Foreign policy Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was aimed at expanding the territory and strengthening the borders of the empire. The main directions of foreign policy activity were the southern and western, within which the fate of the Crimean Khanate and the eastern regions of the Commonwealth, populated mainly by Ukrainians and Belarusians, were decided.
Polish landowners and the Catholic Church oppressed and oppressed the local population. In response, uprisings broke out, shaking the Right-Bank Ukraine. The political circles of the country were torn apart by the struggle of clans, some of which were looking for support from neighboring powers. In turn, Prussia and Austria sought to divide the weakened neighbor. The Russian government, concerned about the possibility that popular movements could spill over to the Left Bank and driven by a desire to return Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, was not averse to taking part in the division of the Polish inheritance. In 1768, the opponents created the Bar Confederation, directed against dissidents and Russia; Russian troops took part in the defeat of the uprising, they were supported by the military forces of Austria and Prussia. As a result, in 1772 the first partition of Poland, according to which Austria captured Golitsya, Prussia - Pomorie, and Russia got the lands of Eastern Belarus and territories in Livonia.
In 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia. Military operations unfolded on the Danube, in the Crimea and in the Transcaucasus. The outbreak of the peasant war forced them to abandon the continuation of the war. According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty of 1774, Russia received the right of free passage through the straits. Kerch, Yenikale in the Crimea and Kinburn passed to Russia. The Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of the Crimean Khanate.
In 1783, Russia annexed the Crimea and the lands along the river. Kuban, which gave rise to a new Russian-Turkish war. In the same year, Georgia became part of Russia. Hostilities with the Turks began in 1787. According to the Iasi Peace Treaty of 1791, Turkey recognized the annexation of Crimea and the transfer of the Black Sea coast from the Southern Bug to the Dniester under Russian rule.
In 1793 was produced second partition of Poland, according to which the lands of Eastern Belarus, Volyn and Podolia went to Russia. In response, an uprising broke out in Poland under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the movement was suppressed. In 1795 was held third partition of Poland, according to which Western Belarus, Western Volhynia, Lithuania and Courland went to Russia. The remaining Polish lands went to Austria and Prussia. Poland ceased to exist as an independent state. The Belarusian and Ukrainian population of the former Polish lands benefited from the elimination of national and religious oppression, but found themselves in conditions of severe feudal exploitation.
France. The news of the fall of the Bastille caused a sharply negative reaction from Russian government and most of the nobility. A stream of French emigrants poured into the country, finding a very warm welcome here. After the execution of the king in 1793, relations with France were severed. The formation of an Anglo-Russian-Prussian alliance directed against France began, but in 1795 Prussia concluded an agreement with France, and the coalition broke up. The dispatch of the Russian corps to help Austria, which was being prepared in 1796, did not take place due to the death of Catherine II.
The main direction of the foreign policy of Paul I was the struggle against France, against the spread of revolutionary ideas to other European states, and then against the intensification of French aggression in Europe and North Africa.
In 1798, a new coalition against France was created, consisting of Russia, Austria, England and Turkey. Russia sent a fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov for the liberation of the Ionian Islands captured by the French. The operation was successful. In 1799, the Russian land army began hostilities on the territory of Northern Italy. The command of the troops was entrusted to A.V. Suvorov. Northern Italy, like Southern Italy, was cleared of the enemy within a month and a half. In September 1799, the Russian army entered the territory of Switzerland, but by that time Rimsky-Korsakov's corps had already been defeated, and, holding back the enemy, who was pressing on from all sides, the Russian army was forced to retreat. Due to friction among the allies, Suvorov was ordered to return to Russia in early 1800. Russia, having broken off relations with its former allies, found a new one in the face of France. Preparations began for joint action against England. Don Cossacks under the command of ataman Platov in the spring of 1801 went to conquer India.
Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.
Alexander 1
After Paul's assassination, his eldest son succeeded to the throne. Alexander(born in 1777, ruled in 1801 - 1825). This was a man endowed. He banned corporal punishment for the upper classes, liquidated the sinister Secret Expedition and returned disgraced nobles and officials from exile; he allowed the Russians to travel abroad and bring books from there, abolished the absurd clothing bans and restrictions on trade, and restored the activities of private printing houses. A "Secret Committee" was formed. They became the emperor's closest advisers at the beginning of the reformatory path that he tried to embark on. Serfdom was preserved. The reason for this is obvious: the ruling class in Russia - the nobility - as a whole then stood on serf positions, it jealously guarded its rights to the peasants and did not allow the thought of any fundamental changes in this area; the emperor did not dare to go against the unified will of the ruling class. It was forbidden to break up peasant families in human trafficking. State peasants were now allowed to purchase vacant land and exploit wage labor there. The “Decree on free cultivators” (1803) was issued, which allowed the landowners, in agreement with the peasants, to release the latter into the wild with land for a ransom.
The system included the following elements. Parish (at churches) one-class schools, where they taught reading, writing and the Law of God; county two-class schools with a wider range of subjects, but also taught at the elementary level. Both together formed the initial link in education and were intended for people from the lower classes. The third stage - a four-year provincial gymnasium - gave a good secondary education and was available to children from privileged classes or wealthy families. The university crowned this whole system.
AT university life under Alexander there were important changes. Firstly, six more were added to the only Moscow University before. Secondly, since 1804 the University Charter was in force, which granted these institutions independence from state administration. etc. Special noble "boarding houses" - lyceums, of which at first there were two - Alexandrovsky (or Tsarskoselsky - near St. Petersburg) and Demidovsky (in Yaroslavl) were also equated to higher educational institutions. They trained the offspring of the most noble families.
Reforms in the public administration system. Replacing obsolete collegiums with new bodies by ministries, and the most important issues were discussed jointly by the ministers. MM. Speransky his program meant the implementation of two principles: the separation of powers and the admission of representatives of the people to legislative and judicial activities. The representative-legislative branch of power was conceived in the form of a system of elected bodies - dumas: volost, district, provincial and State. The latter drafted bills, which, after their discussion in a specially established advisory body under the tsar (the State Council), were submitted for the highest approval. The judicial power was formed in a similar way, which consisted of elected courts - the volost, district, provincial and, finally, the Senate (though appointed by the king, but from previously elected persons). Who became the voter? The free male population, which met a very high property qualification. Finally, the executive power was represented by the ministries and officials subordinate to them in the center and locally. All of them were appointed by the king and answered to him. So, the three branches of power were divided, and two of them were now to be formed on an elective basis, albeit a very limited one. Note that the reform did not formally encroach on autocracy: the emperor not only headed the executive branch, but appointed the highest judges, and most importantly, approved the laws, and his veto in this case was final.
nevertheless, the main provisions of the project were rejected by the authorities. The reason for the failure was the general resistance to reforms on the part of the nobility and officials. In Speransky's innovations, they saw an encroachment on their position, undermining the foundations of the Russian state and a threat to autocracy. Speransky was resigned.
