Special scientific expeditions began to be sent to Siberia only from the 18th century. But even before that, inquisitive Russian explorers collected in Siberia a lot of different information that was of great importance for science.

Thanks to the early Russian northern campaigns "for the stone" (Urals), already in the 16th century. in Western Europe, the first geographical maps based on Russian sources appeared with the image of the lower Ob. Despite the fact that Russian explorers, especially Novgorodians, began to visit these areas as early as the 11th century, nevertheless, for a long period, mainly semi-fantastic information about Siberia was disseminated in Russia itself. So, in the legend of the beginning of the XVI century. “About the unknown people in the eastern country and the tongues of the tongues” it was argued that extraordinary people live beyond the Urals: some are “without heads”, and “they have their mouths between their shoulders”, others (“linna samoyed”) - “spends all summer in the water ", others -" walk through the dungeon "1, etc. Only thanks to the subtle analysis of D. N. Anuchin, it was possible to more or less correctly determine what kind of real data underlay this semi-fantastic "Tale". 2

The rapid accumulation of quite reliable information about Siberia began from the time of the historical campaign of Yermak, and especially after the appointment of the first Siberian governors. The government obliged the "initial people" of Siberia to carefully collect information about the routes of communication, fur wealth, mineral deposits, the possibility of organizing arable farming, the number and occupations of the local population, and its relationship with neighboring peoples. The leaders of the detachments building fortified points on the newly occupied terrain were also required to draw up drawings of the area and the built prisons.

The collection of information about new lands usually began with a survey of local residents. Therefore, the campaigns, as a rule, were attended by "interpreters" - experts in local languages. Participants of the campaigns in their "arrivals", replies and petitions supplemented and clarified this information with personal observations. The governors and other local "primary people" often questioned the participants in the campaigns and wrote down their answers. This is how the “speech speeches” and “tales” of the explorers arose. The governors sent the most important documents to Moscow with their replies, in which they concisely summarized the information collected. Thus, geographical, ethnographic, economic, historical and other material was accumulated.

Rapidly advancing into the depths of Siberia, explorers were primarily interested in river routes and convenient portages between rivers. So, for example, the Cossacks who built the Yenisei prison in 1619, in the same year reported to Moscow about the unnamed “great river” (Lena), to which from Yeniseisk “it takes 2 weeks to go to the portage, and then go 2 days by portage” . 3 By the middle of the XVII century. the explorers knew literally all the major rivers of Siberia and their main tributaries, had a general idea of ​​their water regime, were well acquainted with difficult sections of the path, especially with the rapids.

Off the coast of Siberia, the Russians began to explore the sea routes early. At the end of the XVI century. they went on ships along the dangerous Gulf of Ob to the mouth of the river. Taz, and in the 30s of the XVII century. began to sail for the first time in the easternmost part of the Arctic Ocean - from the mouth of the Lena. In 1648, Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev and his companions, rounding Chukotka, were the first Europeans to cross the strait separating Asia from America.

Quite quickly, Russian explorers got an idea about the seas of the Far East. October 1 (NS - 11), 1639 I. Yu. Moskvitin and his comrades on a short voyage from the mouth of the river. Hives to the river. Hunting laid the foundation for Russian Pacific navigation, and in the navigation of 1640, having built two eight-yard kochs, the Muscovites sailed to the area of ​​the mouth of the Amur and the "Islands of the Gilyatskaya Horde" - the islands of the Sakhalin Bay, inhabited by settled Nivkhs. 4 One of the discoverers of the Kolyma, M. V. Stadukhin, significantly expanded the understanding of the Russians about the Pacific Ocean. In 1651, having passed overland from Anadyr to Penzhina, he sailed for two navigations along the northern part of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk to the Tauyskaya Bay, and then in 1657 to the river. Hunting. He was one of the first to learn from local residents about the existence of a "nose" between Anadyr and Penzhina, i.e., the Kamchatka Peninsula, 5 however, the true size of this peninsula did not become known immediately. However, already in the middle of the XVII century. in Moscow they knew that from the east the “new Siberian land” was also washed everywhere by the “Akian sea”.

During voyages in the Arctic and Pacific oceans, sailors conducted various observations. According to the outlines of the shores, they remembered the passed sea routes, followed the direction of the winds, the drift of ice, and sea currents. Even then they knew how to use a compass (“womb”) and determine the general contours of not only small, but also large peninsulas. In S. I. Dezhnev’s reply in 1655, a fairly accurate description of the location of the “Big Stone Nose” (Chukotka Peninsula) from Anadyr turned out to be quite accurate: “and that Nose lies between the siver on a midnight”, 6 i.e. in the sector between two directions - on north and northeast. "The nose will turn sharply towards the Onandyra river towards summer." 7 This phrase means that Dezhnev attributed the beginning of the Chukotka Peninsula from the south side to the Gulf of the Cross (the region of Mount Matachingai), which corresponds to the ideas

1 A. Titov. Siberia in the 17th century. Collection of old Russian articles about Siberia and adjacent lands. M., 1890, pp. 3-6.

2 D. N. Anuchin. On the history of acquaintance with Siberia before Yermak. Antiquities, vol. XIV, M., 1890, p. 229.

3 RIB, vol. II, St. Petersburg, 1875, doc. No. 121, p. 374.

4 Materials of the Department of Historical and Geographical Knowledge of the Geographical Society of the USSR, no. 1, L., 1962, pp. 64-67.

5 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Collection of documents about the great Russian geographical discoveries in the northeast of Asia in the 17th century. Comp. M. I. Belov. L.-M., 1952, p. 263.

6 DAI, vol. IV, St. Petersburg, 1851, No. 7? page 26.

7 See photocopy of document: Vestn. ASU, 1962, No. 6, ser. geologist, and geogr., vol. 1, p.

modern geographers. 8 Thus, for the first time, reliable information was obtained about the extreme northeastern part of Asia, which is closest to North America.

In the 17th century Anadyr Cossacks were the first to find out about the existence of Alaska. For them, it was the "Island of the Toothed" (Eskimos), or the "Great Land", then they did not yet know that Alaska was part of America.

Valuable information was collected in the 17th century. about the countries located south of Siberia. The earliest reports about routes from Siberia to Central and Central Asia were received from Central Asian intermediary merchants, the so-called "Bukharians", some of whom settled in Western Siberia. They also helped the Russians find their way to China, get early information about the Tibetans and even about distant India.

Quite frequent Russian embassies, in which Siberian service people took an active part, played an important role in expanding the ideas about the southern countries. So, the Tomsk Cossack Ivan Petlin, who was the first to travel to China in 1618, presented to Moscow an article list in which he described in detail the route of his journey, as well as "a drawing and painting about the Chinese region." nine

A lot of information about the peoples living south of Siberia, the Russians received from local residents. Important news about Mongolia and about new routes to China was received from the Selenga Tungus and Buryats. Russians learned from the natives of the Amur in 1643-1644. about the Manchus, and in 1652-1653. - about the Japanese (“chizhems”), whose nearest settlements at that time were in the southern part of the island of Hokkaido (“Iesso”). 10 The Cossack campaigns of 1654-1656 were of great importance for expanding the understanding of Russians about the southern peoples. on the right tributaries of the Amur - Argun, Komaru, Sungari ("Shingal") and Ussuri ("Ushur"). Through the Argun, a new shorter route to China was opened, along which the embassies of Ignatius Milovanov (1672) and Nikolai Spafariy (1675-1677) later went to Beijing.

The most detailed and rich material was accumulated in the 17th century. about the interior regions of Siberia - about the local population, fauna, flora, minerals.

When collecting yasak, servicemen were interested in the number, ethnic and tribal composition of the local population, and the location of the settlements. In addition, their messages contain rich information about social relations among local peoples, lifestyle - about taiga and river crafts, about hunting tools and vehicles, about domestic animals, about the arrangement of dwellings. All these data are still of great value to researchers, especially ethnographers.

Of the natural resources that attracted in the XVI-XVII centuries. to Siberia of Russian people, in the first place was furs (“soft junk”). In the Russian and world markets in the XVI-XVII centuries. the furs of sables, beavers, silver foxes were especially valued. Among the Russian people in Siberia there were many experienced animal experts. They knew the areas of fur-trading lands well, studied the habits of sable and other animals, mastered various methods of hunting them, knew how to process furs and were considered knowledgeable connoisseurs of its various varieties.

They also successfully hunted the sea animal - seals, seals, and later whales. But the Russians were especially interested in the walrus tusk (“fish

8 B. P. Polevoy. On the exact text of two replies by Semyon Dezhnev in 1655. Izv. USSR Academy of Sciences, ser. Geogr., 1965, No. 2, pp. 102-110.

9 N. F. Demidova, V. S. Myasnikov. The first Russian diplomats in China. M., 1966, p. 41.

10 B. P. Polevoy. Sakhalin pioneers. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 1959, p.31.

tooth"), which was valued in the XVII century. very high and was sold to some countries of the East. Therefore, when in the middle of the XVII century. rich walrus rookeries were discovered in the north-east of Siberia, Moscow immediately became interested in them.

The explorers were also connoisseurs of the Siberian fish wealth. In their messages they list a wide variety of fish. So, in November 1645, V. D. Poyarkov’s companions told in Yakutsk that in the mouth of the Amur there is not only red fish, but “both sturgeon and a big and small stick, and carp and sterlet, and catfish and stellate sturgeon.” 11 The fish riches of the rivers of the Okhotsk coast made a great impression on the Russians. “In the“ tale ”of the Cossack N.I. Kolobov, a participant in the campaign of I.Yu. Moskvitin, it was said: “... just launch a net and don’t drag it out with fish. And the river is fast, and that fish in that river quickly kills and sweeps ashore, and along its bank there is a lot that firewood, and that lying fish is eaten by a beast. 12

Among the explorers were the so-called "herbalists", who were engaged in the search and collection of plants "for medicinal compounds and vodkas." St. John's wort, "wolf root", rhubarb were in special demand.

Wherever the Siberian explorers penetrated, everywhere they were interested in minerals. 13 First of all, they began to collect information about salt springs. Detailed descriptions (XVII century) of the state-owned salt industry on the lake have come down to us. Yamysh (20s) and salt pans of E.P. Khabarov on the river. Kuta (30s). In the late 30s, salt springs were found in the Yenisei district on the tributaries of the river. Angara, Taseev and Manze. In the late 60s, salt was found near Irkutsk (Usolye). fourteen

Already from the beginning of the XVII century. ores were searched in Siberia, especially iron, copper and silver. From the 1920s, a successful search for iron ore was carried out by the Tomsk ore explorer blacksmith Fedor Yeremeev. As the Tomsk governor reported to Moscow, from the ore found by Eremeev, “was born. . . iron is good. 15 In the middle of the XVII century. "the kindest and softest" iron was smelted from ore found near Krasnoyarsk, as well as in the Yeniseisk region. The Russians found copper ore on the Yenisei and in Western Siberia.

Silver ore was most persistently searched for. The first searches were unsuccessful, but in the second half of the XVII century. rather rich deposits were found in Transbaikalia. The famous Nerchinsk factories were built here. Even then, the Russians knew that lead, and sometimes tin, was often found in the areas of silver ore deposits. The replies of the explorers also report on the search for "combustible" sulfur, saltpeter

11 TsGADA, f. Yakut order hut, op. 1, column. 43, l. 362.

12 Ibid., op. 2, column. 66, l. 1. For the full text of this "tale", see: N. N. Stepanov. The first Russian expedition on the coast of Okhotsk in the 17th century. Izv. VGO. v. 90, 1958, No. 5, pp. 446-448.

13 Review of published messages of the 17th century. about the minerals of Siberia is given in the book by A. V. Khabakov “Essays on the history of geological exploration knowledge in Russia” (part 1, M., 1950), and archival documents of the Siberian order - in the article by N. Ya. Novombergsky, L. A. Goldenberg and V.V. Tikhomirov "Materials on the history of exploration and prospecting for minerals in the Russian state of the 17th century." (in the book: Essays on the history of geological knowledge, issue 8, M., 1959. pp. 3-63).

