In the general theory of teaching, the foundations of which, as already noted, were laid by Ya.A. Comenius, I.G. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterweg, I. Herbart, in our country - K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Kapterev, ST. Shatsky, A.P. Nechaev, M.Ya. Basov, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Makarenko, as well as the largest representatives of domestic and foreign educational psychology middle of the XX century D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, I. Lingart, J. Lompscher, formed the actual psychological theory of learning activity, which is a scientific priority in Russia. Its developers are D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, A.K. Markova, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina and others (in the broad context of the theory of activity, the psychological foundations of which were laid by the works of L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, and the specific content was formulated by A.N. Leontiev) posed a new problem in the theory of learning - changes in the subject of activity itself in the process of actions reproducing the objective properties of a cognizable object in solving educational problems by generalized methods of action. The concept of teaching and learning activities. A student can learn something in different ways. Consciously, the student can learn independently and under the guidance of a teacher. Teaching is a conscious activity, the purpose of which is the assimilation of certain knowledge, skills and abilities. There are three main characteristics of learning activity that distinguish it from other forms of learning:

1. it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems;
2. it masters general methods of action and scientific concepts (in comparison with everyday ones learned before school);
3. general methods of action precede the solution of problems (I.I. Ilyasov) (compare with learning by trial and error, when there is no preliminary general method, program of action, when learning is not activity). Let us add two more essential characteristics of educational activity to these three. First, in response to a cognitive, insatiable need,
4. learning activity leads to changes in the subject itself” which, according to D.B. Elkonin, is its main characteristic. Secondly, the Czech theorist of the process and structure of learning I. Lingart considers another feature of learning activity as an active form of learning, namely
5. changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student "depending on the results of their own actions."

Thus, we can talk about five characteristics of learning activity in comparison with learning. The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous.

In the broad sense of the word, it is sometimes incorrectly considered as a synonym for learning, teaching and even learning. In a narrow sense, according to D.B. Elkonin, is the leading type of activity in the younger school age. In the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydova, A.K. Markova, the concept of “learning activity” is filled with the actual activity content and meaning, correlating with a special “responsible attitude”, according to S.L. Rubinstein, the subject to the subject of learning throughout its entire length. It should be noted that in this interpretation “learning activity” is understood more broadly than the leading type (kind) of activity, since it applies to all ages, in particular to students. Educational activity - activity subject for mastering generalized methods learning activities and self-development in the process of solving educational problems specially set by the teacher, on the basis of external control and evaluation, turning into self-control and self-esteem. According to D.B. Elkonin, “learning activity is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts, ... such activity should be stimulated by adequate motives. They can be ... motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for one's own growth, one's own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives among students, then by this they support, filling with new content, those general motives, activities that are associated with the position of the student, with the implementation of socially significant and socially valued activities. It is aimed at the student himself as its subject - improvement, development, formation of him as a person due to the conscious, purposeful appropriation of sociocultural experience in various forms and forms of socially useful, cognitive, theoretical and practical activities. The activity of the student is aimed at mastering deep systemic knowledge, working out generalized methods of action and their adequate and creative application in various situations. Based on the definition of educational activity as an activity for mastering generalized methods of action, self-development of the student through the solution of educational tasks specially set by the teacher through educational actions, let us consider its actual activity characteristics.

First of all, we emphasize that, following D.B. Elkonin, its social character: in terms of content, since it is aimed at assimilating all the riches of culture and science accumulated by mankind; in meaning, because it is socially significant and socially valued; in form, since it corresponds to socially developed standards of education and takes place in special public institutions, for example, in schools, gymnasiums, colleges, and institutes. Like any other, learning activity is characterized by subjectivity, activity, objectivity, purposefulness, awareness has a certain structure and content. The means of educational activity with the help of which it is carried out should be considered in three plans. Firstly, these are the intellectual actions underlying the cognitive and research functions of educational activity (in the terms of S.L. Rubinshtein - mental operations): analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, and others, without which no mental activity is possible. Secondly, these are sign, linguistic, verbal means, in the form of which knowledge is assimilated, individual experience is reflected and reproduced. Thirdly, it is background knowledge, through the inclusion of new knowledge into which individual experience, the student's thesaurus, is structured. Methods of educational activity. 3 types: reproductive; problem-creative ways; research cognitive activities.

The product of educational activity is structured and updated knowledge, which underlies the ability to solve tasks that require its application in various fields of science and practice. The product is also an internal new formation of the psyche and activity in motivational, value and semantic terms. The product of learning activity is the main organic part of individual experience. From him structural organization, consistency, depth, strength, the further activity of a person, in particular, the success of his professional activity, communication. The result of learning activity is the behavior of the subject - it is either a need (interest, involvement, positive emotions) to continue this activity, or unwillingness, evasion, avoidance. All over the world, the second is manifested in a negative attitude towards school, non-attendance, school leaving.