At the beginning of 1805, a third anti-French coalition was formed, which included England, Austria, Russia, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples; Prussia was also preparing to join her.
Napoleon hoped to defeat the Austrians as soon as possible in order to prevent their connection with the Russian army advancing from the east, and at the same time to weaken the warlike fervor of Prussia. Franz II on November 21 made peace with Bonaparte and, at the request of the latter, forced Alexander I to withdraw Russian forces from Austria. The third coalition broke up; all of southern Germany was under the rule of Napoleon; Austria now had to do his will.
With the participation of Russia in 1806, a fourth coalition was formed, which also included England, Prussia and Sweden. The Prussians were the first to try to stop Napoleon - and were immediately defeated. England and Sweden behaved passively. Russia remained, which moved its army to East Prussia. Russia was forced to enter into peace negotiations, and the fourth coalition, as shortly before the third, broke up. Negotiations between Napoleon and Alexander took place on the river. Neman (on a raft) near the city of Tilsit at the end of June 1807. They ended with an agreement that sealed the victory of Bonaparte: Russia agreed to "peace and friendship" with France, entered into a military alliance with it, recognized all the Napoleonic conquests, put up with the creation of the Duchy Varshavsky (under this name, Napoleon revived the Polish state in the territories previously torn away from the Poles by Prussia and Austria). A heavy concession for Alexander was Russia's joining the so-called continental blockade, with which the French sought to strangle England economically; participation in the blockade meant a complete break in all relations with England, including economic ones, which again hit Russian agricultural and trade interests hard - after all, England had long been buying bread from Russia.
Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809. Finland is now part of Russian Empire. War between Russia and Turkey. According to the treaty signed in May 1812, Russia received Bessarabia, a number of Turkish possessions in Europe - Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia - acquired autonomy. The main thing was that peace was ensured on the southern borders of Russia, in which she was especially in dire need in view of the approaching war with Napoleon.
The conservative trend that emerged in Alexander's policy shortly before the war of 1812 then became dominant and was the main feature of the second period of his reign. State structure Russia in these years is distinguished by a combination of two main trends: autocracy and the strengthening of the bureaucracy.
The situation in the field of education and censorship censorship was instructed to prevent free-thinking thoughts, godlessness, self-will, “dreamy philosophizing”, etc. in the press. It was forbidden to write about the state system and the peasant question in newspapers and magazines, it was not allowed to discuss the actions of any bosses and officials in general. even reviews of the performances of the imperial theaters were not allowed, since the artists were there in the civil service.
The time of Alexander became, first of all, the era of the strengthening of absolutism and serfdom. In addition, this period is marked by a sharp strengthening of the Russian bureaucracy, which becomes a layer independent of society and even of the nobility;
Patriotic War of 1812
The forces of Napoleon thrown against the Russians were huge - more than 600 thousand people The strategic plan was quite simple: within a month to defeat the military forces of Russia at its western borders, and then dictate their will to the Russian Tsar Russian troops numbered from 200 to 317 thousand people and were divided into several parts, covering the possible paths of enemy movement - to the east, northeast, southeast, south. The main such units were the 1st Army, and the 2nd. The Russians also took into account the balance of power. Therefore, their strategic plan provided for a war in two stages: 1) a retreat into the depths of Russia, which was supposed to strengthen the Russian army and at the same time weaken the enemy; 2) counteroffensive - as the balance of forces changes and a favorable situation develops.
Having crossed the border, Napoleon first of all tried to prevent the connection of the 1st and 2nd armies of the Russians, trying to defeat them one by one. Both Russian armies joined in July at Smolensk, where Barclay de Tolly took overall command. This was a clear failure of the French strategist. After forty days of war, the Russian army was intact and constantly receiving reinforcements; the French forces that followed the Russians were rapidly decreasing: they had to leave garrisons in the cities, the first losses also affected, desertion Napoleon therefore persistently strove for a general battle, which, in his opinion, would immediately determine the outcome of the war in his favor. The French stormed Smolensk. The Russians left the city and continued their journey east. Entering the dilapidated burning Smolensk, the French emperor doubted his impending victory; he sent Alexander I a proposal for negotiations - and received no answer. In Russia, general discontent grew in connection with this. Kutuzov is the new commander in chief. Having taken command, Kutuzov nevertheless decided on a general battle near the village of Borodino. Napoleon: destroy the Russian army and dictate peace terms. Kutuzov: stop the enemy; then, go on the counteroffensive and crush it. Neither side was able to fulfill its main task.
Kutuzov after Borodin decided to retreat. But this meant leaving Moscow to the enemy. The Russian army began to move through Moscow, dragging many thousands of civilians with it. Napoleon approached the Russian capital In Moscow, strong fires immediately broke out, destroying up to 80% of city buildings in four days. Arson was carried out as directed by Kutuzov, the French army was not ready for a new energetic breakthrough and involuntarily got stuck in Moscow. Difficulties arose with the supply of troops; the soldiers were engaged in robberies, discipline fell, and Napoleon could not curb his army. A partisan movement flared up in the territory they occupied. Moving away from Moscow 80 km to the south, Kutuzov was actively preparing for a counteroffensive. There was an intensive build-up and reorganization of the army, training of new units, and the accumulation of weapons. The overall preponderance of forces was now on the side of the Russians.
Napoleon set out from Moscow and moved south; he wanted to enter the rich southern regions of Russia and, using their resources, continue the war. But the Russian army stood in his way as an insurmountable wall. The decisive battle broke out on October 12 near Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands eight times. Napoleon failed: he could neither defeat the enemy nor break through to the south. He decided to retreat to the west, and was forced to use the same Smolensk road for this. The main forces of Kutuzov pursued her. The French suffered heavy losses. Their situation was aggravated by an acute shortage of food. In addition, early frosts came, and the Napoleonic soldiers began to die from the cold. Having reached Smolensk, hungry soldiers plundered food warehouses,
Napoleon nevertheless managed to establish a crossing across the river (November 14-16). The crossing turned into a real hell for the French. A mass of people died from the continuous shelling of Russian artillery and Cossack attacks On November 17, Napoleon ordered the crossing to be burned, leaving a large number of his people on the eastern bank.