14 F. G. S afronov. Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov. Khabarovsk, 1956, p. 13; A. N. Kopylov. Russians on the Yenisei in the 17th century. Agriculture, industry and trade relations of the Yenisei district. Novosibirsk, 1965, pp. 186-189; V. A. Alexandrov. Russian population of Siberia in the 17th-early 18th centuries. (Yenisei Territory). M., 1964, p. 248; TsGADA, joint venture, st. 113, ll. 210, 211; stlb. 344, ll. 333-336: stlb. 908, ll 117-136,371-376.

15 For more details on the activities of F. Eremeev, see: A. R. Pugachev. 1) Fedor Eremeev - the discoverer of the iron ores of Siberia. Questions of the geography of Siberia, Sat. 1, Tomsk, 1949, pp. 105-121; 2) Blacksmith Fedor Yeremeev. Tomsk, 1961.

and even oil. 16 Significant progress was made in the search for window mica. In the middle of the XVII century. mica was mined in the lower Angara region (in the upper reaches of the Taseeva and Kiyanka rivers). In the 1980s, the richest deposits of mica were discovered on the shores of Lake Baikal. At the same time, rock crystal was mined in different parts of Eastern Siberia and various “patterned stones” were collected.

Russian explorers sought to reflect their discoveries on geographical drawings. Throughout the 17th century hundreds of such drawings were created. Unfortunately, almost all of them died. But according to the few accidentally preserved drawings, and especially the “paintings” for them, it can be seen that they sometimes had a rather significant load: in addition to rivers, mountains and settlements, they often depicted “arable places”, “fishing grounds”, “black forests”, portages and even "argishnitsa" - the paths along which the "deer people" crossed with argish.

Some of the local drawings of the XVII century. were of particular value. So, in 1655, at the direction of Dezhnev, the first “Anandyr drawing” was drawn up: from the Anyui river and beyond the Kamen to the top of Anandyr, and which rivers flowed large and small, and to the sea and to the corgi where the beast crawls. 17 In 1657, Stadukhin's companions made the first drawing of the northern part of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. eighteen

Among the drafters of the drawings of the XVII century. were masters of their craft. Such, for example, was Kurbat Ivanov, the discoverer of Lake Baikal and Dezhnev's successor in the Anadyr prison, who compiled the first drawings of the upper Lena, Lake Baikal, the coast of Okhotsk and some other regions of Eastern Siberia. 19 Unfortunately, many exceptionally rich information about Siberia and neighboring peoples, collected in the 17th century, turned out to be buried in the archives and were not used by contemporaries when working on the creation of summary drawings and descriptions of Siberia. Drawing up generalizing Siberian drawings in Russia began to be engaged quite early. It is known that at the end of the XVI century. some kind of "drawing of the Siberian from Cherdyn" was created. 20 In 1598-1599 in Siberia, drawings were made that formed the basis of the Siberian part of the famous "old" drawing of the Muscovite state.

In 1626, a letter was sent from Moscow to Siberia: “Draw a drawing for the city of Tobolsk and all Siberian cities and prisons in Tobolsk.” Having received this order, the Tobolsk governor A. Khovansky immediately sent appropriate orders to all Siberian cities and prisons to the governors: “. . . ordered them to draw drawings and write on the paintings near those cities and forts, rivers and tracts. 21 How this work was carried out is not yet known. Some researchers believe that the Painting of Siberian Cities and Ostrog, compiled in 1633, may have been an appendix to such a general drawing of the entire then known part of Siberia. 22

Siberia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean was first depicted in a drawing of 1667. In the absence of local drawings of many regions of Siberia, the Tobolsk governor P. I. Godunov organized a survey of “all kinds of ranks” of experienced people. After summarizing this information, a “drawing of all Siberia” was created and a drawing list was drawn up for it. An analysis of the painting suggests that the "drawing of all Siberia" was made in the form of a kind of atlas, in which all the details were already reflected in the special route drawings of rivers and routes. On 23 November 26, 1667, the "drawing of all Siberia" was sent to Moscow. 24 And in February 1668, based on this drawing, the painter Stanislav Loputsky made another drawing of Siberia in Moscow. 25 In the summer of 1673, under the governor I. B. Repnin, new cartographic work was carried out in Tobolsk: a new drawing of Siberia and a Tobolsk version of the drawing of the entire Muscovite state were drawn up. 26

In the further refinement of the general drawings of Siberia, an important role was played by the head of the Russian embassy in China, N. G. Spafariy, who was instructed by the government "from Tobolsk on the road to the frontier Chinese city to depict all the lands, cities and the path in the drawing" and draw up a detailed description of Siberia. 27 In 1677, Spafariy handed over to the Posolsky Prikaz “The book, and in it is written the journey of the kingdom of Siberia from the city of Tobolsk and to the very border of China”. 28 In this detailed work, the main rivers of Siberia - the Irtysh and the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena - are described in particular detail. In addition, a separate description of the Amur was added to the description of China compiled by Spafarius (one of its variants is widely known as the “Legend of the great Amur River”). 29 At the same time, a new drawing of Siberia was submitted to the Posolsky Prikaz.,

Censuses of the population and lands, the so-called "watches", played an important role in the development of Siberian cartography. During the widest "watch" of the early 80s of the XVII century. many local drawings were created, on the basis of which, after 3-4 years, new revised drawings of the whole of Siberia were compiled.

By the mid-80s of the XVII century. also applies to the appearance of a new detailed geographical essay on Siberia - “Descriptions of the new land of the Siberian state, at which time and by what chance it fell for the Muscovite state and what is the position of that land.” 30 In Stockholm, in the papers of I. Sparvenfeld, the Swedish ambassador to Russia in 1684-1687, a copy of this "Description" and an unfinished copy of the Great Drawing of Asia, which clearly reflected the content of the "Description", were recently found. 31 Therefore, there is reason to believe that the noted "Description" was created in the form of a literary supplement to some new drawing of Siberia instead of the traditional "painting".

16 See: DAI, vol. 10, p. 327.

17 Russian Arctic expeditions of the 17th-20th centuries. Questions of the history of the study and development of the Arctic, L., 1964, p. 139X

18 DAI, vol. 4, 1851, doc. No. 47, p. 120, 121.

19 B P Field. Kurbat Ivanov - the first cartographer of Lena, Baikal and the Okhotsk coast (1640-1645). Izv. VGO, vol. 92. 1960, No. 1, pp. 46-52.

20 CHOIDR, 1894, book. 3, mixture, page 16.

21 RIB, vol. VIII, 1884, column. 410-412.

22 Yu A Limonov. "Painting" of the first general drawing of Siberia (dating experience). Problems of source study, VIII, M., 1959, pp. 343-360. The text of the "painting" see: A. Titov. Siberia in the 17th century, pp. 9-22.

23 See for more details: B.P. Polevoy. Hypothesis about the "Godunovsky" atlas of Siberia in 1667. Izv. USSR Academy of Sciences, ser. Geogr., 1966, No. 4, pp. 123-132.

24 TsGADA, joint venture, st. 811, l. 97.

25 This was first reported by G. A. Boguslavsky in a report to the Geographical Society of the USSR on December 14, 1959.

26 See: Book of the Big Drawing. Preparation for publication and editing by K. N. Serbina. M.-L., 1950, pp. 184-188.

27 Journey through Siberia from Tobolsk to Nerchinsk and the borders of China by the Russian envoy Nikolai Spafari in 1675. Travel diary of Spafari with an introduction and notes by Yu. V. Arseniev. Zap. Russian Geographical Society on dep. these., 1882, vol. X, no. 1, App., p. 152.

28 Ibid., pp. 1-214. For the most detailed analysis of the geographical works of N. G. Spafaria, see: D. M. Lebedev. Geography in Russia in the 17th century (pre-Petrine era). Essays on the history of geographical knowledge. M.-L., 1949, pp. 127-164.

29 A. Titov. Siberia in the 17th century, pp. 107-113.

30 Ibid., pp. 55-100. A more accurate text was reproduced in 1907 in the collection Siberian Chronicles.

31 For a description of the Swedish copy, see: S. D a h 1. Codex ad 10 der Västeräser Gymnasial Bibliothek. Uppsala, 1949, pp. 62-69. The unfinished drawing is reproduced in the article: L. S. Bagrow. Sparwenfeltdt "s maps of Siberia-Imago Mundi, vol. IV, Stockholm, 1954.

The discovery abroad of several drawings of Siberia shows what great interest foreigners showed to it. In the 17th century in Western Europe, a number of works with information about Siberia appeared. Their most complete review is given by Academician MP Alekseev. 32 In the reports of foreigners, most often, reliable interspersed with conjectures. The most truthful writings belonged to the pen of those who themselves visited Siberia. The "History of Siberia" by Yuri Krizhanich (1680), 33 who lived for 15 years in exile in Tobolsk, is especially informative. There, Krizhanich met with many Siberian explorers, which allowed him to collect reliable information about Siberia. Krizhanich, in particular, notes, based on data from Russian campaigns in the mid-17th century, that the Arctic and Pacific oceans are “not separated from each other by anything”, but through navigation through them is impossible due to the accumulation of ice. 34

Of all the works on Siberia that appeared abroad in the 17th century, the most valuable was the book “On Northern and Eastern Tataria” by the Dutch geographer N.K. Witsen (1692). 35 In 1665 its author was in Moscow as a member of the Dutch embassy. Since then, Witsen began to collect various news about the eastern outskirts of Russia. He was especially interested in Siberia. Witsen, through his Russian correspondents, managed to collect a rich collection of various writings about Siberia. Among the materials he used were a drawing of Siberia in 1667 and its painting, a painting of a drawing of Siberia in 1673, an essay on Siberia by Krizhanich, “Description of the new land of the Siberian state”, “The Legend of the Amur River”, etc. In addition, Witsen had such Russian sources, the originals of which are not yet known.

Witsen was also the compiler of several drawings of "Tataria" (Siberia with neighboring countries). Of these, his large map "1687" is the most famous. (actually it was published in 1689-1691). 36 Witsen's map contains many blunders, and yet, for its time, its publication was a great event. In essence, this was the first map in Western Europe, which reflected reliable Russian news about the whole of Siberia.

In 1692, a new Russian ambassador traveled through Siberia to China, the Dane Izbrand Idee. He carried Witsen's map with him. Along the way, Idee made the necessary corrections and later made his own drawing of Siberia, which, however, also turned out to be very inaccurate. 37 It became obvious that the very system of compiling geographical drawings of Siberia should be changed.

Since the most detailed drawings of the voivodships could only be drawn up on the ground, on January 10, 1696, in the Siberian order, it was decided “to send letters from the great sovereigns to all Siberian cities, to order Siberian cities and counties. . . write drawings on canvas. . . And in Tobolsk, order the good and skillful master to make drawings

32 M. P. Alekseev. Siberia in the news of Western European travelers and writers, vols. 1, 2. Irkutsk, 1932-1936. (Second edition: Irkutsk, 1940).

34 Ibid., p. 215.

35 N. K. Witsen. Noord en oost Tartarye. Amsterdam, 1692. (The second revised edition appeared in 1705, the third in 1785).

36 In the USSR, a copy of this map is kept in the Cartography Department of the State Public Library. G. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Leningrad). A life size copy of the map was reproduced in Remarkable maps of the XVth, XVIth und XVIIth centuries, reproduced in the original size (vol. 4, Amsterdam, 1897). A reduced copy of the map is available in the Atlas of Geographical Discoveries in Siberia and North-West America of the 17th-18th centuries (M., 1964, No. 33).

37 Ides' map was printed in his Dreijaarige Reise naar China te Lande gedaen door den moscovitischen Abgesant E. Isbrants Ides (Amsterdam, 1704).

throughout Siberia and sign below, from which city to which how many versts or days go, and determine the counties for each city and describe in which place which peoples roam and live, also from which side to border places what people approached. 38 The "verdict" set the size for the "city" (county) drawings 3X2 arshin and for the drawing of all Siberia 4X3 arshin.