Theories of learning activity. 2 groups of theories:

1. American approach or behaviorist. Teaching through doing. Any human activity is a set of practical or speech actions. Something can be learned in the process of performing these practical actions, when stable connections are established between the stimulus and the response, reinforced by reward or punishment.

2. In domestic psychology this approach has been criticized. Man, unlike animals, has a special type of activity (gnostic), the purpose of which is knowledge. This activity can be external and internal (not externally observed). At the same time, there is a close relationship between these two types of activity (interiorization and exteriorization). According to this theory, external gnostic activity is effective and obligatory when some images have not yet formed in the psyche. Inner gnostic activity takes place when a person has some experience in some area. As a result, 2 types of teaching are distinguished: 1). Early or primary teaching, which has a conditioned reflex character and is based on external practical, gnostic activity.

2). Secondary teaching, which is contemplative intellectual in nature and is based on internal mental actions. Psychological structure of educational activity:

1. learning motivation
2. learning task
3. learning activities
4. control and correction
5. assessment and self-assessment.

Any activity takes place in certain conditions, in a certain situation.

Learning activities also take place under certain conditions:

1. A certain ignorance or inability to do something.
2. When there is a conscious goal to eliminate ignorance.
3. sources of information are needed.
4. Special efforts are needed.
5. Learning activity involves a certain structure: learning motivation; learning objectives (learning goals); learning activities; control of educational activities; assessment of learning activities.

Motives for learning activities:

1. External motives (demands, expectations, rewards, punishments). Situations of teaching with purposeful coercion.
2. Internal motives (congenital need for new experiences, acquired motives - interests, attitudes).

They lead to the formation of a situation of teaching with purposeful attraction. 3). Personal factors (values, beliefs, worldviews, etc.). In the studies of A.K. Markova, 6 types of schoolchildren were established:

1. Negative attitude towards teaching. Motivation to avoid punishment, failures.
2. Neutral attitude to teaching, unstable interest.
3. Positive but situational attitude. Depends on the teacher and the grades.
4. Positive attitude towards learning.
5. Active creative attitude. They educate themselves.
6. Personal, responsible, active attitude. Students are little teachers.

There are 6 types of motivation: positive motivation; negative motivation; combined motivation (health, property); irrational motivation; motivation through cognitive interest: positive emotional climate in the lesson; students hear new information; active mental activity; experiencing success. Target components of the doctrine.

Purpose is the main component of learning activity. Educational tasks serve as the goal in educational activities. A learning task is both the beginning of learning activity and the result of learning activity. In its structure, the learning task represents an objectively given or verbally formulated relationship between known conditions and what needs to be found. Types of learning tasks:

1. Depending on the nature of the requirements: a) recognition task; b) design task; c) task for explanation.
2. According to the method of solution: a) the task of the exercise; b) the task of the problem; c) "composing" tasks on the rules.

In a modern school, the setting of educational and creative tasks is of particular importance - these are tasks that put students in problem situations and develop Creative skills students. Whatever the educational task, its solution comes down to 3 stages: setting the task; search for a solution; analysis and evaluation of the result. Effective-operational components of educational activity. The solution of a learning problem involves the possession of certain actions. All actions that are part of the learning process are divided into 2 classes:

1. General, non-specific cognitive actions: all methods of logical thinking; psychological skills (the ability to be attentive, the ability to remember, the ability to observe).

2. Specific actions reflect the specifics of the subject. Each action is characterized by a whole system of properties.

2 groups of properties: primary and secondary. Primary: form of action (materialized, perceptual, outwardly verbal, mental); measure of the generalization of the action (expanded or generalized); measure of mastery; degree of independence. Secondary: the strength of the action, the awareness of the action, the reasonableness or adequacy of the task. The implementation of educational activities necessarily involves control. The purpose of control is feedback and the level of mastery. 3 types of control:

1. Preliminary control. Aimed at establishing the initial level of knowledge.
2. current control. Getting feedback. At the 1st stages, it should be operational.
3. Final control.

Identification of the level of assimilation: level of recognition; playback level; the level of application of knowledge in familiar conditions; level of creative application of knowledge.

Depending on the subject of control, 3 forms are distinguished: external control; mutual control; self-control. Pedagogical assessment. Types of pedagogical assessments: subject assessment; personal assessment; material assessment; moral pedagogical assessment; effective evaluation; procedural assessment; quantitative assessment (points) and qualitative assessment. Main Functions of Pedagogical Assessment: Stimulation cognitive activity; control. Evaluation can be external and internal. Self-assessment can be retrospective, real and prospective.

Patterns of the assimilation process: the nature of the assimilation process, the structure of the cognitive action, the orienting basis of the action (OOA) and its types, the properties of the cognitive action (primary and secondary). In the most general form, assimilation (learning) is defined as the process of receiving, semantic processing, preserving the acquired knowledge and applying them in new situations, solving practical and theoretical tasks, i.e., the use of this knowledge in the form of the ability to solve new problems based on this knowledge.