By the spring of 1813, a significant part of Poland had been cleared of Napoleonic troops. The Russian army entered the territory of Prussia. Russia and Prussia signed an alliance treaty, the French were expelled from Berlin. Napoleon raised a new army. Kutuzov died. Russian-Prussian troops suffered a series of defeats. Formation of a new anti-French coalition consisting of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden. Leipzig battle. Napoleon was defeated, but managed to get out of the encirclement. At the end of 1813 - beginning of 1814, the allied armies entered the territory of France. Paris capitulated. Napoleon is exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. A year later he entered Paris, his reign lasted 100 days. In June 1815, near the village of Waterloo in Belgium, he suffered a decisive defeat.
Congress of Vienna in 1814 Russia received part of Poland along with Warsaw. In 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the Holy Alliance.
The Napoleonic invasion was a huge misfortune for Russia. Industry and agriculture suffered enormous damage. The sacrificial role that fell to the lot of Moscow, even more exalted its importance as the spiritual center of Russia.
Decembrists.
Already in the second half of the XVIII century. in Russian educated society there were protests against serfdom, autocracy and other feudal institutions. After the war of 1812 and foreign campaigns in Russia, the first social movement(in the narrow sense of the word), i.e. purposeful activity of a significant number of people united by a common ideology and program. It was the Decembrist movement.
Serfdom, absolutism, lack of freedoms and other traditional Russian "foundations" greatly hinder the development of the country and doom the bulk of its population to disasters. The Decembrists came to the conclusion that it was necessary to direct Russia along the European path and thus ensure its development and prosperity. The Decembrists decided to found a secret society in Russia, to prepare and carry out a coup d'état, and then to realize their political and social ideas.
In 1816 the first Decembrist organization arose - the Union of Salvation, created by officer-masons A. Muravyov, S. Trubetskoy, S. and M. Muravyov-Apostles, etc. In 1818. it was transformed into the Welfare Union. In 1821, after the dissolution of this Union, two new organizations were formed - the Northern (in St. Petersburg) and the Southern (in Ukraine) societies.
The so-called “Constitution” of Nikita Muravyov became the fruit of the search for members of the Northern Society (which included N. Turgenev, M. Lunin, K. Ryleev, the Bestuzhev brothers, etc.). It was a fairly moderate document. It provided for: the creation of a legislative body in the country - the People's Council, elected only by wealthy citizens; the preservation of executive power in the hands of the emperor; the liberation of the peasants with the provision of insignificant plots of land to them.
The Southern Society included P. Pestel, S. Muravyov-Apostol, M. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, A. Yushnevsky and others. Its main document was Pestel’s Russkaya Pravda, which went much further than Muravyov’s Constitution: Russia was to become a republic, The people's veche was elected by all men over 20 years of age, and the peasants were released with a large amount of land.
Both societies maintained contact with each other. By the way, this was reported to Alexander, but he did not take any decisive measures. Meanwhile, the Decembrists were jointly preparing a coup d'etat and regicide, which they were going to carry out with the help of the army.
When Alexander I died and an interregnum arose, the Decembrists decided to act. On December 14, 1825, the day the new tsar was sworn in, members of the Northern Society attempted to carry out a coup in the capital. They wanted to seize the Winter Palace, surround the Senate and force it to publish the Manifesto to the Russian People, which destroys the autocracy and serfdom. Convincing the soldiers that Konstantin was not forcibly admitted to power, the Decembrists brought out several military units(only 3-4 thousand people) to the Senate Square. But S. Trubetskoy, who had been designated as the leader of the uprising, lost heart and did not appear; other Decembrists showed indecision. As a result, the rebels did not move from their place. They only shouted "Long live Constantine!" and they shot at those who approached them, not excluding the new king. This went on for several hours. The hungry and half-frozen soldiers were demoralized by inaction. Meanwhile, the forces loyal to Nicholas were gathering to the square, which gradually surrounded the rebels. After many unsuccessful attempts to persuade the rebels to negotiate, the command was given to open artillery fire and launch a horse attack. The rebels began to scatter, losing about 300 people killed. Thus the uprising in Petersburg was suppressed.
The same fate befell the performance organized by the Southern Society in Ukraine at the very beginning of January 1826. The rebels were easily defeated by the tsarist troops near the White Church.
The investigation and trial of the Decembrists dragged on for several months. In addition to ordinary performers, 121 members of the Decembrist secret societies were brought to justice. As a result, they received various punishments: hard labor, exile to Siberia, demotion to the rank and file with sending to the Caucasus, etc. Five people whom the court considered the main “villains” (K.F. Ryleev, P.I. Pestel, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky) were hanged on July 13 1826
The Decembrist uprising ended in complete failure. But it, bursting like thunder from a clear sky, stirred up Russian society and laid the foundation for a constant liberation movement in the country.
Autocracy of Nicholas 1.
(born in 1796, ruled in 1825-1855). he was very fond of everything related to military affairs and spent a lot of time doing parades, military reviews and other similar events. From childhood, Nikolai was characterized by perseverance, stubbornness, the desire to command, but at the same time, kindness, honesty and camaraderie. He was a very brave man. He did not put his hand in the state pocket. He was industrious. Nicholas loved his country and took care of it - of course, in accordance with his own concepts. Under him, railway construction began in Russia; half of all highways available in the country by 1917 also appeared under him. He provided patronage to the Russian theater, laid the foundation for the device in his palace of a public museum (the Hermitage).
Peasant uprisings broke out more and more often. They were allowed to acquire real estate, go free (without land) with the consent of the landowner; the norms of punishments practiced on landlord estates were curtailed, the right of nobles to exile serfs to Siberia was limited, etc. a new committee arose, the result of which was the tsar's decree "On obligated peasants" (1842), which gave landlords the right to free peasants with the provision of land for corvée or dues. However, the size of the duties established by the nobles turned out to be so great that by 1861 only a little more than 27 thousand peasants were able to use the decree. The ineffectiveness of the attempts to "liberate" was due both to the feudal position of the nobility, and the fears of the king himself, who believed that the abolition of serfdom on government terms would inevitably cause popular protest. P.D. Kiselev In the state village, and there lived about 16 million people, a system of peasant self-government was introduced: rural communities now elected their foremen, and the volost gathering - the volost government and court. Measures were taken to improve the situation of farmers: land was cut for those in particular need, taxes were reduced, loans were provided, agronomic, medical and veterinary assistance was provided, and the network of schools was expanded. All this contributed to the improvement of the life of the state Village, and at the same time made it more solvent in front of the government, as well as more calm.