Work on the drawing up of drawings was started everywhere in the same 1696. In Yeniseisk, they were carried out in 1696-1697; a letter “on drawing up a drawing for the Irkutsk district” was received in Irkutsk on November 2, 1696, and the finished drawing was sent to Moscow on May 28, 1697. 39 “The Irkutsk drawing to the Kudinskaya settlement. . . by government decree. . . wrote ”Yenisei icon painter Maxim Grigoriev Ikonnik. 40 In Tobolsk, drawing work was entrusted to S. U. Remezov, who, long before 1696, “wrote many drawings according to letters of attorney to Tobolsk, settlements and Siberian cities in different years.” 41

In order to draw up his own drawing of Siberia, S. U. Remezov personally traveled in 1696-1697. many regions of Western Siberia. By the autumn of 1697, Remezov compiled a wall “drawing of a part of Siberia” and an additional “chorographic drawing book” - a unique atlas of Siberian rivers. 42 The “drawing of a part of Siberia” drawn up in this form was highly appreciated in Moscow.

In the autumn of 1698, during his stay in Moscow, Remezov created two general drawings of the whole of Siberia, one on white Chinese paper, the other on polished calico, 6X4 arshin in size. Remezov performed this work with his son Semyon. They made copies of eighteen drawings sent to the Siberian Prikaz from various Siberian cities. Then they made a “reversed” drawing on a white Chinese paper measuring 4X2 arshin and another 6X4 arshin on glossy paper for the king. Copies from city drawings and a copy from the "reversed" general drawing of Siberia Remezov took with him to Tobolsk when he left there in December 1698. 43 This time Remezov was ordered to compile in Tobolsk a book of drawings of all Siberian cities ("Drawing book") ), having previously made a number of new drawings. Remezov carried out this work with his sons Semyon, Leonty and Ivan and finished it in the autumn of 1701. The drawing book of Siberia in 1701, made on 24 sheets of Alexandrian paper, had a preface (“Scripture to the affectionate reader”) and 23 geographical drawings, most of which were "urban" blueprints. 44

38 PSZ, vol. III, no. 1532, p. 217.

39 A. I. Andreev. Essays on the source study of Siberia, no. 1. XVII century. M-L., 1960, p. 99.

40 TsGADA, joint venture, st. 1352, l. 73a.

41 A. N. Kopylov. To the biography of S. U. Remezov. Historical archive, 1961, No. 6, p. 237. Recently, the names of a number of drawings made by S. U. Remezov back in the 80s of the 17th century have been established. (see: L. A. Goldenberg. Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov. M., 1965, pp. 29-33).

42 S. U. Remesov. Atlas of Siberia, facsim. ed., with an introduction by L. Bagrow (Imago Mundi. Suppl. I). s "Gravenhage, 1958. The Tobolsk draft of this atlas, supplemented later by several more drawings, was first published only in 1958. L. S. Bagrov believed that S. U. Remezov by "chorography" meant chorography (description of land), and that is why he called this atlas the “Chorographic Book.” Most researchers have adopted this name.

43 A. I. Andreev. Essays on the source study of Siberia, no. 1, p. 111.

44 Drawing book of Siberia, compiled by the Tobolsk boyar son Semyon Remezov in 1701. SPb., 1882. On the drawing book, see: L. A. Goldenberg. Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, pp. 96-99, and also: B.P. Polevoy. On the original "Drawing Book of Siberia" by S. U. Remezov, 1701. Refutation of the version of the "Rumyantsev copy". Report Inst. geographer. Siberia and the Far East, 1964, no. 7. pp. 65-71.

The Remezovs left behind another valuable monument of cartography of the 17th-early 18th centuries. - "Service drawing book". This collection of drawings and manuscripts includes copies of "city" drawings of 1696-1699, early drawings of Kamchatka in 1700-1713. and other drawings of the end of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII century. 45

Numerous drawings of the Remezovs have always amazed researchers with the abundance of the most diverse information about Siberia. Until now, not only historians, but also geographers, ethnographers, archaeologists and linguists, especially toponymists, are keenly interested in these drawings. And yet, at the beginning of the XVIII century. Remezozy's cartography was already "yesterday in the development of science." 46 Their drawings had no mathematical basis and often reflected inaccurate or misunderstood information from the 17th century. At the beginning of the XVIII century. state interests required the compilation of accurate geographical maps, made not by "iconists" or "isographers", but by specially trained surveyors. In the second decade of the XVIII century. in Western Siberia, successful shooting was carried out by Petr Chichagov and Ivan Zakharov, 47 in Eastern Siberia - Fedor Molchanov. In the Far East and the Pacific Ocean, surveyors Ivan Evreinov and Fedor Luzhin took up the compilation of the first maps on a mathematical basis. 48

Russian explorers began to penetrate Kamchatka from the middle of the 17th century, but only as a result of the historical campaign of V.V. Atlasov in 1697-1699. they got a real idea of ​​the commercial wealth of this peninsula and established how far it extends into the ocean.

Atlasov brought from Kamchatka the Japanese Denbey, brought there by a storm, from whom new information about Japan was received in Russia.

An important role in obtaining the first detailed information about the Kuril Islands was played by IP Kozyrevsky, who led the first two Russian voyages to these islands (1711 and 1713). The need to compensate for the depleted commercial reserves of Siberia prompted the government of Peter I to organize more and more search expeditions in the Far East.

In 1716-1719. here under the leadership of the Yakut governor. A. Yelchin was preparing a large sea expedition, the so-called Great Kamchatka detachment. The road from Yakutsk to Okhotsk was improved, sea routes were explored, information about Kamchatka and the Kuriles was systematized. The expedition of the Great Kamchatka outfit did not take place, but the maps of Kamchatka and the information collected by Yelchin were submitted to the Senate and used in the preparation and implementation of the expeditions of Evreinov and Luzhin, as well as the famous Kamchatka expeditions of the second quarter of the 18th century. 49

Sending geodesists I. M. Evreinov and F. F. Luzhin from St. Petersburg to the Far East, Peter I himself “tested” their knowledge and instructed them to describe Kamchatka with the waters and lands adjacent to it and “correctly put everything on the map.” At the same time, surveyors were specifically instructed to establish whether "America has converged with Asia."

Evreinov and Luzhin arrived in Kamchatka in September 1719, and in 1720-1721. traveled along the western shores of Kamchatka and the Kuril chain. Evreinov's map and report are the main

45 RO GPB, Hermitage Collection, No. 237.

46 L. A. Goldenberg. Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, p. 198.

47 E. A. K nyazhetska. The first Russian filming of Western Siberia. Izv. VGO, 1966, no. 4, pp. 333-340.

48 O. A. Evteev. The first Russian surveyors in the Pacific Ocean. M., 1950.

49 V. I. Grekov. Essays from the history of Russian geographical research in 1725-1765. M., 1960, pp. 9-12.

outcome of this expedition. The map covers Siberia from Tobolsk to Kamchatka and has a degree grid. For the first time, the characteristic features of the outlines of Kamchatka are quite correctly conveyed on it and the southwestern direction of the Kuril Islands is correctly shown. The report was an explanatory catalog to the map.

Surveyors, of course, did not find America near Kamchatka. But Peter I (not without the influence of Western European cartography) continued to believe that the closest route from Asia to America was from the Kamchatka Peninsula. Western European cartographers depicted the “northern land” (“Terra borealis”) stretching from North America towards Kamchatka. Sometimes she was depicted connected to America, sometimes separated by the "Strait of Anian". On the map of Kamchatka, published by the Nuremberg cartographer I. B. Roman in 1722, the end of this land was shown near the eastern coast of the peninsula. Peter I believed in the real existence of this mythical land and in 1724 decided to instruct Vitus Bering to explore the sea route from Kamchatka to America along this “land that goes to the north”, and at the same time find out where “that land is. . . aligned with America." 50 This is how the idea of ​​organizing Bering's First Kamchatka Expedition arose. 51

During the years of Peter's reforms, interest in the ethnography of Siberia also increased markedly. S. U. Remezov played a big role in this. He wrote a number of ethnographic works and compiled the first ethnographic map of Siberia. But the most valuable ethnographic work of this period was "A Brief Description of the Ostyak People", written in 1715 by Grigory Novitsky, a pupil of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, exiled to Tobolsk. 52 The retelling of this work was repeatedly published abroad. 53

Along with geographical surveys in the first quarter of the XVIII century. a scientific expeditionary survey of the interior regions of Siberia begins. In 1719 Dr. Daniil Gottlieb Messerschmidt was sent to Siberia under a contract for 7 years. The range of issues that he was supposed to deal with included: a description of the Siberian peoples and the study of their languages, the study of geography, natural history, medicine, ancient monuments and "other sights" of the region.

Messerschmidt visited many areas of Western and Eastern Siberia in the basins of the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena and Lake. Baikal. Especially difficult and productive was his journey, which began in 1723 from Turukhansk to the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska, then to the Lena, Baikal, then through Nerchinsk, the Argun plant and the Mongolian steppes to the lake. Dalaynor.

The scientist collected huge natural-historical and ethnographic collections, cartographic materials, made numerous philological records (in particular, in the Mongolian and Tangut languages), carried out a large number of geodetic calculations. The collections brought by Messerschmidt to St. Petersburg in 1727 received a very high appraisal from the selection committee. 54 The works of Messerschmidt himself (description of collections and diaries) were not published at that time, but were used by many scientists of the 18th century - G. Steller, I. Gmelin, G. Miller, P. Pallas and others. (Recognizing their great scientific value, the Academy of Sciences of the GDR and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1962 began joint publication of Messerschmidt's Siberian diaries). 55

The Swede F. I. Tabbert (Stralenberg) actively contributed to the dissemination of new reliable information about Siberia in Western Europe. 56 Being in Siberia for 11 years (1711-1722) as a captive officer, he studied the ethnography of the region, was engaged in cartography, and also took an active part in Messerschmidt's expedition to Western Siberia in 1721-1722. as his closest assistant and artist. Stralenberg later published in Stockholm (1730) in German the book Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia, 57 as well as a map of Siberia. In his book, he gave a lot of information on the ethnography and history of Siberia, and his map, among the maps of Siberia published abroad, was the first on which the location of some cities was given on the basis of astronomical observations.

Thus, in the first quarter of the XVIII century. a significant shift took place in the study of Siberia: a transition began from the accumulation of empirical knowledge to truly scientific research.

50 For more details, see: From Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. M., 1967, pp. 111-120.

51 The history of Bering's Kamchatka expeditions is set out on pp. 343-347.

53 I. V. Miller. Leben und Gewohnheiten der Ostiaken, eines Volskes, das bis unter dem Polo Arctico wohnet ... Berlin, 1720. For a French translation, see Recueil de voyages au Nord, t. VIII, Amsterdam, 1727, pp. 373-429.

54 V. I. Grekov. Essays from the history of Russian geographical research..., p. 16; M. G. Novlyanskaya. The first scientific study of the Lower Tunguska River. Mater, dep. History of the Geographer, Knowledge, vol. 1, L., 1962, pp. 42-63.

yn boyarsky Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, cartographer, historian and ethnographer, can rightfully be considered the first explorer of the Trans-Urals. Traveling on behalf of the Tobolsk authorities to collect dues in the central part of the West Siberian Plain and some other regions of the eastern slope of the Urals, that is, being, in his words, in "parcels", he created a scheme for studying these territories, which was later implemented in an expanded form during the work of the Academic detachments of the Great Northern Expedition.

At first (since 1682 - the first "premise") the description of the places visited was a secondary matter for S. Remezov. But since 1696, when he spent half a year as part of a military detachment (April - September) in the "waterless and impassable [hard-to-pass] stone steppe" beyond the river. Ishim, this occupation has become the main one. In the winter of 1696/97, with two assistants, he completed a survey of the Tobol basin (426 thousand km²). He drew the main river from the mouth to the top (1591 km), photographed its large tributaries (from 600 to 1030 km long) - the Tura, Tavda, Iset and a number of rivers flowing into them, including the Miass and Pyshma.