J. Bruner considers development as three simultaneous processes: obtaining new information; transformation (transformation), adaptation of information to problem solving; and verification, control. The process of mastering knowledge is always the performance by students of certain cognitive actions. Action is a unit of analysis of students' activities. The characteristics of cognitive actions can be analyzed from the point of view of its psychological structure, its main properties, main stages and patterns of formation. Psychological structure of actions:

1. any action is always directed to some object;
2. every action has a purpose;
3. as a result of an action, a result is obtained;
4. action has a motive;
5. the performance of any action presupposes an indicative action framework (OBA).

For the correct assimilation of the material, the main role is played by the OOD. OOD is the system of conditions on which a person actually relies when performing an action. Types of OOD: complete, incomplete, redundant. By generality, GTE can be given in a general form or a particular form.

According to the method of obtaining OOD, it can be given by the teacher in finished form, it can be compiled by students on their own, or through conscious application. Properties of cognitive action. Each action is characterized by a whole system of properties. These properties can be subdivided into: a) primary - these are independent characteristics of actions, none of them is a consequence of others (the form of action, the measure of its generalization, deployment, mastery and independence); b) secondary - strength, awareness, reasonableness. Stages of the assimilation process: motivational, drawing up an OOD scheme, materialized actions, performing an action in external speech to oneself, mental actions.

1. The motivational stage is the creation of cognitive motivation by the teacher (the introduction of problem situations).
2. The stage of drawing up the scheme of the indicative basis of actions is the acquaintance of students with the new activity and the knowledge included in it. Students are shown what to focus on when performing an action, how to perform it.
3. The stage of materialized actions - at this stage, students already perform the action, but so far in an external, material expanded form (learn the content of the action).
4. The stage of external speech actions - the elements of the action are presented in the form of external speech (oral or written).
5. The stage of performing an action in external speech to oneself - the action is performed in the form of speaking to oneself, without relying on schemes, without reasoning aloud.
6. The stage of mental actions - the process of solving the problem takes place in the form inner speech as an individual process that no longer requires cooperation with other people. The concept of learning and its types.

Learning is a receptivity to learning, or an ensemble, a complex of individual human properties, on which, other things being equal, the success of learning depends. Learning and achievement are not synonymous. Progress is an assessment of the child's educational achievements, expressed on a 5-point scale. Types of learning: general and special. Learning levels:

1. High learning students;
2. Reduced learning. The problem of underachievement in psychology. Types of underachieving students. Learning activities are not successful for all students.

1. External conditions of educational activity: characteristics of the physical and psychological environment: (composition and temperature conditions of the air); performance dynamics; features of the educational material - content, form, logic of presentation, affective properties of the material.
2. Internal factors. Individual psychological features students. There are several types of underachieving and underachieving students: mentally retarded children; weakened or cerebro-asthenic children; children with mental retardation; pedagogically neglected children.

Among them, there are 3 types:

1. Children who have a low quality of mental activity plus a positive attitude towards school, towards the teacher. 2 subgroups: a) children who compensate for their failures in learning in other types of practical activities; b) children who have not found the scope of compensation.

2. Children characterized high quality thinking plus a negative attitude towards school. 2 subgroups: a) compensating for failures in learning by engaging in other types of intellectual activity; b) who do not have the opportunity to compensate (not found).

3. Poor quality of thinking and negative attitude towards learning. Psychological factors of school failure.

1. Learnability (low);
2. Unpreparedness for school: the level of general intellectual development, inability to control one's behavior, lack of educational motivation.
3. Low level of mastery of educational activity by the child: he cannot set a goal, educational tasks, does not own mental actions, does not know how to exercise self-control, evaluate activities.

4. Among all the reasons, the main ones are the peculiarities of intellectual activity, i.e. thinking: it is difficult to make a deductive conclusion, it is difficult to make generalizations, it is difficult to carry out a comparative analysis, a low level of abstraction, a low level of verbal-logical thinking. Features of mental activity leave an imprint on all other mental processes: memory, attention, the process of self-organization. The consequence of this is a systematic intellectual underload, lagging behind peers leads to a negative attitude towards underachieving schoolchildren on the part of the team. As a result, disbelief in oneself, fear is formed, the motivation for achievement gradually disappears. Main directions psychological help in addressing student underachievement.

Psychological help:

1. Diagnosis of school readiness.
2. The child's mastery of educational activity in all its elements (motives, goals or learning task, learning activities, control, self-esteem).
3. Formation of positive motivation for learning (to change the child's attitude to school). Individual approach to the child, differentiated approach, constant emotional support; reduced requirements; hints, etc.
4. Active mental activity. Selection of psychological exercises for training training comparative analysis; for evidence; to build logical series; for a generalization.
5. Development of self-regulation or will. comparative analysis; for evidence; to build logical series; for a generalization.
6. Development of self-regulation or will.