At the same time, the strengthening of bureaucratic control and the arbitrariness of officials provoked a protest from the population of the state village, which manifested itself especially clearly in the speeches of the peasants of the Volga and Ural regions in the 40s. 19th century
Administrative apparatus. there is an increase in the centralization of power, its bureaucratization, as well as the personal influence of the king on all affairs. In 1816, for example, the reorganization of the royal office took place. Several departments were established in the chancellery, including the famous III department, which was in charge of political investigation. The retinue of the king was also enlarged. local government It created an atmosphere of irresponsibility in administrative instances: the needs of the population were ignored, all kinds of replies were practiced, exaggerated reports were sent to the authorities, etc. The control system turned out to be expensive and inefficient.
On the one hand, the development education systems. The number of gymnasiums and students has increased. New higher educational establishments: School of Law, Technological and Construction Institutes, etc. . according to the school charter of 1828, only children of nobles and officials were admitted to the gymnasium; the offspring of other parents were deprived of the right to secondary education. In 1835, a new university charter appeared. the abolition of university autonomy and the introduction of the institution of inspectors to supervise students and teachers Tuition fees were sharply increased, and the admission of new students was reduced.
The state creates its own ideological basis, in which Orthodoxy is included as an integral part. The essence of this ideology: "Autocracy, Orthodoxy and nationality."
In accordance with censored By the charter of 1826, many publications were closed, and seditious authors and editors were sent under arrest, expelled from the cities, and given to the soldiers. in the last years of the reign of Nicholas: public organizations were not allowed, travel abroad and getting books from there were difficult, bayonets were put up in the way of private entrepreneurship.
VI. The third purpose of baptism and its ultimate goal is the regeneration of man.
In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia solved several foreign policy tasks:
1) the first direction is south. Russia fought for access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, the development and settlement of the southern black earth steppes. This led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;
2) the second direction - in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus, occupied by Poland;
3) the third direction. It was predetermined by the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. Russia waged an active struggle against revolutionary France. In the second half of the XVIII century. significantly intensified foreign policy of the Russian government in the south. To this he was pushed by the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, which sought to seize the rich southern lands. Industry and trade, which were developing rapidly, also dictated the need for access to the Black Sea.
Russian-Turkish wars
In the southern direction, Russia repeatedly entered into confrontation with Turkey.
1. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Russia managed to win back Azov and Taganrog from Turkey. In the Battle of Chesme, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. Russian troops in the course of hostilities captured the Crimea and could move to Istanbul. At this time, Turkey asked for peace. In this war, Russian commanders showed their talent: P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, V.M. Dolgorukov; the actions of the fleet were led by: L.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridonov and I.S. Greig.
2. In 1787–1791 Russia again entered the war with Turkey. In military operations, Turkey demanded the return of Crimea from Russia. But the Russian army under the leadership of A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish military units at Kinbur, Focsani and on the Rymnik River. G.A. Potemkin occupied the Turkish fortress Ochakov on the Dnieper Estuary. Great importance also had the capture of Ishmael, the fortress, which was the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. In this battle, the future famous commander M.I. Kutuzov. Successful operations at sea were carried out by the Russian fleet, led by Admiral F.F. Ushakov.
As a result of this war:
- Crimea was annexed to the Russian Empire;
- the Crimean Khanate was liquidated, which was a constant center of aggression on the southern borders of Russia;
- Turkey also recognized Russian patronage of Georgia.
At the end of the 1780s. Russia waged military operations against Sweden, which sought to regain the lands lost back in northern war.
Russia also participated in the solution of the Polish question. As a result of the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and Volhynia were annexed to Russia.
Russia's participation in the active struggle against revolutionary France began under Catherine II and continued under Paul I. In 1799, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov successfully fought in Northern Italy. Under the command of Ushakov, the Russian fleet occupied the Ionian Islands and the fortress of Corfu. It was during these hostilities that Suvorov made his unparalleled crossing of the Alps.
History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich
7. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century
During the Seven Years' War, Russia's actions brought Prussia to the brink of military disaster, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761. Peter III, who ascended the throne, sent an adjutant to Frederick with a proposal of "good agreement and friendship." In May 1762, peace was signed between Russia and Prussia. Russia returned to Prussia all its territories and became its ally in the war against Austria. This increased the hostility of England and France towards Russia and extremely complicated the international situation. In addition, Peter III was preparing for dynastic war with Denmark because of Schleswig, which had nothing to do with the national interests of Russia.
The overthrow of Peter III and the coming to power of Catherine II put an end to this. Russia withdrew from the war and terminated the alliance with Prussia. N. I. Panin, a prominent statesman, was placed at the head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. He began to create the so-called "northern system", which was based on the opposition of Russia, Prussia, England, Denmark, Sweden and Poland to the coalition of France, Spain and Austria. In 1765, Russia concluded an alliance with Denmark, and in 1766 a trade agreement with England. However, N.I. Panin failed to realize his plan, because England and Prussia absolutely did not want the strengthening of Russia, the growth of its influence in Europe.
One of the important tasks of Russia's foreign policy remained the fight against Turkey, which considered itself the mistress of the Black Sea and, incited and subsidized by France, was waiting for an opportune moment for aggression in Ukraine and the Caucasus. The Crimean Khanate still, although less often, disturbed the Ukrainian and Russian lands with its raids. The Crimean-Tatar-Turkish threat slowed down the pace of development of the southern regions of the country and threatened their security.
The needs of the country's economic development required the solution of a number of tasks: to add new fertile lands in the south between the serif lines and the Azov-Black Sea coast; get access to Azov and Black Sea; ensure control over the mouths of the rivers flowing into the Black Sea; achieve free navigation of Russian ships in the Black Sea and their passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. This was especially important for Russia in connection with the development of market relations, the growing demand for agricultural products, primarily bread, in Europe and the Mediterranean. Russian nobles and merchants were interested in creating ports on the Black Sea and in developing the free export of Russian goods to the ports of Europe and the Middle East, where Russian interests collided with those of England and France. Because of this, Russia sought to create a military fleet on the Black Sea, to strengthen its military-strategic positions on the southern borders.
Catherine II sought to actively support the national liberation struggle against Turkish yoke, which was led by the Orthodox Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, counting on the support of Orthodox Russia.
An important foreign policy task in the second half of the XVIII century. was the annexation of the lands of the Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus, which were part of the Commonwealth. This task was part of a major foreign policy problem of uniting all the lands that were part of Old Russian state, within the framework of a single Russian state, set by the Moscow rulers at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.
Having won in the first quarter of the XVIII century. access to the Baltic Sea, Russia made every effort to preserve the annexed lands and increase its influence in the Baltic states.