The cartographic image was also received by the river. Irtysh from the confluence of the Ob to the mouth of the river. Tara (about 1000 km) and its three tributaries, including the river. Ishim almost to the source (length 2450 km).

In 1701, Remezov finished compiling the "Drawing Book of Siberia" - a summary of geographical materials of the 17th century collected by many Russian knowledgeable people, including merchants and ambassadors, immediately before the era of Peter I. The "Drawing Book" played a huge role not only in history Russian, but also world cartography.

a special place in the history of the Russian state and science is occupied by the era of Peter I - the period of overcoming the economic and cultural backwardness of Russia. The tsar was clearly aware that knowledge of the geography of the country and adjacent territories was indispensable for solving political and economic problems. He considered the compilation of general, that is, general maps, to be one of the priority measures. And the graduates of the School of Navigation and the Naval Academy created by Peter began the first instrumental surveys of Russia. At the initiative of Peter I, the scientific expeditionary method of research began to be applied in Russia for the first time.

A geodesist became a pioneer of survey work in Siberia Petr Chichagov, who graduated in 1719 from the Naval Academy. Large (more than 100 people) military detachment led by a captain Andrey Urezov, from the mouth of the Irtysh on light ships rose with shooting to Lake Zaisan (August 21). Along the main river they went by oars, towline or under sail; 24 relatively large tributaries were examined by boats at a distance of 100–150 km. At the mouth of the river Uby, according to A. Urezov, is the western border of Altai - this also corresponds to our ideas. Then the detachment reached the mouth of the river. Kaba (near 86 ° E) and on September 3 returned to the lake, and on October 15 arrived in Tobolsk. The result of the work of P. Chichagov was the first map of the river. Irtysh for over 2000 km and, therefore, the first map of Western Siberia based on astronomical definitions.

In early May 1721, P. Chichagov was again sent to Western Siberia to continue surveying the basin of the river. Obi. It has not yet been established whether he had assistants and what was the size of his detachment. For three years - up to 1724 - P. Chichagov described the course of the main river from approximately 60 ° N. sh. to the mouth and its tributaries, including on the right the Vakh, Agan, Nazim, Kunovat, Poluy (on his map - the Obdorskaya River), on the left Vasyugan, Bolshoy Yugan and Bolshoi Salym.

Of the tributaries of the Irtysh, which were not studied in 1719, the Ishim was mapped 200 km from the mouth. He examined the Tobol system in great detail. In the south of the Baraba lowland, P. Chichagov photographed many lakes, among them Chany (near 55 ° N) with brackish water, as well as numerous swamps.

In 1727, he compiled a map of the Ob basin based on astronomical determinations of 1302 points; it is included in the atlas of I. K. Kirilov. The territory north of 62° N. sh., Drained pp. Nadym, Pur and Taz, as well as the Ob and Taz bays are depicted according to interrogation data - P. Chichagov did not shoot in these places.

In 1725–1730 he continued filming in the basin of the upper Ob, putting it on the map for 1000 km. Thus, the total length of the Ob current photographed by him was 3000 km. Above the mouth of the Chumysh, which flows out of the mountains (Salairsky Ridge), the course of the Ob, supposedly originating from Lake Teletskoye, was apparently plotted according to inquiries. In fact, the river follows from it. Biya, the right component of the Ob. Absence on the map Katun, the left component, and the Ob knee near 52° N. sh. allows us to conclude that P. Chichagov did not reach Lake Teletskoye. South of the characteristic column of the Ob near 54° N. sh. P. Chichagov showed the Kalmyk steppe (the Kulunda steppe and the Ob plateau of our maps). North of the river Chumysh he mapped many right tributaries of the Ob, including Inya, Tom, Chulym, Ket and Tym.

In the same years (1725–1730), P. Chichagov completed the first survey of the Yenisei basin: he filmed 2500 km of the main river from the confluence of the river. Oya near 53° N. sh. to the mouth. Upper Yenisei south of 53° N. sh. (up to 51 °) he inflicted but on inquiries. He continued surveying to the north and east, for the first time putting on the map 500 km of the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula to the mouth of the Pyasina - now this area is called the Petr Chichagov Coast. An inventory of the left tributaries of the Yenisei, including pp. Sym, Elogui and Turukhan, he completed the mapping of the territory of more than 2 million km², which is part of the West Siberian Plain, and clearly established that its eastern border is the Yenisei, the right bank of which is mountainous. True, he erroneously showed the bifurcation of the Taz and Yeloguy - in reality, the sources of the two tributaries of these rivers are nearby.

P. Chichagov completed the first surveys of the Minusinsk Basin, the Eastern Sayan and the Central Siberian Plateau, mapping the lower reaches of the Abakan, the left tributary of the Yenisei, a number of its right tributaries, including the Oyu, Tuba, Manu and Kan, as well as the Angara (filmed on 500 km above the mouth) with Taseeva and its components Chuna and Biryusa. More northern tributaries were examined by him only in the lower reaches - this is eloquently evidenced by their configuration. At 68° N. sh. P. Chichagov correctly showed the Norilsk Stone (Putorana Plateau), from which pp. Pyasina and Khatanga, as well as a number of tributaries of the Yenisei; all of them are applied by inquiries. The map of the Yenisei basin, based on 648 astronomical points, was completed by P. Chichagov in early August 1730. It was used in compiling a number of general maps of Russia until 1745 (Atlas of the Russian Empire). In 1735–1736 P. Chichagov took part in the expedition of I. K. Kirilov.

a white spot in the first quarter of the 18th century. represented the basin of the upper Yenisei, considered "disputed lands" between Russia and China. To map this mountainous country, located in the very center of Asia, Now it is the territory of the Tuva Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the Khubsugul aimag of the MPR surveyors were sent Alexey Kushelev and Mikhail Zinoviev included in the embassy to China of the Russian diplomat Savva Lukich Raguzinsky-Vladislavich. In 1727, surveyors completed survey work: they mapped the upper reaches of the Yenisei, formed, according to their data, from the confluence of the Biy-Khem (right component) and Ka-Khem (left component, called by them "Shishkit"), for the first time correctly deciding the question of its origins.

The system of Biy-Khem, traced for more than 400 km from the source of the lake, In fact, the river originates 30 km to the northeast from Topographov Peak (3044 m) and passes through the lake. depicted correctly; photographed its large tributaries Azas, flowing through Lake Tot (Todzha), and Khamsara. The sources of Ka-Khem are correctly shown to the west of Lake Kosogol (Khubsugul), for the first time quite accurately - with a slight exaggeration - mapped. The length of Ka-Khem before the confluence with Biy-Khem according to their map practically corresponds to modern data (563 km). In the interfluve of the components of the upper Yenisei near 52 ° N. sh. surveyors traced the ridge, stretching for 350 km in the latitudinal direction (the ridge of Akademik Obruchev). From the left tributaries of the upper Yenisei, they filmed the Khemchik, Kantegir and Abakan, and from the right - Oya and Tuba. As a result of the work of A. Kushelev, M. Zinoviev and P. Chichagov, the entire Yenisei (about 4.1 thousand km), from its sources to its mouth, was put on the map for the first time.

Raguzinsky-Vladislavich, who was preparing an agreement with China on the Russian-Chinese delimitation, sent four surveyors to Transbaikalia - Peter Skobeltsyn, Vasily Shetilov, Ivan Svistunov and Dmitry Baskakov(it has not yet been established which parts of the region were filmed by each of them). By 1727, they mapped the middle and upper Argun with the tributaries Gazimur and Uryumkan, the entire course of the Shilka and its components, the Onon and Ingoda. Of the tributaries of the Ingoda, pp. Chita and Nercha. Thus, surveyors have studied, though far from completely, the systems of both components of the Amur. They also photographed the drainless lake Tarei (Zun-Torey, at 50 ° N and 116 ° E) from the river flowing into it. Uldzoy. 160 versts southwest of Tareus, they struck Lake Dalaynor and the Kerulen flowing through it with a tributary of the Hailar. Obviously, during the survey period, the water content of the Kerulen was increased, due to which the flow to the Argun appeared. Such cases are observed in our time. In the upper reaches, located on the territory of the PRC, the Argun is called Hailar; in rainy years, the river has a connection with Dalainor, whose area in the 20th century. increased significantly - to almost 1100 km². From the rivers of the Selenga system, the Khilok (almost two times shorter) with the Uda tributary was photographed.

from the "tales" of the first Russian explorers and the data of archaeological research of the XX century. we can conclude that in the middle of the XVII century. on the territory of the Amur region there was no developed agricultural and pastoral sedentary culture. The population of the region was very weak: Russian fur traders and merchants, Cossacks and tramps - some in search of furs, others - freedom and peace - went there for a short or longer time, and a few settled permanently. The Moscow authorities, worried about the possibility of an invasion by the Manchus, rightly considered such a rate of settlement to be completely insufficient. In order to identify new "arable places" and accelerate the economic development of the region, Moscow sent a letter to Nerchinsk with instructions to examine and describe in detail the Zeya valley and its tributary Selemdzha.

This work was entrusted to the Cossack foreman Ignatius Mikhailovich Milovanov, from the 50s. who served in Transbaikalia. He set off from Nerchinsk in April 1681, examined the western outskirts of the Zeya-Bureya plain with forest-steppe landscapes, and recommended this virgin lands, now sometimes called "Amur prairies", for arable land. “And from the Zeya and from the Amur beyond the meadows below the Tom-river [Tom] the elani [virgin lands] are strong, big…”.

I. Milovanov also explored the southern part of the Amur-Zeya plateau, overgrown with larch and pine forests, birch and shrub oak: "... and along the Zeya and Selinba [Selemdzha] ... there is a lot of forest, you can melt [raft] on water." At the beginning of 1682, he completed an inventory of the "Zeya land", drew up its drawing and strengthened the prisons built earlier by the Russians. At the confluence of the Zeya into the Amur - on the Zeya Spit - he chose a place to lay the city. However, only in 1856 a military post arose here, which became the city of Blagoveshchensk two years later - upon the conclusion of the Aigun Treaty, which served as an impetus for the mass movement of Russian settlers in the Amur region.

Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt, doctor of medicine, a native of the city of Danzig (Gdansk), in 1716 was invited to Russia by Peter I to study "all three kingdoms of nature" in Siberia. In 1720, he went on the first government scientific expedition "to find all sorts of rarities and pharmaceutical things: herbs, flowers, roots and seeds."

In March 1721, from Tobolsk, he rode on a sleigh up the Irtysh to the mouth of the Tara and noted that the entire area he had traveled was "a continuous plain covered with forest." Quotations here and further from the work of D. Messerschmidt “Scientific Journey through Siberia. 1720-1727". Parts I–III and V, published in Berlin 1962–1977. On him. lang. He correctly pointed out that the city of Tara lies on a hill - indeed, there is a somewhat elevated northwestern edge of the Baraba steppe. D. Messerschmidt crossed it at approximately 56°N. sh. and, crossing the Ob, reached Tomsk. He described Baraba as a large plain with small lakes and swamps; near the Ob appeared "small hills, which cannot be found either in the middle or at the beginning of Baraba."

In July, on three skiffs, D. Messerschmidt climbed up the Tom, tracing almost its entire course, and found a mammoth skeleton in one of the coastal outcrops. Through the Kuznetsk Alatau and the northern part of the Abakan Range on horseback, he reached the river. Abakan (September 1721) and went to Krasnoyarsk (early 1722).

The result of the work in 1722 was the first study of the Kuznetsk Alatau and the Minusinsk depression. D. Messerschmidt described it as a pure steppe, hilly to the south and southwest, mountainous in some places, with a large number of small lakes, mounds and burial grounds. He discovered there the writing of the Khakass of the 7th-18th centuries. and the first to carry out archaeological excavations of a number of kurgans of the region.

In the summer of 1723, D. Messerschmidt sailed down the Yenisei to Turukhansk and ascended the Lower Tunguska to its upper reaches (near 58°N). He described the rapids, rapids (shivers), noted the mouths of 56 tributaries, determined the geographical latitude of 40 points and characterized the banks of the river for more than 2700 km, highlighting three sections.