The concept and structure of educational activity in psychological and pedagogical research

Start schooling and raising a child is a significant turning point in his entire life. Outward signs of this turning point are found in its organization, in the new duties of the child as a pupil. However, this moment has a deep inner basis - with the arrival at school, the child begins to assimilate the most developed forms of social consciousness - science, art, morality, law, which are associated with the theoretical consciousness and thinking of people. The assimilation of these forms presupposes the performance by children of certain activities. This activity of children is their educational activity.

The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous in the psychological and pedagogical literature. In a broader sense, it is sometimes wrongly regarded as synonymous with learning, learning, and even learning. In a narrow sense, according to D.B. Elkonin, is the leading type of activity in primary school age. In the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydova, A.K. Markova's concept of "learning activity" is filled with actual activity content and meaning, correlating with the special "responsible attitude" of the subject to the subject of learning throughout its entire duration.

D.B. Elkonin gives the following definition of this concept: “Educational activity” - this is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts. Such activity should be motivated by adequate motives, they can be motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for one's own growth, one's own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives among students, then this will support, filling with new content, those general motives of activity that are associated with the position of the student, with the implementation of socially significant and socially valued activities.

According to T.V. Gabay,educational activity - this is an activity deliberately aimed at gaining experience by one of its participants. Providing knowledge, it gives it as a direct or main product.

Zimnyaya I.A. believes thateducational activity - this is the activity of the subject in mastering generalized methods of educational actions and self-development in the process of solving educational problems specially set by the teacher, on the basis of external control and evaluation, turning into self-control and self-esteem.

In the psychological dictionary we can find the following definition:educational activity - the leading activity of primary school age, in which there is a controlled appropriation of the foundations of social and cognitive experience, primarily in the form of basic intellectual operations and theoretical concepts.

In our work, we rely on the definition of learning activity given by D.B. Elkonin.

Psychologists define learning activity as a special activity in the system of activities, as a result of which a person gains experience. In particular, T.V. Gabay finds its place in the system of activities. In this regard, T.V. Gabai highlights the features of educational activities, which include:

the main product in educational activity is not only objectively the main product of this activity, in which everything is subordinated to its receipt, it is also recognized by a person as the main one, constituting its goal;

the experience acquired by a person is not revealed to him in the research process, but is obtained in finished form from other participants in this activity;

the actions of the cognizing person are limited to the performance of only its main functional component, while the entire sum of the preparatory functional components of this activity is transferred to the teaching person.

I.A. Winter among the features of educational activities notes the following:

it is specifically aimed at mastering the educational material and solving educational problems;

it masters general methods of action and scientific concepts;

general methods of action precede the solution of problems;

leads to changes in the subject itself;

in the process of learning activity, changes in the mental properties and behavior of students occur depending on the results of their own actions (adds this feature, referring to I. Lingart).

Educational activity has its own subject. Different scientists define it based on their own research and on the analysis of the works of their colleagues. Let's take a look at some of them.

T.V. Gabai, following D.B. Elkonin, believes that the subject of educational activity is that which in its process is completed to the desired product, which is the desired changes in the student himself. They, therefore, consist either in the acquisition of some concept, skill or its fragments, or in their transformation.

I.I. Ilyasov defines the experience of the students themselves as the subject of learning activity, which is transformed in learning by appropriating elements of social experience processed into the content of learning, therefore, he also considers the content of learning that has not yet been mastered to be mastered as the subject of this activity.

The subject of educational activity according to I.A. Winter: assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, development of techniques and methods of action, their programs, algorithms, in the process of which the student himself develops.

In addition to the subject, these researchers determine the product and result of educational activity. The product, according to Zimnyaya I.A., is structured and updated knowledge, which underlies the ability to solve tasks that require its application in various fields of science and practice. The product is also an internal new formation of the psyche and activity in motivational, value and semantic terms.

The result of learning activity is the behavior of the subject - it is either a need (interest, involvement, positive emotions) to continue this activity, or unwillingness, evasion, avoidance. The second is manifested in a negative attitude towards school, non-attendance.

In the process of educational activity, the younger generations reproduce in their minds those theoretical riches that humanity has accumulated and expressed in the ideal forms of spiritual culture. Attitude towards oneself, towards the world, towards society, towards other people is formed in the educational activity of a younger student, but the most important thing is that these relations are realized mainly through it as an attitude towards the content, teaching methods, teacher, class, school, etc. d.

In educational activity, the child for the first time opens up to himself as a subject, and for the first time he faces the task of changing himself as a subject. Educational activity in this sense is a very significant moment in the formation of a person as a person. According to Repkin V.V., in order to form such an activity, it is necessary to build training accordingly. Having set a learning task for the child, we gradually carry out its solution, introducing conceptual material that requires analysis, generalization, internal properties and connections.