At the end of the century, from 1789, the problem of fighting revolutionary France and preventing the spread of the ideas of the French revolution in Russia came to the fore for Russia.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. was of a dual nature. On the one hand, the solution of important national tasks for Russia had a progressive character for its development. On the other hand, an active foreign policy, focused not only on ensuring the country's security, but also on conquering new territories, required huge material costs, which were a heavy burden on the shoulders of the hard-won population of Russia. It strengthened the autocracy, land tenure of the nobility, which was the basis of the prevailing feudal relations, expanded the possibilities for the extensive development of the Russian economy.
In 1768, the explosion of the Koliivshchina, the liberation movement in Ukraine, forced Russia to exert all its forces to suppress it. Turkey regarded this as an opportune moment to start a war against Russia. Even before that, Catherine II postponed the start of the conflict with Turkey, making attempts to strengthen the country's position in Central Europe. The Turks perceived this as a weakness of Russia. In the town of Baltu, they organized a pogrom of the Orthodox population, who turned to the Russian troops for help, and used the Baltic incident as a pretext for starting a war.
Turkey's attack was unexpected for Russia, but the hostilities of 1768-1769. ended in failure for the Turks, they did not bring success to Russia either. The situation changed in 1770, when P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories on the tributaries of the Prut Larga and Kagul rivers. The Russian squadron of G. A. Spiridov, leaving the Baltic, reached the Mediterranean Sea and utterly defeated the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay in June 1770. The Dardanelles were blocked. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of the Crimea. Russia, seeing the hostile attitude of Austria and the brewing of war with Sweden, began negotiations for peace. But the conditions of Turkey did not suit her.
Military operations in 1773 intensified again.
The troops of A. V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress, and the following year they won a victory at Kozludzha. Russia could freely develop its success and solve the problem of the South, but Catherine II was in a hurry to end the war in order to send the army to defeat the Pugachev movement. Turkey and Russia signed a peace treaty on July 10, 1774 in the village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi, according to which the vassal dependence of Crimea was liquidated, Russia received land between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug with Kinburn, Kerch and the right to unhindered navigation of merchant ships on the Black Sea.
During the war, Russia had to take part in the first partition of Poland, although she did not want to. Prussia and Austria had long hatched plans to increase their lands at the expense of the territories of the Polish state, which was in a state of political crisis.
At the beginning of her reign, Catherine II sought to preserve the integrity and sovereignty of Poland, ensuring the influence of Russia there with the help of Stanislav Poniatowski, who was elevated to the royal throne with her support in 1764. But at the same time, Russia was not interested in a strong Polish state and therefore signed an agreement with Frederick II on the preservation of the Polish political system, where the principle of “liberum veto” operated in the Sejm, which inevitably kept the country weak royalty and led the country to anarchy. In 1768, under pressure from Russia, the Polish Sejm passed a law that equalized the rights of Catholics and dissidents (Orthodox and Protestants). In response to this, in the city of Bar (Right-Bank Ukraine), the deputies of the Seim, who disagreed with his decision, created a confederation and started a war against the king. They hoped for help from Turkey and European countries. To fight the Confederates, Russian troops were sent to Poland under the command of A. V. Suvorov, who inflicted a number of defeats on the rebels.
Austria and Prussia sought to carry out their plans for the rejection of Polish territories without the participation of Russia. This threat and the prolongation of the war with Turkey forced Russia to accept Frederick II's plan to partition Poland. According to the first partition of Poland (1772), Russia received Eastern Belarus.
War 1768–1774 did not solve all contentious issues between Russia and Turkey. Georgia and Crimea became the stumbling block. Despite the protests of Turkey, Russia, having sent its troops to the Crimea in 1783, annexed it. The Crimean Khanate, which existed due to devastating raids and the sale of captured captives into slavery, ceased to exist. In 1783, the Georgian king Erekle II signed a treaty with Russia in Georgievsk, according to which Russia took Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its territorial integrity and border security.
Turkey did not want to put up with the loss of the Crimea and undivided dominance on the Black Sea, the waters of which were already plying the warships of the Russian fleet, the base of which was Sevastopol. In June 1787, in an ultimatum, she demanded that Russia return the Crimea, recognize Georgia as a vassal possession of Turkey and give her the right to inspect Russian merchant ships. Having been refused, the Ottoman Empire went to war.
In 1787, A. V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish landing in the Kinburn area, after which the Russian army besieged Ochakov and at the end of 1788 took it. In 1789, Suvorov won victories over the Turks at Focsani and at Rymnik, for which he received the title of Count of Rymnik. On December 11, 1790, his troops stormed Izmail, the most powerful fortress in the world; the way to Istanbul was opened for them. The actions of the young Black Sea Fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, were successful. In 1790, he defeated the Turkish fleet in Kerch Strait and at the fort Hajibey. The following year, Ushakov won another victory - at Cape Kaliakria near the Bulgarian city of Varna. In 1791, peace was signed between Turkey and Russia in Iasi. The border was established along the Dniester. Huge lands of the Azov-Black Sea coast (“Novorossiya” and Crimea) were annexed to Russia.
A huge role in the annexation of the Crimea and New Russia was played by the statesman and military leader G. A. Potemkin (1739–1791), who died shortly before the signing of the Treaty of Jassy. Potemkin was a favorite of Catherine II. His personal "favor" lasted two years, but he managed to maintain a high position at court and become an indispensable assistant to the Empress in state affairs. He always found himself where decisive action was needed. His administrative talents manifested themselves especially in the development of Novorossia, after in 1776 he was appointed governor-general of the Novorossiysk, Azov and Astrakhan provinces. On his initiative and direct participation, the Black Sea Fleet, the cities of Kherson, Nikolaev, Sevastopol, Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk) were built. G. A. Potemkin was not without flaws. His extravagance and vanity, the desire for luxury and the fear of competition from talented people (for example, A.V. Suvorov) were boundless. But despite this, Potemkin, being a statesman, subordinated his personal interests to the service of Russia. He gave her all his strength, mind, energy.
The Russian-Turkish war was complicated by the fact that in 1788-1790. Russia was forced to wage war with Sweden, which throughout the 18th century, after the Peace of Nystadt, sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War and regain dominance in the Baltic Sea. The Swedish king Gustav II, wishing to resolve controversial issues regarding Finland, treacherously attacked Russia in 1788. However, military operations for the Swedes were unsuccessful. In 1790, Russia and Sweden concluded the Treaty of Verel, which restored the status quo. Russia retained its gains made during the Great Northern War.