On the latitudinal segment to the mouth of the river. Ilimpei Lower Tunguska flows among the rocks covered with forest (southern end of the Syverma plateau). On the meridional segment (up to approximately 60 ° N), both banks first become flat-hilly, and then very flat - the eastern edge of the Central Tunguska plateau. In this area (near 60 ° 30 "N. Lat.), D. Messerschmidt discovered layers of coal. Beyond 60 ° N. Lat. and further south, the terrain again acquired a mountainous character - the northern end of the Angarsk Ridge. So, the route along the Lower Tunguska passed through the central part of the Central Siberian Plateau, and, consequently, D. Messerschmidt became its first scientific researcher.

September 16 D. Messerschmidt moved to carts and four days later reached the river. Lena at 108° E. From there, he went up in boats to its upper reaches, shooting, and arrived in Irkutsk by winter route. D. Messerschmidt was convinced that the flow of the upper Lena, shown on the map of N. Witsen, is completely untrue. On the left bank of the river, he noted the presence of the Berezovy Ridge (the notion of this southernmost, as it was long believed, upland of the Central Siberian Plateau, playing the role of the watershed of the Angara and Lena, existed until the 30s of the 20th century).

In March 1724, D. Messerschmidt drove along the shore of Lake Baikal to the mouth of the Selenga on a sledge track. He noted that the river passes through the Baikal Mountains (the junction of the Khamar-Daban and Ulan-Burgasy ridges), and until the beginning of May he spent in Udinsk (Ulan-Ude). Then he crossed Transbaikalia to Nerchinsk at approximately 52°N. sh. with parking at small lakes or in prisons. Along the way, he examined the mines and springs, described several species of animals, including the steppe sheep, and on the banks of the Ingoda, he was the first in Siberia to discover crayfish, unknown to the inhabitants of the region.

From Nerchinsk, in mid-August, he headed southeast to Lake Dalainor (Khulunchi) "along a completely flat steppe, in which ... not a mound, a tree, or a bush is visible to the very horizon." He correctly noted that the lake is elongated to the southwest; its shores are "everywhere ... very flat and ... swampy ... the bottom is muddy, the water is white and contains a lot of lime ...". At Dalainor, interpreters and guides fled from Messerschmidt; he got lost, and had to starve. Having decided, he moved to the north-west along the bare hilly steppe, but was detained by the Mongol detachment. Two weeks later he was released and under pp. Onon and Ingoda, he reached Chita, and in April 1725 he returned to Irkutsk.

The route from Irkutsk to Yeniseisk took about three weeks: while sailing along the Angara, D. Messerschmidt photographed the entire river, determining its length at 2029 versts, that is, it overestimated it by almost a quarter: the true one is 1779 km. He described all its rapids, relatively easily overcome by him (except for Padun), - the water in the Angara was high that year.

In mid-August, D. Messerschmidt from Yeniseisk reached the river. Keti and swam along it to the Ob. He used the descent along the Ob for shooting, fixing the numerous bends of the river. At the beginning of October he reached Surgut; the onset of frost and freezing forced him to wait a whole month under the open sky for a toboggan run. In November, along the Ob, he arrived in Samarov (Khanty-Mansiysk) on the Irtysh near its mouth. On behalf of D. Messerschmidt, a captured Swedish officer Philipp Johan Tabbert (Stralenberg) made an inventory of the Ob between the mouths of the Tom and Keti, and thus the length of the river flow they photographed was more than 1300 km. F. Tabbert took part in archaeological excavations in the Minusinsk Basin and photographed the Yenisei on the segment Krasnoyarsk - Yeniseisk. But his main work is the compilation of a map of Siberia, based mainly on interrogation data.

In March 1727, D. Messerschmidt returned to St. Petersburg, having completed a seven-year journey that marked the beginning of a systematic study of Siberia, he showed exceptional diligence: traveling mostly alone, he collected large botanical-zoological, mineralogical, ethnographic and archaeological collections (most of them died during a fire in the building of the Academy of Sciences in 1747). In Siberia, he was the first to discover permafrost - a very large geographical discovery. According to his surveys, he established that the images of the Ob, Angara, Lower Tunguska on previous maps were far from reality. The result of the trip was a ten-volume "Review of Siberia, or Three tables of simple kingdoms of nature" - a Latin manuscript, which is stored in the Academy of Sciences. Although this "Overview..." was not translated or published in Russian, it was used by many Russian explorers of Siberia of various specialties.

When Peter I found out that the "sea route" between Okhotsk and Kamchatka was established, he decided to organize an expedition to search for the coast of North America "neighboring" the peninsula. The erroneous notion of the king about their proximity, obviously, can be explained by the fact that he got acquainted with the map of M. Friz, who discovered the “Land of the Company” (O. Urup of the Kuril ridge), which he took for the western ledge of the North American continent.

In 1719, Peter I ordered that surveyors Ivan Mikhailovich Evreinov and Fyodor Fyodorovich Luzhin, who studied at the Naval Academy, passed the exams for the full course ahead of schedule, and sent them at the head of a detachment of 20 people to the Far East with a secret mission “... to Kamchatka and beyond, where you are indicated, and describe the places where America with Asia ... ". Crossing Siberia along a route about 6,000 km long, surveyors measured distances and determined the coordinates of 33 points.

In Okhotsk, in the summer of 1720, a feeder joined them. Kondraty Moshkov. In September 1720, they crossed on lodia to Kamchatka at the mouth of the Icha, and from there to the south, to the river. Kolpakova, where they spent the winter. In May–June 1721, they sailed from Bolsheretsk to the southwest and for the first time reached the central group of the Kuril Islands up to and including Simushir. I. Evreinov and F. Luzhin mapped 14 islands, but did not find a continuous coast of the continent. They could not continue to work to the north, as well as “east and west”, as required by the instructions of Peter I, they could not: their ship was badly damaged by a storm. Therefore, they were forced to return to Siberia. From there, I. Evreinov went to Kazan, where at the end of 1722 he presented Peter I with a report and a map of Siberia, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. It was the second map of Siberia, based on accurate - for that time - measurements.

almost before his death, at the end of 1724, Peter I remembered “... something that he had been thinking about for a long time and that other things prevented him from doing, that is, about the road through the Arctic Sea to China and India ... Shall we not happier than the Dutch and the English in exploring such a path?...”. We emphasize that it is precisely “research”, and not “discovery”, that is, discovery: on the geographical drawings of the beginning of the 18th century. Chukotka was shown as a peninsula. Consequently, Peter I and his advisers knew about the existence of a strait between Asia and America. He immediately drew up an order for an expedition, the head of which was appointed captain of the 1st rank, later - captain-commander, Vitus Johnssen (aka Ivan Ivanovich) Bering, a native of Denmark, forty-four years old, has been in the Russian service for twenty-one years. According to a secret instruction written by Peter I himself, Bering had to "... in Kamchatka or in another ... place to make one or two boats with decks"; on these boats to sail "near the land that goes to the north [north] ... to look for where it converged with America ... and to visit the shore ourselves ... and put it on the map, come here."

What land stretching to the north did Peter I have in mind? According to B.P. Polevoy, the king had at his disposal a map of Kamchadalia, compiled in 1722 by a Nuremberg cartographer I. B. Goman(more correctly Homan). On it near the coast of Kamchatka, a large landmass is plotted, stretching in a northwestern direction. Peter I wrote about this mythical "Land of João da Gama".

The first Kamchatka expedition initially consisted of 34 people. The number of participants, including soldiers, artisans and workers, sometimes reached almost 400 people. From St. Petersburg, having set off on the road on January 24, 1725, through Siberia, they walked for two years to Okhotsk on horseback, on foot, on ships along the rivers. The last part of the journey (more than 500 km) - from the mouth of the Yudoma to Okhotsk - the most bulky things were carried on sleds drawn by people. The frosts were severe, provisions were depleted. The team was freezing, starving; people ate carrion, gnawed leather things. 15 people died on the way, many deserted.

Biographical index

Behring, Vitus Johansen

Russian navigator of Dutch origin, captain-commander, explorer of the northeastern coast of Asia, Kamchatka, seas and lands of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, northwestern coasts of America, leader of the 1st (1725–1730) and 2nd (1733) –1743) Kamchatka expeditions.

The advance detachment led by V. Bering arrived in Okhotsk on October 1, 1726. Only on January 6, 1727 did the last group of the lieutenant get there Martin Petrovich Shpanberg, a native of Denmark; she suffered more than others. There was nowhere for the expedition to stay in Okhotsk - they had to build huts and sheds in order to survive until the end of winter.

During a journey of many thousands of miles through Russia, Lieutenant Alexei Ilyich Chirikov determined 28 astronomical points, which made it possible for the first time to reveal the true latitudinal extent of Siberia, and, consequently, the northern part of Eurasia.

At the beginning of September 1727, on two small ships, the expedition moved to Bolsheretsk. From there, a significant part of the cargo before the start of winter was transported to Nizhnekolymsk on boats (boats) along pp. Bystraya and Kamchatka, and in winter the rest was transferred by dog ​​sled. Dogs were taken away from the Kamchadals, and many of them were ruined and doomed to starvation.

In Nizhnekamchatsk, by the summer of 1728, the construction of the boat “St. Gabriel", on which the expedition went to sea on July 14. Instead of passing from Kamchatka to the south (this direction was the first in the instructions) or to the east, V. Bering sent the ship north along the coast of the peninsula (wrong - he himself soon admitted this - having understood Peter's thought), and then to the north - east along the mainland. As a result, more than 600 km of the northern half of the eastern coast of the peninsula were photographed, the Kamchatsky and Ozernoy peninsulas, as well as the Karaginsky Bay with the island of the same name (these objects were not named on the map of the expedition, and their outlines were greatly distorted). The sailors also put on the map 2500 km of the coastline of Northeast Asia. Along most of the coast they noted high mountains, and covered with snow in summer, rising in many places directly to the sea and towering over it like a wall.

On the southern coast of the Chukchi Peninsula, on July 31 - August 10, they discovered the Gulf of the Cross (secondarily after K. Ivanov), Providence Bay and about. St. Lawrence. V. Bering did not land on the island and did not approach the Chukchi coast, but moved to the northeast.

The weather was windy and foggy. The sailors saw the land in the west only on the afternoon of August 12. On the evening of the next day, when the ship was at 65 ° 30 "N. latitude, i.e. south of the latitude of Cape Dezhnev (66 ° 05"), V. Bering, not seeing either the American coast or the turn to the west of the Chukchi, called to to the cabin of A. Chirikov and M. Spanberg. He ordered them to write down their opinion as to whether the presence of a strait between Asia and America could be considered proven, whether to move further north and how far.

A. Chirikov believed that it is impossible to know for certain whether Asia is separated from America by the sea, if you do not reach the mouth of the Kolyma or the ice "... that they always walk in the North Sea." He advised to go "near the earth ... to the places shown in the decree" of Peter I. L. Chirikov had in mind that part of the instruction, where it was instructed to go to the possessions of European states. If the coast extends to the north or contrary winds begin, then on August 25 it is best to look for a place "against the Chukchi Nose, on the ground ... [where] there is a forest." In other words, Chirikov advised to move without fail along the coast, if the ice does not interfere or it does not turn to the west, and to find a place for wintering on the American coast, that is, in Alaska, where, according to the testimony of the Chukchi, there is a forest and, therefore, you can prepare firewood for the winter.

M. Shpanberg proposed, due to the late time, to go north until August 16, and then turn back and spend the winter in Kamchatka. Bering decided to move further north. On the afternoon of August 14, when it cleared up for a while, the sailors saw land in the south, obviously, about. Ratmanov, and a little later almost to the west - high mountains (most likely Cape Dezhnev). On August 16, the expedition reached latitude 67 ° 18 ", and according to calculations A. A. Sopotsko, - 67 ° 24 "N. In other words, the sailors passed the strait and were already in the Chukchi Sea. In the Bering Strait and (earlier) in the Gulf of Anadyr, they performed the first depth measurements - a total of 26 measurements. Then Bering turned back, showing a reasonable He officially justified his decision by the fact that everything was done according to the instructions, the coast does not extend further to the north, and “nothing came to the Chukchi, or Eastern, corner [cape] of the earth.” The return journey took only two weeks; On the way, the expedition discovered one of the Diomede Islands in the strait.