In order for the formation of a full-fledged educational activity in the process of teaching for younger students, it is necessary to build it in accordance with the main structural components in it. Only with such a construction of educational activity from the very beginning of training can a conscious educational activity be formed, which is built by the student himself according to the objective laws inherent in it. Educational activity carried out under the guidance of a teacher, in the process of formation, should turn into an independent, conscious, activity organized by the student himself, i.e. in self-study.

An approach to structuring learning activities is proposed in the works of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov. They distinguish the following components of educational activity:

learning task;

educational action;

control action;

evaluation action.

Let us consider the components of learning activity identified by them in more detail.

The concept of “learning task” was introduced into the psychology of learning by D.B. Elkonin. He considered the learning task to be the basic unit (cell) of learning activity. The main difference between the learning task and all other tasks is that its goal and result is to change the acting subject himself, and not to change the objects with which he acts.

The tasks performed within the educational activity must satisfy the basic requirement of theoretical thinking. This requirement, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, is that to solve a problem theoretically means to solve it not only for a given particular case, but also for all homogeneous ones. Therefore, a proper educational task can be considered such a peculiar task, in the solution of which the student learns a general way of orientation and action in a certain class of tasks in a certain area (scientific, artistic, etc.). The student learns this method before using it with the correct solution of individual problems of the corresponding class. As noted by V.V. Davydov, in many cases it is very difficult to find and present as an example a general method for solving specific practical problems of a certain class.

When solving a learning problem, the student makes changes in objects or in ideas about them by his actions, but his result is a change in the acting subject itself. A learning task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes in the subject have occurred.

When solving a learning problem, specific individual objects with which the subject acts and in which he makes changes by his actions are not objects of his actions. The object of learning activities is how to make such changes in subjects. The object of educational assimilation is not the objects with which the subject acts and not their specific properties, but the very ways of changing these objects.

The educational task is solved by schoolchildren through certain actions. These actions include:

transformation of the conditions of the problem in order to discover the general relationship of the object under study;

modeling of the selected relation in the subject, graphic or letter form;

transformation of relationship models to study its properties in a “pure form”;

construction of a system of particular problems solved in a general way;

control over the implementation of previous actions;

assessment of mastering the general method as a result of solving a given learning task.

Each educational action has a certain operational composition, i.e. consists of corresponding operations. Learning activities can be performed both in the subject and in the mental plan. Their composition is not uniform. Some educational actions are characteristic for the assimilation of any educational material, others for working within a given academic subject, and others for reproducing only individual particular samples. Thus, actions that allow students to depict given patterns are used in the study of any material of each subject. The semantic regrouping of the material, the semantic allocation of its strong points, the drawing up of a logical scheme and plan are educational actions that are most adequate for mastering descriptive material. Special educational actions correspond to the assimilation of each fundamental concept of a particular academic subject.

The initial form of educational activities is the joint performance by a group of schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher of educational activities distributed among them. Gradually, these collectively distributed actions are internalized, turning them into an individually implemented solution of educational problems.

According to Goncharov V.S., the initial and main among educational actions is the action of transforming the conditions of the educational task in order to discover some general relations of that system of objects that should be reflected in the corresponding theoretical concept. We are talking about such a transformation of the conditions of the problem, which is aimed at searching, detecting and highlighting a well-defined relationship of the studied integral object. The peculiarity of this relationship is that it acts as genetic basis and the source of all particular features of the whole object. The relation in its educational function acts as the initial moment in the formation of the concept. This educational action, which is based on mental analysis, first has the form of transforming the subject conditions of the educational task, as a mental action it is carried out in an object-sensory form.

The next structural component of educational activity is the action of control. The action of control consists in comparing the action reproduced by the child and its result with a model through a preliminary image. Direct imposition on a pattern is impossible because the pattern given by the teacher is only a single instance of an acquired mode of action, and as such it can never coincide with an equally single instance of an action reproduced by the child. Therefore, the pattern of the method of action must contain reference points, on the basis of comparison with which the control action can be performed before the desired action for which the method was applied is carried out.

Control can be carried out both on the basis of an analysis of the finished results of actually performed actions, and on the basis of the expected results of actions performed only mentally.

D.B. Elkonin attaches special importance to the action of control in the process of solving a learning problem, because. according to his assumption, it is precisely this that characterizes all educational activity as an arbitrary process controlled by the child himself. The arbitrariness of learning activity is determined not so much by the presence of the intention to do something and the desire to learn, but (and mainly) by the control over the performance of actions in accordance with the model.

