siege ended in disaster for the Russian army and the death of thousands of soldiers.
October 2, 1855	The fall of the Turkish fortress of Kars	If in the Crimea the Russian army was pursued by failures, then in the Caucasus, parts of the Russian troops successfully pressed the Turks. The most powerful Turkish fortress of Kars fell on October 2, 1855, but this event could no longer affect the further course of the war.

Quite a few peasants tried to avoid recruitment in order not to get into the army. This did not speak of their cowardice, just that many peasants sought to avoid recruitment due to their families who needed to be fed. During the years of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge of patriotic sentiments among the population of Russia. Moreover, people of various classes were recorded in the militia.

End of the war and its aftermath

The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After that, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war was at the beginning of 1856.

In early 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was a ban on the maintenance of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.

Main terms of the Paris Treaty:

• Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
• Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea;
• Russia lost part of the territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation on the Danube was declared free;
• Russia was forbidden to have military fortifications on the Aland Islands.

Rice. 3. Congress of Paris 1856

The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The lack of rifled weapons in the Russian army, a modern fleet and a shortage of railways could not but affect military operations.

Nevertheless, such key moments of the Crimean War as the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the fortress of Bomarzund, remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.

The government of Nicholas I introduced the most severe censorship during the Crimean War. It was forbidden to touch on military topics, both in books and in periodicals. Publications that wrote in an enthusiastic manner about the course of hostilities were also not allowed into the press.

What have we learned?

Crimean War 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Empire. About what this war was, why Russia was defeated, as well as about the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences, the article “Crimean War” tells.

Topic quiz

Report Evaluation

Average rating: 4.7. Total ratings received: 132.