Bering spent another winter in Nizhnekamchatsk. In the summer of 1729, he made a feeble attempt to reach the American coast, but on June 8, three days after going to sea, having traveled a little more than 200 km to the east in general, he ordered to return due to strong winds and fog. Soon, however, clear weather set in, but the captain-commander did not change his decision, went around Kamchatka from the south and arrived in Okhotsk on July 24. In the summer of 1977, the yachts "Rodina" and "Russia" passed along the routes of V. Bering. During this voyage, the expedition described the southern half of the eastern and a small part of the western coast of the peninsula for more than 1000 km between the mouths of Kamchatka and Bolshaya, revealing the Kamchatka Bay and Avacha Bay. Taking into account the work of 1728, the survey for the first time covered over 3.5 thousand km of the western coast of the sea, later called the Bering Sea.

Bering arrived in Petersburg seven months later after a five-year absence. He did not solve the main problem, but nevertheless completed the discovery of the northeastern coast of Asia. He compiled the final navigation map together with A. Chirikov and midshipman Pyotr Avraamovich Chaplin. This map, highly appreciated by such a specialist as D. Cook, significantly surpassed its predecessors in terms of accuracy and reliability of the coast image in cases where the ship was moving near the coast. Of course, the map had a number of errors. Kamchatka, for example, is greatly shortened, the Gulf of Anadyr is very small, and the outlines of the Chukotka Peninsula are incorrect. It "not only influenced European cartography, but became a solid basis for depicting northeast Asia on all ... Western European maps" (E. G. Kushnarev).

The ship's journal, which was kept by A. Chirikov and P. Chaplin ("Journal of being in the Kamchatka expedition"), is an important primary source on the history of the first marine scientific expedition in Russia.

about the decision of the Senate for the "calling to citizenship" of the Koryaks and Chukchi, survey and accession to the Russian possessions of new lands in the Pacific Ocean in June 1727, an expedition headed by the Yakut Cossack head (colonel) went from St. Petersburg Afanasy Fedotovich Shestakov. In Tobolsk, a surveyor joined him Mikhail Spiridonovich Gvozdev, navigator Ivan Fedorov and captain Dmitry Ivanovich Pavlutsky with a detachment of 400 Cossacks. The expedition arrived in Okhotsk Ostrog in 1729. From there, in the autumn of that year, Shestakov crossed by sea to the Taui Bay and, at the head of a large party (more than 100 people, including only 18 servicemen), set out to the northeast at the end of November. He moved along the southern slopes of the Kolyma Highlands, collecting yasak from the Koryaks who had not yet fallen under the "royal hand", and, according to the old "tradition", took amanats. On the way, he learned that shortly before the arrival of the Russians, the inhabitants, now subjects of the Russian sovereign, were attacked by "non-peaceful" Chukchi. Shestakov hurried in pursuit and, not far from the mouth of the Penzhina, died in battle on May 14, 1730. He traveled more than 1000 km through unexplored places.

A member of the Great Northern Expedition, translator Yakov Ivanovich Lindenau in 1742 compiled a map of the Northeast of Asia and Kamchatka. On the basis of the materials of A. Shestakov, the yasak collector A. Pezhemsky, who worked on behalf of J. Lindenau, and his own data between the Okhotsk prison and the top of the Penzhinskaya Bay, i.e., for more than 2000 km, he inflicted the Taigonos Peninsula, and about 30 short rivers flowing into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, as well as into the river. Penzhin. The watershed between them and the Kolyma basin is clearly shown - the Kolyma Highlands and the mountains to the south-west, located in the upper reaches of the Kolyma.

A. Shestakov's successor was D. Pavlutsky, who committed in 1731-1746. at the head of a military detachment, three campaigns but the Chukchi Plateau and the coast of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The first campaign (March-October 1731): from Nizhnekolymsk, through the upper reaches of the tributaries of the Great Anyui and Anadyr, D. Pavlutsky arrived in the Anadyr prison. His detachment of 435 people, including 215 servicemen, went from there to the northeast to the mouth of the Belaya, the left tributary of the Anadyr. Along its valley, Pavlutsky ascended to the sources (moving very slowly - no more than 10 km per day) and, having crossed into the basin of the rapids Amguema, in early May, he reached the coast of the Chukchi Sea near 178 ° W. e. He planned to bypass the entire Chukchi Peninsula and turned east along the coast. Soon he discovered a small bay, which for some reason had to be bypassed at night, and then another, much larger, with steep banks (Kolyuchinskaya Bay) - it was crossed on ice.

The route along the coast continued until the beginning of June, possibly to the vicinity of Cape Dezhnev. The first clash with a large detachment of the Chukchi, who lost the battle and suffered heavy losses, also dates back to this time.

D. Pavlutsky left the seashore and for three weeks walked to the south-west through a deserted and treeless mountainous area. On June 30, a new, larger detachment of Chukchi unexpectedly appeared. In the ensuing battle, having lost many soldiers, the Chukchi retreated. From the prisoners, D. Pavlutsky learned about the location of a very large herd of deer and captured up to 40 thousand heads. Without "adventures" he reached the Gulf of Anadyr at about 175° W. and turned west. Near a mountainous cape in mid-July, the Chukchi attacked the Russians again and were again defeated.

The detachment of D. Pavlutsky rounded the Gulf of the Cross and along the northern outskirts of the Anadyr lowland returned to the Anadyr prison on October 21, having completed the first survey of the inland regions of the Chukotka Peninsula (an area of ​​​​about 80 thousand km²). Upon his return, the captain sent a report to the Tobolsk authorities, in which he gave a very unflattering description of the territory he had examined: “Chukhotia [Chukotka Peninsula]... empty land; there are no forests, no other lands, no fish and animal industries, but quite [many] stone mountains [Chukotka highland] and sherlobs [rocks, cliffs] and water, and more ... there is nothing ... ". Quotations from A. Sgibnev's article "Shestakov's Expedition" (Marine collection, g. 100. . No. 2, February. Sbp., 1869). He spoke very respectfully about his opponent: “The Chukchi people are strong, tall, brave ... strong build, reasonable, fair, warlike, loving freedom and not tolerating deceit, vengeful, and during the war, being in a dangerous situation, they kill themselves” .

After a long break, in the summer of 1744, D. Pavlutsky made a second trip across Chukotka to pacify the Chukchi: from the Anadyr prison, at the head of a detachment, he proceeded through the top of the Krest Bay to the east - to the Mechigmen Bay, and then "around" the Chukchi Peninsula, i.e. along the coast, to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay. They returned home by the old (1731) way. During the campaigns of 1731 and 1744. his detachment for the first time completed a quadruple crossing of the Chukchi Plateau.

In 1746, D. Pavlutsky made a third trip: he climbed to the sources of Anadyr, crossed the mountains (the Ilirney ridge of our maps) and went to the Chaun Bay along one of the rivers. Along its eastern shore, the detachment proceeded to Cape Shelagsky: from there they managed to see an island (Ayon) lying at the entrance to the bay. Along the coast of the ocean D. Pavlutsky went east for some distance and turned back.

Ensign took part in all three campaigns Timofey Perevalov, who, with some interruptions, surveyed the coast of the Chukchi Peninsula, the shores of the Chukchi and East Siberian Seas over a distance of more than 1500 km. He first mapped the Mechigmen Bay (Tenyakha Bay), the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Anakhya), several small lagoons and the Chaun Bay from about. Ayon. True, there is an opinion that Tenyakha Bay is a smaller Gulf of Lawrence, located a little to the north.

On the drawing drawn up by T. Perevalov, a mountainous peninsula ending with Cape Shelagsky clearly looms. He filled the interior regions of Chukotka (Chukotka Highlands) with mountains and showed the river. Anadyr with several left tributaries, as well as many short rivers of the basins of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans - of the largest, we note pp. Amguemu and Palyavaam.

Gvozdev and Fedorov - the discoverers of Northwest America

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Back in 1730, D. Pavlutsky sent two ships from Okhotsk to impose yasak on the inhabitants of the “Great Land”, which was supposed to be located east of the mouth of the Anadyr. One ship crashed off the coast of Kamchatka. After two winterings on the peninsula (in Bolsheretsk and Nizhnekamchatsk), the expedition on the surviving boat “St. Gabriel "(V. Bering sailed on it in 1728) on July 23, 1732, she went to explore the" Big Earth ". The surveyor M. Gvozdev led the campaign, For a long time it was believed that I. Fedorov and M. Gvozdev had equal morals on board. This seemed to be confirmed by the facts - the reports of M. Gvozdev himself. But in 1980, L.A. Goldenberg discovered D. Pavlutsky’s order dated February 11, 1732, according to which M. Gvozdev was appointed the sole leader of the voyage. the navigator was seriously ill with scurvy I. Fedorov, transferred to the ship "against his will." There were 39 people on board the boat, including the navigator K. Moshkov, the sailor I. Evreinova and F. Luzhina.

On August 15, the boat entered the Bering Strait. Gvozdev landed on the Asian coast of the strait and on the Diomede Islands, completing their discovery. August 21 "St. Gabriel" with a fair wind approached the "Great Land" - Cape Prince of Wales, the northwestern tip of America. On the coast, sailors saw residential yurts. There is conflicting information about the further route of the expedition. Lagbukh, ie. the sailing log, and the reports of M. Gvozdev, submitted to D. Pavlutsky upon his return, have not been preserved. A number of researchers, referring to a later - September 1, 1743 - report by M. Gvozdev (I. Fedorov died in February 1733), believe that on August 22, 1732, heading strictly south from Cape Prince of Wales, on the way back at 65° N. sh. and 168° W. d. "St. Gabriel" discovered a small piece of land - Fr. King (the name was later given by D. Cook), but due to strong seas, it was not possible to land on the shore. The boat arrived in Kamchatka on September 28, 1732.

However, the testimony of Cossack Ivan Skurikhin, a participant in the voyage, recorded, however, 10 years after the end of the expedition, is in clear contradiction with the above version. According to I. Skurikhin, from Cape Prince of Wales “St. Gabriel "moved" near that land [along the coast] to the left side [southeast] ... for five days, but [we] could not see the end of that land ... ". He also reported on the wooded shores of the newly discovered country - “the forest on that great land: larch, spruce and poplar forests, and there are many deer” - the coast of the Bering Strait is treeless, trees grow along the shores of Norton Bay. Thus, the conclusion suggests itself: the expedition rounded the Seward Peninsula from the southwest and entered Norton Bay, and from there moved to Kamchatka.

So, the opening of the strait between Asia and America, begun by Popov and Dezhnev, was completed, not by V. Bering, whose name this strait is named, but by Gvozdev and Fedorov: they examined both banks of the strait, the islands located in it, and collected all the materials necessary for this to put the strait on the map.

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A lot of bright pages in the history of Siberia were written by pioneers who from the first half of the 17th century set off to explore unknown lands, risking their lives in the process. Such pioneers, to whom we owe success in the development of Siberia, were Vasily Poyarkov and Yerofei Khabarov. Their life and the discoveries made during their travels deserve a separate story. Unfortunately, due to the lack of archival information, the year and place of birth of Vasily Danilovich Poyarkov are not known to us. We only know that he was originally from the northern regions of the European part of Russia and ended up in Siberia in the second half of the 30s of the 17th century. He was a smart and educated man, so he soon became an official for special assignments under the Yakut governor Pyotr Golovin. It was by his decree that in July 1643, Poyarkov, at the head of a party consisting of 132 Cossacks, “eager people” and industrialists (fur-bearing animals), went to the southeast of Siberia to explore the mysterious region at that time, called Dauria. In fact, it was a reconnaissance expedition in order to collect information and prepare for the annexation of these lands to Russia.