The evaluation action fixes the compliance or non-compliance of the results of assimilation with the requirements of the learning task. The nature of the assessment depends on the organization academic work. Thanks to the action of evaluation, the child determines whether he has really solved the educational problem, whether he has really mastered the required method of action so that he can subsequently use it in solving many particular practical problems. “Thus, assessment becomes a key moment in determining how much the educational activity implemented by the student influenced him as the subject of this activity. However, with the wrong organization of educational activities, the assessment does not fulfill all its functions.

The significance of the role of control (self-control) and assessment (self-assessment) in the structure of activity is due to the fact that it reveals the internal mechanism for the transition of the external into the internal, the interpsychic into the intrapsychic.

Sh.A. Amonashvili identifies the following components in the structure of educational and cognitive activity:

awareness and acceptance by the student of the educational and cognitive task;

building a plan for its resolution;

practical solution of the problem;

control over the problem resolution process;

evaluation of results in accordance with the standard;

setting goals for further improvement of the acquired knowledge, skills and abilities.

In the works of A.K. Markova included another component in the structure of learning activity - the learning motive. Motivation performs several functions: it encourages behavior, directs and organizes it, gives it personal meaning and significance.

The motive that is most adequate to learning activity is the orientation of schoolchildren to mastering new ways of action, because it is the assimilation of the ways of transforming the object under study that leads to the enrichment of the subject of educational activity. The teacher should take care that the student has formed a learning motive that orients the child to the way of action.

A.K. Markova notes the peculiarity of the educational motive as one of the aspects of the motivational sphere, which consists in the fact that it is directly related to the meaning, the personal significance of educational activity: if the motive for which the student learns changes, then this fundamentally restructures the meaning of all educational activity.

It should also be noted that the initial link in educational activity is the process of goal setting, i.e. highlighting the ultimate goal for the achievement of which the activity is carried out. In the educational activity of the student, the goals are set from the outside as an external requirement for the result of the activity. Therefore, in order for them to act as the goal of the subject, they must be accepted by him.

T.V. Gabay in his works uses the definition of “structural moments of educational activity”. It refers to these: the subject, subject, means, external conditions, procedure and product of educational activity. The subject of learning activity is a student, and it is specified that a student can function as a subject of learning only when he is healthy and all subsystems of his body are provided with energy. The subject is all those knowledge and skills that, in their subject content, are directly related to the knowledge and skills that the student must learn. Accordingly, the desired knowledge and skills of the student become the product of educational activity. The activity procedure includes those methods and methods that are used to obtain the desired product. External conditions of activity characterize the environment of the subject of this activity.

Recent studies have been devoted to the problem of individual differences in children, including their influence on the formation of learning activities. Individual differences can be understood and described as the ratio of different levels of formation of the components of educational activity: for some students, the acceptance and setting of educational tasks is the most formed, for others - methods of action, methods of self-control and self-assessment. Davydov V.V. and Markova A.K. they say that the highest level of formation of individual characteristics of educational activity can be designated as the student becoming the subject of this activity, when:

the student (with the help of the teacher) singles out individual aspects, means and methods of educational activity, correlates them with goals and conditions;

on the basis of these “standards”, the student evaluates, restructures his experience of activity, develops a system of his assessments (“meaning” of educational activity for himself), and on this basis actively carries out further assimilation, selection and use of socially developed standards;

the student is able to have a transformative impact on the socially developed experience of activity, to create new means and ways of its implementation.

Thus, the analysis of the results of the work of domestic psychologists and teachers showed that there are many definitions of the concept of “learning activity”. Scientists distinguish a different number of components included in the structure of educational activity, but they all agree that the main structural components of educational activity are a learning task, a learning action, a control action, and an evaluation action. These components are interconnected and inseparable from each other.

Plan

1. general characteristics educational activity.
2. Structure of educational activity.
3. Motivation of educational activity.

Additional literature: 13, 17, 18, 30, 89, 91, 92.

Theoretical introduction

Learning activities- one of the activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at mastering by them, through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions, theoretical knowledge and related skills in such areas of public consciousness as science, art, morality, morality, religion. (direction of D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov).

In classical Soviet psychology and pedagogy, learning activity is understood as a special form social activity mastering the methods of objective and cognitive actions.

In some other sources, learning activity is understood as a synonym for learning, teaching, learning.

Educational activity is a specific type of learning in which the student changes his behavior, personality, cognitive sphere, feelings, will, character, abilities. This is the educational task, the solution of which leads to the formation of ideas, concepts about objects and phenomena of the external and internal world in students. The discovery of reality occurs with the help of the older generation and the activities of the students themselves in cooperation. (D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov). The concept of educational activity includes criteria for the level of knowledge, skills and abilities: scientific, systematic, strength, practical value, such as the adoption of a learning task, independent creative decisions, the implementation of self-control, self-assessment of success.