In the 70s of the XVIII century. During the War of Independence of the North American States with England, Russia refused to send its troops to America and issued a declaration of armed neutrality, which was supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries were under armed protection if they were attacked by the fleet of the belligerents. This forced England to abandon the blockade of the North American coast, which helped the United States to win the Revolutionary War.
The French Revolution had an impact on European countries, including Poland, where, under the influence of the ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity, on May 3, 1791, a constitution was adopted that strengthened the statehood of Poland. The constitution abolished the election of the king and the right of the "liberum veto". The third estate was admitted to elections to the Sejm, freedom of religion was introduced. The "unauthorized" change in the Polish constitution became the pretext for the second partition. He was associated with the preparation of European monarchies for intervention in France. Catherine II supported some of the magnates and gentry who created the Targovitsa confederation. They opposed the king and the Sejm, giving Russia the opportunity to intervene.
In January 1793, the second partition of Poland was carried out. Russia received the Right-bank Ukraine and central Belarus with Minsk.
After the second partition of Poland, it became practically dependent on Russia and Prussia. In Poland, as a sign of protest in March 1794, a powerful national liberation movement began, which was headed by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, one of the participants in the War of Independence in North America. The rebels managed to win a number of victories. However, the lack of a clear program among the rebels weakened the movement, and it lost supporters. Russian troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov suppressed the uprising in early November.
The uprising resulted in the third partition of Poland in October 1795. According to it, Western Belarus, Volhynia, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland were ceded to Russia. The Commonwealth after this section ceased to exist as an independent state.
After the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, Russia joined in an active struggle against revolutionary France. Under Catherine II, the opponents of the revolution in France received assistance through the Russian embassy. In Russia, the works of French enlighteners were banned, censorship was tightened. In 1792 diplomatic relations with France were severed, the import of French goods into Russia was stopped. In 1793, Russia concluded an agreement with England, Prussia and Austria, pledging to help them with troops and money in the fight against France. The war with Sweden (1788-1790) and the events in Poland prevented Russia from taking part in the intervention against France.
The struggle against revolutionary France became the core of the foreign policy of Paul I. Against France, a coalition was created consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples, which launched its operations in Italy, the Mediterranean Sea and Switzerland. Russian-French relations escalated even more after Napoleon captured the island of Malta, which was patronized by Paul I. In the summer of 1798, the squadron of F.F. Ushakov entered the Adriatic Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. After a two-day assault, a powerful French fortress on the island of Corfu was taken. In 1799, Russian sailors captured the port of Brindisi, landing troops landed on the Apennine Peninsula, driving the French out of Naples and Rome.
The center of allied operations on land became the French-occupied Northern Italy and Switzerland. At the head allied forces became A. V. Suvorov, who made his brilliant Italian campaign. With troops many times inferior to the enemy in numbers, he inflicted lightning strikes on him, preventing him from joining forces.
In April 1799, the Russians won a victory on the Adda River, opening the way to Milan and Turin. In 5 weeks, all of Northern Italy was liberated. This success was consolidated by victories in June 1799 on the Trebbia River and in August of the same year near the city of Novi.
Instead of moving to France and the Rhine, as Suvorov suggested, he was forced to fulfill the order of Paul I to transfer troops across the Alps to Switzerland to join the corps of General A. M. Rimsky-Korsakov, who was abandoned by the Austrian allies. It was an unprecedented transition. In September 1799, the Russians captured the Saint Gotthard Pass, defeated the French at the Devil's Bridge and broke into Switzerland, but were surrounded by superior French forces. Having lost 7 thousand people in fierce battles, Suvorov nevertheless escaped from the encirclement.
The Swiss campaign aggravated relations in the coalition and led to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Subsequently, Paul I entered into an alliance with Napoleon and severed relations with England.
As a result of the active foreign policy of Russia in the XVIII century. its geopolitical influence as a great power has increased. It had a decisive influence on the system of international relations. Achievements in the country's foreign policy were unthinkable without a powerful, modern, well-armed and well-equipped army and navy. In the XVIII century. the Russian model of the army and navy was created, where the main emphasis was on total initiative, conscious subordination, comradely attitude of higher and lower ranks. The Russian army was distinguished by high morale and patriotism. At the head of the army and navy were outstanding military leaders - P. A. Rumyantsev, A. V. Suvorov, G. A. Spiridov, F. F. Ushakov, who made a huge contribution to the development of domestic military art.
In the XVIII century. a mighty multinational empire was created. But it differed from the colonial empires of England, France, Spain, Holland, Portugal.
The Russian people were not imperial in spirit. Russians, developing new lands, settled "in stripes" with the indigenous people, peacefully coexisting with them, passing on their experience and management skills, perceiving their experience. The peoples that became part of Russia did not experience national humiliation. They were often subjected to less oppression than the Russian serfs, who constituted the majority of the population of Russia and experienced unprecedented oppression and arbitrariness of the landowners and bureaucratic bureaucracy. Russian Empire in the 18th century created through social assimilation. Ordinary workers joined the burdensome population. The top of the non-Russian peoples was part of the ruling noble Russian nobility.
The Russian state authorities did not interfere, as a rule, in the internal life and organization of small peoples. With the administrative-territorial division, the government deliberately abandoned the national principle of creating provinces, provinces, counties. All this contributed to the consolidation of the empire of the XVIII century. However, it must be said that the policy of the Russian state towards non-Russians was not always flexible, which led to manifestations of discontent or uprisings, which very often became part of all-Russian anti-state uprisings, where Russian and non-Russian peasants fought together against oppression.
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The most important task of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the XVIII century. The Polish question occupied a significant place in Russia's foreign policy activity. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the struggle against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia, the situation was relatively stable.
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774
The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.
Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were conducted on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and admirals G. A. Spiridov and I. S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.
In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgorukov captured the Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. The troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way for the main forces led by P. A. Rumyantsev to Istanbul. Turkey was forced to ask for peace.
It was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774. Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes - Novorossia, the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea and the right to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. The Russian government also won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
As a result of the successful end of the Russian-Turkish war, the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula launched a national liberation struggle against the Turkish yoke. The autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia, accepted by Russia under its protection, was restored. The development of Novorossia (southern Ukraine) began. The cities of Yekaterinoslav (1776, now Dnepropetrovsk), Kherson (1778) arose there. For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A. G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V. M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P. A. Rumyantsev - Zadanaisky. A. V. Suvorov taught a golden sword with diamonds.
Annexation of Crimea
Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return the Crimea under its rule, Russian troops in 1783 occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet. G. A. Potemkin for success in annexing the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "Prince of Tauride."