The first stage of the Poyarkov expedition's journey took place on plows along the Lena and Aldan rivers and further, to the limits of the Stanovoy Range. Here the party was divided into two parts. The first, numbering 90 people, went to the Zeya River, where the Daurian lands began. In anticipation of the arrival of the rest, Poyarkov carried out reconnaissance of the area, being especially interested in ores and furs. After wintering and waiting for the approach of the second party, in the spring of 1644 the expedition went further along the Zeya. Having reached the Amur in the summer of the same year, Poyarkov decided to go to its mouth. The voyage, as a result of which new information was obtained about the lands along the Amur up to the Pacific Ocean, was not easy. Several dozen people died during clashes with local residents and as a result of accidents. Having reached the mouth in late autumn, Poyarkov and the remaining members of the expedition stayed for the winter, and in the spring of 1645, on a built ship, went to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and headed north. Having reached the Ulya River in autumn and wintered at its mouth, in the spring of the next year the expedition headed west, to the Aldan. Having gone to the river, Poyarkov reached the Lena in a few weeks and returned to Yakutsk on June 12, 1646. Together with him, only 20 people remained alive by that time. But as a result of this expedition, for the first time, information was obtained about the vast space lying between Baikal and the Pacific Ocean.

Poyarkov's case was continued by Yerofey Pavlovich Khabarov. He was born around 1603 in the Arkhangelsk region, in the family of a Cossack. He made his first known trip to Siberia back in 1625, when he went to the Siberian city of Mangazeya on a Pomeranian koche. Then new travels to Tobolsk followed. Settling then in the Siberian lands, Khabarov was engaged in agriculture, salt mining and trade for several years, not differing in any way from other Russian industrialists who lived in those days in these parts.

However, in 1648 he submitted a petition to the Yakut governor Dmitry Frantsbekov to organize an expedition to Dauria. This request was granted, and in the summer of 1649, Khabarov, at the head of a detachment of 80 people, set out from Yakutsk to the south. The first expedition was quite successful. Having scouted the territory in detail up to the Amur and returning back the following year, Khabarov recovered on the second campaign already at the head of a detachment of 180 people. With such forces, he managed to gain a foothold on the Amur and take local residents into Russian citizenship. Having waited for the approach of a new detachment of 130 people, in 1651 Khabarov went downstream, compiling detailed maps of the area and taking the lands along the Amur into Russia.

The campaign lasted almost two years, with stops for wintering. During this time, there was a rebellion of part of the detachment, which refused to go further. He was suppressed, but this slowed down progress. The strength of the party that remained with Khabarov was not enough to keep such a vast territory under control. Therefore, a detachment was sent to help him, sent by special order of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In August 1653, he met with the expedition of Khabarov. However, as a result of intrigues, the latter was soon removed from leadership and accused of abuse of power. Being taken to Moscow, he was under investigation for more than a year. Finally, all charges against him were dropped, and Erofei Khabarov himself was appointed to manage the newly formed Ust-Kutsk volost. Here he went in 1655 and stayed until his death in 1671.

It is known that in 1667 Khabarov filed a new petition to organize an expedition along the Amur to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, but the fate of this petition is unknown.

It was in the 17th century that it became widespread. Enterprising merchants, travelers, adventurers and Cossacks were heading east. At this time, the oldest Russians were founded, some of them are now megacities.

Trade in Siberian furs

The first detachment of Cossacks appeared in Siberia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. The army of the famous ataman Yermak fought with the Tatar Khanate in the Ob basin. It was then that Tobolsk was founded. At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. Time of Troubles began in Russia. Due to the economic crisis, famine and the military intervention of Poland, as well as peasant uprisings, the economic development of distant Siberia was suspended.

Only when the Romanov dynasty came to power, and order was restored in the country, did the active population again direct their gaze to the east, where vast spaces were empty. In the 17th century, the development of Siberia was carried out for the sake of furs. Fur was valued in European markets worth its weight in gold. Those wishing to cash in on trade organized hunting expeditions.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Russian colonization mainly affected the taiga and tundra regions. Firstly, it was there that valuable furs were located. Secondly, the steppes and forest-steppes were too dangerous for the settlers because of the threat of invasions by local nomads. Fragments of the Mongol Empire and Kazakh khanates continued to exist in this region, the inhabitants of which considered the Russians to be their natural enemies.

Yenisei expeditions

On the northern route, the settlement of Siberia was more intense. At the end of the 16th century, the first expeditions reached the Yenisei. In 1607, the city of Turukhansk was built on its shore. For a long time it was the main transit point and springboard for the further advancement of Russian colonists to the east.

Industrialists were looking for sable fur here. Over time, the number of wild animals has decreased significantly. It became an incentive to move on. The Yenisei tributaries Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Podkamennaya Tunguska were guiding arteries deep into Siberia. At that time, cities were just winter quarters where industrialists stopped to sell their goods or wait out severe frosts. In spring and summer, they left the camps and hunted for furs almost all year round.

Pyanda's journey

In 1623, the legendary traveler Pyanda reached the banks of the Lena. Almost nothing is known about the identity of this man. A few information about his expedition was passed by industrialists by word of mouth. Their stories were recorded by the historian Gerard Miller already in the Petrine era. The exotic name of the traveler can be explained by the fact that he belonged to the Pomors by nationality.

In 1632, on the site of one of his winter quarters, the Cossacks founded a prison, which was soon renamed Yakutsk. The city became the center of the newly created voivodeship. The first Cossack garrisons faced the hostile attitude of the Yakuts, who even tried to besiege the settlement. In the 17th century, the development of Siberia and its most distant frontiers was controlled from this city, which became the northeastern border of the country.

Character of colonization

It is important to note that colonization at that time was of a spontaneous and popular nature. At first, the state practically did not interfere in this process in any way. People went east on their own initiative, taking all the risks on themselves. As a rule, they were driven by the desire to make money on trading. Also, peasants who fled from their native places, fleeing from serfdom, rushed to the east. The desire to gain freedom pushed thousands of people into unexplored spaces, which made a huge contribution to the development of Siberia and the Far East. The 17th century gave the peasants the opportunity to start a new life in a new land.

The villagers had to go to a real labor feat in order to start a farm in Siberia. The steppe was occupied by nomads, and the tundra turned out to be unsuitable for cultivating the land. Therefore, the peasants had to arrange arable land in dense forests with their own hands, winning plot after plot from nature. Only purposeful and energetic people could cope with such work. The authorities sent detachments of service people after the colonists. They did not so much discover lands as they were engaged in the development of those already open, and were also responsible for security and tax collection. That is how a prison was built in the southern direction, on the banks of the Yenisei, to protect civilians, which later became the rich city of Krasnoyarsk. This happened in 1628.

Dezhnev's activities

The history of the development of Siberia imprinted on its pages the names of many brave travelers who spent years of their lives on risky ventures. One of these pioneers was Semyon Dezhnev. This Cossack ataman was from Veliky Ustyug, and went east to engage in fur hunting and trade. He was a skilled navigator and spent most of his active life in the northeast of Siberia.

In 1638 Dezhnev moved to Yakutsk. His closest associate was Pyotr Beketov, who founded such cities as Chita and Nerchinsk. Semyon Dezhnev was engaged in collecting yasak from the indigenous peoples of Yakutia. It was a special type of tax imposed by the state for the natives. Payments were often violated, as local princes periodically rebelled, not wanting to recognize Russian power. It was for such a case that detachments of Cossacks were needed.

Ships in the Arctic seas

Dezhnev was one of the first travelers who visited the banks of rivers flowing into the Arctic seas. We are talking about such arteries as Yana, Indigirka, Alazeya, Anadyr, etc.

Russian colonists penetrated into the basins of these rivers in the following way. First, the ships descended along the Lena. Having reached the sea, the ships went east along the continental coasts. So they fell into the mouths of other rivers, rising along which, the Cossacks found themselves in the most uninhabited and outlandish places in Siberia.

Opening of Chukotka

Dezhnev's main achievements were his expeditions to Kolyma and Chukotka. In 1648 he went to the North to find places where he could get a valuable walrus bone. His expedition was the first to reach here Eurasia ended and America began. The strait separating Alaska from Chukotka was not known to the colonialists. Already 80 years after Dezhnev, Bering's scientific expedition, organized by Peter I, visited here.

The journey of desperate Cossacks lasted 16 years. It took another 4 years to return to Moscow. There, Semyon Dezhnev received all the money due to him from the tsar himself. But the importance of his geographical discovery became clear after the death of the brave traveler.

Khabarov on the banks of the Amur

If Dezhnev conquered new frontiers in the northeast direction, then in the south there was a hero. They became Erofey Khabarov. This discoverer became famous after he discovered salt mines on the banks of the Kuta River in 1639. was not only an outstanding traveler, but also a good organizer. The former peasant founded the salt production in the modern Irkutsk region.

In 1649, the Yakut governor made Khabarov the commander of a Cossack detachment sent to Dauria. It was a remote and poorly explored region on the borders with the Chinese Empire. Natives lived in Dauria, who could not offer serious resistance to Russian expansion. Local princelings voluntarily passed into the citizenship of the king, after a detachment of Erofei Khabarov turned out to be on their lands.

However, the Cossacks had to turn back when the Manchus came into conflict with them. They lived on the banks of the Amur. Khabarov made several attempts to gain a foothold in this region by building fortified fortresses. Due to the confusion in the documents of that era, it is still not clear when and where the famous pioneer died. But, despite this, the memory of him was alive among the people, and much later, in the 19th century, one of the Russian cities based on the Amur was named Khabarovsk.

Disputes with China

The South Siberian tribes, passing into the citizenship of Russia, did this in order to escape the expansion of the wild Mongol hordes, who lived only by war and the ruin of their neighbors. Duchers and Daurs suffered especially. In the second half of the 17th century, the foreign policy situation in the region became even more complicated after the restless Manchus captured China.

The emperors of the new Qing Dynasty began aggressive campaigns against the peoples living nearby. The Russian government tried to avoid conflicts with China, because of which the development of Siberia could suffer. In short, diplomatic uncertainty in the Far East persisted throughout the 17th century. It wasn't until the next century that states entered into a treaty that formally defined the borders of countries.

Vladimir Atlasov

In the middle of the 17th century, Russian colonists learned about the existence of Kamchatka. This territory of Siberia was shrouded in secrets and rumors, which only multiplied over time due to the fact that this region remained inaccessible even to the most daring and enterprising Cossack detachments.

"Kamchatsky Ermak" (in the words of Pushkin) was the explorer Vladimir Atlasov. In his youth, he was a yasak collector. Public service was easy for him, and in 1695 the Yakut Cossack became a clerk in the distant Anadyr prison.

His dream was Kamchatka... Having found out about it, Atlasov began to prepare an expedition to a distant peninsula. Without this enterprise, the development of Siberia would be incomplete. The year of preparation and collection of the necessary things was not in vain, and in 1697 the trained detachment of Atlasov set off.

Exploration of Kamchatka

The Cossacks crossed the Koryak Mountains and, having reached Kamchatka, were divided into two parts. One detachment went along the western coast, the other studied the east coast. Having reached the southern tip of the peninsula, Atlasov saw from afar the islands previously unknown to Russian explorers. It was the Kuril archipelago. In the same place, among the Kamchadals in captivity, a Japanese named Denbey was discovered. was shipwrecked and fell into the hands of the natives. The liberated Denbey went to Moscow and even met with Peter I. He became the first Japanese that the Russians had ever met. His stories about his native country were popular subjects of conversation and gossip in the capital.

Atlasov, having returned to Yakutsk, prepared the first written description of Kamchatka in Russian. These materials were called "fairy tales". They were accompanied by maps compiled during the expedition. For a successful campaign in Moscow, he was awarded a reward of one hundred rubles. Atlasov also became a Cossack head. A few years later he returned to Kamchatka once again. The famous pioneer died in 1711 during a Cossack riot.