Educational activity - a set of physical, practical, speech, mental actions. Practical, external actions are a reliance on performance, on doing by imitation, exercise, physical activity. Gnostic ("gnosis" - meaning from Greek) actions are the collection and processing of information. They can be subject: manipulation, processing, assembly, development. These include perceptual actions, such as viewing, listening, observing, depicting, designating, describing, saying, repeating, ordering material, highlighting semantic units, direct, reverse, cause-and-effect relationships, using mental, mnemonic operations.

The following levels of the student are distinguished: passive perception and development of the information provided; active independent search and transformation of information; search, use it organized from the outside.

The structure of learning activities. The following elements of learning activity are distinguished: cognitive need, learning task, learning motives, learning activities, and operations.

Need e there is a state that expresses the need for something or someone, requiring its satisfaction for existence and development, acting as a source of activity. In the student's learning activity, this is the desire to acquire knowledge, skills, abilities in the subjects studied, to master the laws of origin, the formation of objects and subjects of the studied disciplines. This happens in the course of her organized learning activities. Awareness of need - a visible, intended result, becomes the goal of educational activity, which is divided into a number of learning objectives, solved as actions are performed in certain conditions of activity with the help of special means, methods, methods. The specificity of the learning task lies in the fact that when solving it, the student masters the general method for solving a whole class of homogeneous particular problems. The intended goal is achieved, results arise, direct and secondary, both conscious and unconscious. In this case, the main thing is to change the student himself, his personality, abilities.

The subjective side of educational activity is characterized and determined by the dominant motive this activity. This motive can be preparing oneself for a future adult life, self-affirmation in the student's reference group, getting a high mark, maintaining one's well-being under pressure from parents, teachers, and the student team.

The dominant motive of a student's learning activity can also be an educational and cognitive motive, when learning activity is subjectively carried out for the sake of knowledge, mastery of a system of knowledge, skills, self-development and self-improvement as a person. In this case, the objective and subjective aspects of educational activity coincide, and then this activity acquires a huge socially and personally significant meaning.

A certain activity of the subject is usually motivated not by any one motive, but by a combination of often conflicting motives that form the motivation for this activity. But the nature of this motivation and the nature of the activity itself are determined by the most significant, dominant motive that causes, determines and directs just such an activity, and not another. Behind every motive that is included in the motivation, there is a certain need. Motivation is the process of transforming needs into motives - incentives for a certain activity. So motivation is both a set of motives for activity, and the process of transforming a need into a motive that causes activity to satisfy this need.

The motive of activity can be subjectively realized vaguely or not realized at all, but what the subject wants to achieve as a result of this activity, the subject, as a rule, realizes.

Depending on the real situation, external and internal motives of educational activity are distinguished. Encouragement, demand, competition, threat, group influence, expectation of benefits - these are external stimuli, they push to the goal from the outside, often this causes indifference, conflicts, tension, disruption in learning.

Intrinsic motivation attracts to the goal, it is associated with interest in knowledge, curiosity, the desire to master experience, to assert oneself. This motivation is optimal, aimed at overcoming obstacles, difficulties in learning, creates conditions for the development of personal qualities.

Learning activities form the process of problem solving. Actions happen material(real transformation of the object - diagrams, diagrams, drawings, etc.), speech (loud speech or external speech to oneself) receptive(transformation of objects in terms of perception), mental (action in the internal plan without relying on any external means).

If we approach the question of the structure of educational activity from the position of its organization, then we can propose the following structure:

A) Introductory-motivational stage, in which students must realize, understand why. Why do they need to study this topic, what is its significance in science, what is the history of its emergence and the development of those concepts and theories that they will have to study. Students are evoked cognitive and educational motives and interests in the upcoming educational activities.

B) Operational-cognitive stage, where students study and master the content learning topic acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. In this case, the main learning task is divided into successive partial learning tasks and their integral solution.

C) the control and evaluation stage, when students summarize the studied material of the topic, including it in the general system of their knowledge and skills; establish whether they have solved the accepted basic educational and cognitive task, what has been learned and what has not been learned, and why. Based on this analysis, they evaluate their activities as a whole and individual actions, their successes and failures, after which the results of educational activities are adjusted.

Practical work

Exercise 1. The study of the motives of educational activity. From the answer options, choose the one that suits you.

1. What motivates you to study?

requirement from parents, teachers,

Desire to get a good mark

The desire to receive praise, encouragement from adults and friends,

Desire to get a matriculation certificate, diploma,

The desire to enter a special educational institution, get the job you want,

The desire to be an educated, intelligent person, the fear of letting down their parents, teachers, staff,

The desire to learn new things, to navigate in modern knowledge,

The desire to use knowledge in further practical activities for the benefit of people and society.

2. What prevents you from studying?

Unwillingness to learn, perform tasks, laziness,

There is no confidence in their abilities, in the ability to achieve success.

Inability to independently understand the material, work with a book,

Unavailability of educational material,

Passion for other interests, affairs.