In the spring of 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court, the Polish king and European ambassadors, made a trip to Novorossia and the Crimea. In Kherson they were joined by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The trip was aimed at getting acquainted with the wealth of Novorossia and the successes of G. A. Potemkin, who was at the head of the department of the south of Russia, in its development. In addition, the guests had to make sure that Russia had a firm foot on the Black Sea. These results were achieved, although the expression "Potemkin villages", meaning excessive show-off, came into use after Catherine's trip.
Georgievsky treatise
In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (Northern Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king Erekle II and Russia on a protectorate. The Treaty of Georgievsky was signed, according to which Russia took Eastern Georgia under its protection.
Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791
In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded the return of the Crimea and opened hostilities. A. V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battle of Kinburn (near Ochakov, 1787), Fokshany and on the Rymnik River (1789). For this victory, Suvorov received the title of count and the prefix to it - "Ryminiki". In December 1788, after a long siege, G. A. Potemkin stormed the "key to the Black Sea" - Ochakovo, a Turkish fortress on the Dnieper estuary.
Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael (1790) - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A. V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: "24 hours - freedom, the first shot - already captivity, assault - death." The Turkish pasha refused: “Rather, the Danube will stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In the battle for Izmail, the student of A.V. Suvorov, the future commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself.
Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, successfully operated. After a series of brilliant victories in the Kerch Strait and at the Gadzhibey fort, the Black Sea became free for the Russian fleet. In the battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed. Turkey turned to Russia with a proposal to make peace.
In 1791 peace was signed in the city of Iasi. According to the Yassy peace treaty, Turkey recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester became part of Russia. Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean were expanding. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.
Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790
At the end of the 80s of the XVIII century. Russia had to simultaneously conduct military operations on two fronts. In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost in the Great Northern War. Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main Russian armies fought in the south against Turkey. The offensive of the Swedes on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying success. In 1790, the Treaty of Verel was signed in a Finnish village on the Kymmene River, which retained the former borders.
Education USA and Russia
One of the significant international events of the third quarter of the XVIII century. was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - bourgeois revolution leading to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This caused England to abandon attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
Partitions of Poland
In the last third of the XVIII century. The Polish question has become one of the central issues in the field of international relations in Europe. The Commonwealth was going through a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the self-serving, anti-national policy of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse. The cruel feudal oppression and the policy of national oppression of the peoples that were part of the Commonwealth became a brake on the further development of the country. Peasant farms were brought to ruin.
The central government in Poland was weak. The Polish king was elected at the Sejm, where separate groups of nobility were at enmity with each other. Often, these groups, regardless of national tasks, sought help abroad. The principle of “liberum veto” (the right of free prohibition) was in effect, according to which all decisions of the Sejm had to be taken unanimously (even one vote “against” frustrated the adoption of the law).
The plight of Poland was taken advantage of by its neighbors: the monarchs of Prussia, Austria and Russia. Russia acted under the pretext of liberating the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which experienced the most cruel oppression from the Polish feudal lords.
The reason for intervention in the affairs of Poland, where the dominant religion was Catholicism, was the question of the situation of non-Catholic Christians. The Russian government agreed with the Polish king on the equalization of the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox population. The most reactionary part of the Polish gentry, instigated by the Vatican, opposed this decision. The government of Catherine II sent troops to Poland to suppress the uprising of the gentry group. At the same time, Prussia and Austria occupied part of the Polish lands. The Prussian King Frederick II initiated the partition of Poland. Catherine II, unlike him, considered it expedient to preserve a united Poland, but under Russian influence.
In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorye. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.
The progressive part of the Polish nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie made an attempt to save the Polish state. In accordance with the Constitution of 1791, the election of the king and the right of "liberum veto" were abolished. The army was strengthened, the third estate was admitted to the Sejm, freedom of religion was introduced.
The new Polish Constitution was adopted when France was in the flames of revolution. Fearing the spread of the "revolutionary infection", and also feeling the decline of their influence in the country, the Polish magnates turned to Catherine II for help. Russian troops, followed by the Prussians, entered Poland. The old order has been restored.
In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia received Gdansk, part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers.
In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, striving to preserve the sovereignty of Poland, raised an uprising. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795, Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia. As a result of the partitions, Poland lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a century. The Polish king abdicated and moved to Russia.
The reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples with Russia was of great progressive significance. These lands have historically been linked by common economic, political and cultural life. The Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples received more favorable opportunities for their further development, they were delivered from religious oppression. Accession to Russia helped Ukrainians and Belarusians to maintain their national culture and originality. As part of united state three fraternal Slavic peoples united again - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Tsarism in the struggle against the revolution in France
In 1789 a bourgeois revolution took place in France. The rebellious people of Paris stormed the Bastille on July 14. The bourgeois system was established in the country. The French Revolution had a huge impact on the entire course of world history. The entire 19th century passed under the sign of the French Revolution.
The fear of the “French infection”, “this terrible monster” (as the nobles called the revolution in France) forced Catherine II to take the most decisive measures to help the counter-revolutionaries. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Russia severed diplomatic and trade relations with France. The distribution of the works of the French Enlightenment was forbidden. Together with England, an attempt was made to put economic pressure on France. Inside Russia, repressions against progressive people intensified. It was at this time that A. N. Radishchev was exiled to Siberia, and N. I. Novikov was arrested. In 1794, an uprising in Poland prevented Catherine II from openly speaking out against France. The events in Poland saved the French Revolution.
War with revolutionary France
Paul I continued the struggle with France, which sought to assert its dominance in Europe. In 1798-1799. followed by Napoleon's capture of Malta, the Ionian Islands and Egypt. In 1798, Russia found itself in an anti-French coalition of European powers led by England. Military operations were concentrated in Italy and the Mediterranean Sea, where the fleets of England and Russia headed.
The Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov in the fall of 1798 entered the Mediterranean through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, and then into the Adriatic, where the Ionian Islands were liberated from the French troops. F. F. Ushakov stormed the fortress on the island of Corfu - the main base of the French. The Greek population greeted the Russian sailors with enthusiasm. The following year, 1799, F.F. Ushakov liberated Naples and Rome from French troops.
The Russian land army, which acted jointly with the Austrians in Northern Italy, was headed by A. V. Suvorov. The troops under his command cleared Northern Italy of French soldiers within five weeks, triumphantly entering Milan and Turin (Italian campaign).