Thanks to such people, in the 17th century, the development of Siberia became a profitable and useful enterprise for the whole country. It was in this century that the distant land was finally annexed to Russia.

Kapustyan Xenia

Travelers who studied Siberia and the Far East:

BERG LEV SEMENOVICH

DEZHNEV SEMEN IVANOVICH

Przhevalsky Nikolai Mikhailovich

SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY PETER PETROVICH

FERSMAN ALEXANDER EVGENIEVICH

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Theme: Travelers,

studied Siberia and the Far East.

Completed by: student 5A

class MBOU lyceum №1

Kapustyan Xenia

1. BERG LEV SEMENOVICH……………………………………………...1
2. DEZHNEV SEMEN IVANOVICH……………………………………….2
3. PRZHEVALSKY NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH…………………………..3
4. SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY PETER PETROVICH…………………….....5
5. FERSMAN ALEXANDER EVGENIEVICH…………………………...…..7

BERG LEV SEMENOVICH (1876-1950)

Domestic biologist and geographer, created classic works on ichthyology (the study of fish), lake science, and the theory of the evolution of life.

L.S. Berg traveled a lot and participated in expeditions,explored the lakes of Western Siberia, Ladoga, Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Baikal , Aral Sea. He was the first to measure the temperature at different depths of this large lake-sea, studied the currents, the composition of the water, the geological structure and relief of its coasts. He established that standing waves - seiches - are formed in the Aral Sea.

L.S. Berg wrote more than 1000 works; the largest of them are "Nature of the USSR", "Geographical zones of the USSR", thanks to which the doctrine of natural zones was raised to a high scientific level. “... And when did he manage to find out all this and think it over so seriously?” - Professor of Moscow University D.N. Anuchin wrote about his friend and student L.S. Berg. Berg's work "The Aral Sea" was presented by the author in 1909 to Moscow University as a master's thesis. At the suggestion of D.N. Anuchin L.S. Berg was awarded the degree of Doctor of Geographical Sciences;

He devoted a lot of time to pedagogical and social work, was an honorary member of many scientific societies, foreign and Russian.

Berg's name was given to a volcano on the Kuril Islands, glaciers in the Pamirs and in the Dzungarian Alatau.

DEZHNEV SEMYON IVANOVICH (c. 1605 - 1673)

Russian polar sailor.

S.I. Dezhnev was probably born in Veliky Ustyug. In the early 1940s he went to Siberia and with a detachment of Cossacks he ended up in Yakutsk, from where he made long trips to the rivers Yana, Kolyma, etc .; sailed by sea from the mouth of the Kolyma to the mouth of the Lena River. But he was especially attracted to the Anadyr River, where, according to rumors, there were many walrus tusks. The Cossacks more than once tried to go by sea to Anadyr, but the harsh ocean met people with impenetrable ice. The first attempt, made by Dezhnev's detachment in the summer of 1647, ended in failure.

In June 1648, a detachment under the command of S.I. Dezhnev decided to repeat his last year's path. At first, the voyage was successful, but beyond the Shelagsky Cape, the sailors got into a severe storm, two kochas (small ships) were washed ashore. The remaining five ships managed to reach the cape, later named after Dezhnev.

The sailors made their next stop at the Chukchi Cape, but the Chukchi met the sailors unfriendly. Then on September 20 they went to sea and again fell into a storm. The ships were scattered in the roaring sea. The ship on which Dezhnev was on October 1 was thrown ashore in the region of Olyutorsky Bay. 25 people went ashore. Soon they set off in search of the Anadyr River. On the way there, half of the explorers died, and only 13 people reached the mouth of the Anadyr.

At the mouth of the Anadyr River, S.I. Dezhnev founded a prison, where he lived for 10 years. Not far from this place, he found a scythe studded with walrus tusks. Twice S.I. Dezhnev traveled to Moscow to deliver furs and tuskswalrus. During his first stay there, in 1665, he was "turned over for blood and wounds" to chieftains and appointed clerk in Olenyok. During the second journey, in 1673, he fell ill and died.

Dezhnev's main merit is that he opened the strait between Asia and America; the extreme point of Eurasia on the Chukchi Peninsula, Cape Dezhnev, is named after him; a ridge in Chukotka, a bay on the coast of the Bering Sea.

Przhevalsky Nikolai Mikhailovich

(1839-1888) - Russian traveler who participated in the exploration of Central Asia.

At the age of sixteen, after graduating from high school, N.M. Przhevalsky volunteered for military service, and after 6 years he was enrolled as a student at the Academy of the General Staff. Having brilliantly finished it, the young officer began to teach geography and history at the Warsaw Junker School. All his free time he prepared for travel: he studied botany, zoology, and compiled herbariums.

His first trip was toUssuri region,where he studied nature and population. Przhevalsky saw amazing places. After all, no step, no look - everything is new, unusual. A northern spruce stands entwined with southern grapes, like a New Year's garland, a mighty Siberian cedar is next to a cork tree, a sable darts in search of prey, and a tiger immediately hunts - this can only be seen in the Ussuri taiga. N.M. Przhevalsky spoke about the results of his expedition in a book-report. During the journey, he collected the richest collection of plants and animals. It was very difficult to keep it: either it rained on the neck in the taiga day and night and moisture penetrated everywhere, or it was cold, it hindered movements, not letting go far from the fire.

After a successful Ussuri journey, the Russian Geographical Society sends N.M. Przhevalsky to Central Asia. From 1867 to 1888, he led five large expeditions, during which 33 thousand km were covered. the giant ridge Ti-Altyn-Tag, the northern outskirts of the Tibetan Plateau, was discovered. Przhevalsky himself later described the difficulties of the route: giant mountains, frosts, storms, snowfall, which not only blinded the eyes of travelers, but also hid the sparse vegetation - food for camels. And yet, no matter how difficult it was, scientific work did not stop for a day: observations were made of the weather, maps were compiled, heights were determined, rare plants were collected, calendars were compiled.

Przhevalsky was the first of the scientists to visit Lake Lobnor. Geographers have been tormented by the mystery of this lake for centuries. They knew about him only by hearsay. It turned out that it was located in the desert lands, where the Tarim River was losing strength and spread widely over the sands. Lopnor turned out to be a shallow lake, on the banks of which nomads lived. If you look for the lake on modern maps, you may not find it. In the hundred years that have passed since then, the lake has migrated a hundred kilometers to the north and has become even larger. This happens because the Tarim River, unable to fight the desert, changes its course, flows in a different way and overflows in a new place.

In his studies of Central Asia, N.M. Przhevalsky visited both the sources of the Huang He and the upper reaches of the Yangtze, passed through the sandy Takla-Makan desert. At the beginning of the fifth expedition on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul in 1888, Przhevalsky died of typhoid fever. The city where this happened is now called Przhevalsk.

The expeditions of N.M. Przhevalsky were of great importance and enriched science with knowledge about the regions of Central Asia by discovering, describing and mapping many ridges of Asia, rich collections of flora and fauna. He discovered in Asia a wild camel and a wild horse, previously unknown. From his companions, Przhevalsky brought up major researchers (M.P. Pevtsov, P.K. Kozlov, etc.). The works of the scientist were published in many languages.

Many geographical objects are named after the Russian traveler.

SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY PETER PETROVICH

(1827-1914) - Russian geographer, zoologist, statistician, public and statesman, one of the greatest travelers of the mid-19th - early 20th centuries.

The Russian Geographical Society offered P.P. Semenov to translate the work of the German geographer K. Ritter "Geography of Asia". As he worked on the translation, his interest in the endless expanses of Asia flared up more and more. He was attracted by the then unexplored Tien Shan. European explorers have long been planning a trip to the Tien Shan. The great Alexander Humboldt also dreamed of this. But in the middle of the 19th century, little was known about the Tien Shan mountain range (in Chinese - “Heavenly Mountains”), it was even assumed that these were mountains of volcanic origin.

Young P.P. Semenov, who studied at the University of Berlin in 1853-1854, shared with A. Humboldtwith his project of organizing a trip there. 27-year-old Semyonov was already quite well known in scientific circles: he made a great trip across European Russia, was the secretary of the department of physical geography of the Russian Geographical Society. A conversation with A. Humboldt finally strengthened him in his decision to go to the Heavenly Mountains.

The expedition required careful preparation, and only in the fall of 1856 did Semyonov and his companions reach the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. Thanks to this expedition, it was established that this lake is drainless (it was previously believed that the river, Chu, flows out of this lake). Research has made it possible to map its exact outlines. The following year, on June 21, 1857, P.P. Semenov with a large detachment set off on an unexplored path along the Tien Shan. This expedition, perhaps, was unique in the entire history of geographical discoveries. It lasted less than three months, but its results are truly amazing: 23 mountain passes were surveyed, the heights of 50 peaks were determined, 300 rock samples were collected, insect collections, 1000 plant specimens (many of them were unknown to science), natural areas were described in detail , two transverse geological sections of the Tien Shan were obtained, which helped a deeper study of the geology of Central Asia. It was also possible to determine the height of the snow line in the mountains, to refute the idea of ​​​​A. Humboldt about the volcanic origin of the mountains.

Returning to St. Petersburg, he actively participates in the preparation for publication of a map of European Russia and the Caucasus, edits the fundamental "Geographical and Statistical Dictionary" and writes important articles for it; develops the project of the All-Russian population census (1897), heads the Russian Geographical Society. With the direct participation of P.P. Semenov, many large expeditions were organized and carried out: N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, P.K. Kozlov.

In 1899, the first volume of the multi-volume detailed geographical description of the country “Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland”, in the preparation of which P.P. Semenov and his son participated. Of the planned 22 volumes, only 13 were published, but even in an unfinished form, this fundamental work remains unsurpassed.

In 1906, 50 years have passed since the first trip of P.P. Semenov to the Tien Shan. In a special decree, it was reported that "from now on, he and descending offspring are allowed to continue to be called Semenov-Tien-Shansky."

He completed his journey as a world famous scientist. More than 60 academies in Europe and Russia have elected Semenov-Tien Shan as its honorary member. His name is immortalized in 11 geographical names in Asia, North America and Svalbard, and one of the peaks of the Mongolian Altai bears the name "Peter Petrovich".

Accidental pneumonia on February 26, 1914 brought the scientist and traveler to the grave.

FERSMAN ALEXANDER EVGENIEVICH

(1883-1945) - a well-known geochemist who devoted his life to discovering the wealth of the bowels, a full member of the Academy of Sciences since 1919.

In 1902, he entered Moscow University, where the famous V.I. Vernadsky, the founder of a new, genetic direction in mineralogy, which revealed the origin of minerals, became his teacher. Since Fersman entered the university, teacher and student have been working together; they create a new science - geochemistry, study the chemical composition of the Earth.

A.E. Fersman devotes his life to revealing the riches of the earth's bowels of his homeland. He seeks to know the laws of occurrence and distribution of minerals in various types of pegmatite bodies, the results of which are reflected in his generalizing classic work - "Pegmatites" (1931).

A.E. Fersman did not conceive of a science divorced from practice. As early as 1917, he took part and was the leader of many expeditions to the Urals, Central Asia and other regions. Under his leadership, since 1920, the study of the Khibiny Mountains began, where a deposit of apatite was discovered - a raw material for obtaining phosphorus fertilizers, which are of great importance in agriculture. On the Kola Peninsula, the scientist also discovered deposits of copper, iron and nickel ores. Since 1924, A.E. Fersman organizes expeditions to the Karakum desert, where he discovers deposits of sulfur in its center, later in 1932 in Kyzylkum he discovers deposits of ores with various rare metals.

Geochemical ideas completely changed the idea of ​​minerals - the riches of Central Asia. Being the scientific director of the Tajik-Pamir expedition, Fersman skillfully directs its detachments, which discover deposits of non-ferrous and rare metals where, as previously thought, they should not be. It is difficult to find a corner in our country where there is no scientist.

AE. Fersman wrote about 700 works. For the development of geochemistry as a science, the four-volume work of the academician "Geochemistry" is of particular importance.