However, the successful actions of A.V. Suvorov were dissatisfied with the Austrian allies, who claimed Northern Italy. Paul I ordered the transfer of the troops of A.V. Suvorov to Switzerland to join the corps of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov and the Austrian army. Russian miracle heroes, led by a 70-year-old commander, accomplished an unprecedented feat. With difficult battles, especially for the St. Gotthard Pass and at the Devil's Bridge, where the French troops were defeated, the Russian army made its legendary crossing of the Alps (Swiss campaign).
Soon, due to the aggravation of contradictions within the anti-French coalition, Russia withdrew from its composition. Russian troops were withdrawn. For the victories won, the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov received the title of Prince of Italy and the highest military rank of Generalissimo. However, soon A. V. Suvorov, to whom Paul I had an acute dislike, fell into disgrace. In 1800 he died.
Results of foreign policy
In general, the foreign policy results of the second half of XVIII in. were positive for the further development of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it.
In Russia, unlike the colonial empires of Western Europe, which had overseas territories, Russian population lived side by side with the peoples attached to the empire. Joint work on the development of the country's wealth objectively contributed to the rapprochement of peoples, allowed them to survive in the vast expanses of Eurasia. The ruling stratum of the annexed lands was an organic part of the Russian ruling elite. As a rule, the state almost did not interfere in the internal structure of small peoples. The possibility of free movement across the vast territory of the country, the development of it led to the "striped" resettlement of its inhabitants. This is how a single geopolitical space was formed on the territory of Eurasia.
Topic 18. Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.
1. Russia in the system of European relations. The main directions and goals of Russia's foreign policy.
2. “Eastern Question in Russia's foreign policy. Russian-Turkish wars.
3. Russia and US education. "Declaration of Armed Neutrality".
4. Participation of Russia in the sections of the Commonwealth.
5. Russia and the events of the French Revolution.
Sources and literature
Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Historian. Document. - M.: Science. 1994.
Bokhanov A.N. “Love service to the dear Fatherland...” (Prince G.A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Russian followers. - M.: Russian word. 1999. -S. 319 - 330.
Kamensky A.B. Catherine II // Questions of history. - 1989. - No. 3. - S. 62 - 88.
Kamensky A.B. "Under the shadow of Catherine". Second half of the 18th century - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992.
Nazarov V.D. Raising the honor of the Russian flag (F.F. Ushakov) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Russian followers. - M.: Russian word. 1999. - S. 331 - 351.
Essays on the history of the USSR. XVIII century / Ed. B.B. Kafengauza. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1962.
Rostunov I.P. Generalissimo Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989.
In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political unions and, thanks to a strong army, has significant influence in them.
Russian diplomacy, which previously had to deal with permanent allies and adversaries, by this time had learned to maneuver in difficult relationship European powers. The ideal of state interests was associated with the spread of the ideas of rationalism to the field of foreign policy. The influence of foreign officers is falling. In their place come Russian officers and generals. Russian army increasingly becoming national. Who was at the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry in the second half of the 18th century? Consider the project of the "Northern System" by N.I. Panin.
The main tasks of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century were: the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov; liberation from Polish domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification in one state of all Eastern Slavs; a certain direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy, including the struggle against revolutionary France, in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789; asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of a guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America.
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 In the 60s of the XVIII century. There is a complex political game going on in Europe. The degree of convergence of certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. The strongest contradictions in Russia were with France and Austria. Determine what they were.
The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.
Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770 under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev, in 1771 under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Chesme battle at sea under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig, a victory was also won. Track the course of hostilities in major companies by year.
Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace (1774), Russia received: access to the Black Sea; the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossia; the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea; right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. In addition, Azov and Kerch, as well as the Kuban and Kabarda, passed to Russia; The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey; Turkey paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles; The Russian government won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Crimean, A.P. Rumyantsev - Zadanaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a golden sword with diamonds.
Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. Since 1780, Russia began to draw closer to Austria on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.
Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. When and as a result of what events did Crimea become part of Russia? What were the consequences?
Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet (1783). T.A. Potemkin for success in the annexation of the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.
In 1787, Turkey presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The second Russian-Turkish war proceeded in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia's positions in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788 - 1790 weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. Russia was supported at that time only by Austria, and even then by insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, the military talent of A.V. Suvorov was especially manifested. In 1787, he defeated the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 he took the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789 he won two convincing victories over the many times superior enemy forces at Focsanny and on the Rymnik River, for which he received the title of count Rymniksky.
Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael (1790) - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: “24 hours is freedom, the first shot is already captivity, assault is death.” The Turkish pasha refused: “The Danube will soon stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In battle, the student of A.V. Suvorov, the commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself.
Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, successfully operated. In the battle at Cape Kaliakria in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed.
According to the Iasi peace treaty (signed in Iasi), Russia received the following acquisitions: Turkey recognized the Crimea as a possession of Russia; the Dniester River became the border between the two countries; Russia included the territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester; Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean expanded. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Yekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.
Russia and the formation of the USA. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This caused England to abandon attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
At the same time, Russia participated in the colonization of North America. The movement of the Cossacks and Russian settlers in the XVI-XVII centuries. through Siberia and the Far East led in 1784 to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the emergence of “Russian America” - permanent Russian settlements in Alaska, and then in California.
Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Commonwealth led to its divisions.
According to the first section (1772) of the Commonwealth, a part of eastern Belarus went to Russia. According to the second (1793), Russia received the rest of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia. According to the third section (1795), western Belarus, western Volhynia, Lithuania, Courland were ceded to Russia.
Under the rule of the Russian emperors, almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria. Give an assessment of these contradictory events.
War with revolutionary France. A new political situation in Europe was created by the French Revolution of 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. Why did Russia support the counter-revolutionary forces of France? It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hearth of the ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France. At the same time, the aggressive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power in the country in 1799, gave the actions of the allies a liberating character.
In 1789 - 1800 Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov, he captured a number of Greek islands captured by the French. Russian landing troops entered Naples and Rome. In 1799, the offensive of the Russian army began under the command of A.V. Suvorov, acting together with the Austrian troops. The heroic transition of the Russian troops through the Alps to Switzerland ended with success. However, at this time, the contradictions between England, Austria and Russia intensified. The Russian army was returned to its homeland. Emperor Paul I began a political rapprochement with France, seeing in her an ally to fight against England. He sent Russian Cossacks to India, a former colony of England. However, his assassination in 1801 thwarted the plans of a coalition of France and Russia.
Thus, thanks to the active foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adaptation) to Europe, begun by Peter the Great. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position on the European market, similar to that of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Commonwealth. Russia remained a backward country in socio-economic terms, which made its position in the system of European civilization unstable and contradictory.