Answer options can serve as an indicator of the level of motivation.

Task 2. The perception of new information depends on the level (depth and completeness) of the previously acquired system of concepts (knowledge), and the development of thinking and the skillful use of previously acquired knowledge in solving a learning problem.

Carefully read the examples of schoolchildren's educational activities below, their mistakes in solving educational problems and give answers to the questions below.

1. Children 5 years old are shown two vessels with different diameters and asked: "Will there be the same amount of water if it is poured from one vessel to another", the children answer: "Yes, it will be the same." But now the water is poured from a narrower vessel into a wide one, the children answer that there is less water in this wide vessel.

2. They explain to younger students that the concepts of “noun”, “verb”, “adjective” have a basic meaning: “object”, “action”, “sign”. Children refer to the noun “house”, but do not refer to it the word “happiness”, and the word “stand” supposedly means an object (“a desk” is standing), the word “carpenter” is an action (“walks”, “alive”).

3. The teacher explains that the main sign of a right triangle is the presence of a right angle, everyone draws this triangle, the right angle is at the bottom - at the base. Some students, correctly identifying, do not recognize a right triangle if it is given in a different position.

4. In a geography lesson, students are explained and shown a drawing depicting a watershed in the form of a hill. Giving the concept of "watershed", the children argue that the Caucasus Range is not a watershed, because. it's a mountain, not a hill

5. In the course of physics, the concept of "Weight" is studied - this is a force that attracts to the earth, all bodies have weight, this is their property, force and weight are related concepts, like earth's gravity, and the free fall of bodies. Student's answer: “Let's take something and weigh it, pick up weights so that there is balance on the scales. How many grams, kilograms, tons the body weighs, this will be "Weight".

Explain the psychological characteristics of the student's mental activity in each specific case and explain the difficulties in answering the teacher's questions.

Determine the reasons for the incorrect solution of educational problems by schoolchildren.

Task 3. Prove what qualities it is necessary to educate in a schoolchild so that he studies well.

Task 4. Remember what the leading type of activity is and prove at what age is learning activity the leading one?

Task 5. What do mental, perceptual, mnemonic actions include? Give examples of these actions.

MOTIVATION OF LEARNING

Plan

1. The concept of educational motivation.

2. Levels of development of educational motivation.

3. Reasons for the decrease in learning motivation .

4. Ways to develop motivation.

Additional literature: 13, 21, 33, 50, 51, 52, 53, 83, 92.

Theoretical introduction

Motivation as a leading factor in the regulation of personality activity, its behavior and activities is of exceptional interest to teachers and parents. Essentially no effective interaction with the child. A teenager, it is impossible without taking into account the peculiarities of his motivation. Behind objectively absolutely identical actions, actions of a schoolchild there can be completely different reasons, i.e. incentive sources of these actions, their motivation may be different.

Under motive we will understand the inner motivation of a person to one or another type of activity associated with the satisfaction of a certain need. We will assume that ideals, interests, beliefs, values, attitudes can also act as motives.

Under motivational sphere we will understand the totality of persistent motives that have a certain hierarchy and express the orientation of the personality. A.K. Markova writes: “The motivational sphere is a constantly changing, and sometimes contradictory structure, consisting of different motives (needs, the meaning of the doctrine, its motives, emotions, interests), where the place of the leading motive is occupied by one or the other motive, depending on the conditions. learning, circumstance. Therefore, the formation of motivation is not a process of increasing positive or aggravating negative attitudes towards learning, but the complication of the motives included in it.

The success of educational activity depends on many psychological and pedagogical factors. The extremely large influence of the strength of educational motivation and its structure on the success of educational activity is obvious. The conducted studies (V.A. Yakunin) show that “strong” and “weak” students differ from each other not in the level of intelligence, but in the motivation of educational activity. High motivation can play the role of a compensatory factor in case of insufficient stock of the required knowledge, skills and abilities of the student. The teacher needs not only to be able to develop the motivation for teaching, but at the beginning it is necessary to know it, to establish for himself the reality with which he is dealing.

Learning motivation is determined by a number of factors: the educational system itself, organization educational process, the subjective characteristics of the student, the characteristics of the teacher himself.

A. K. Markova identified the following levels of development of learning motivation in schoolchildren:

1. Negative attitude to learning: the motives of avoiding trouble, punishment, explaining her failures by external causes, her satisfaction with herself and the teacher, self-doubt prevail.

2. Neutral attitude to learning: unstable interest in the external results of learning, experiencing boredom, insecurity.

3. A positive, but amorphous situational attitude to learning: a broad cognitive motive in the form of interest in the result of learning and in the mark of the teacher, broad undifferentiated social motives of responsibility, instability of motives.

4. Positive attitude to learning: cognitive motives, interest in ways of obtaining knowledge.

5. Active, creative attitude to learning: motives for self-education, awareness of the correlation of one's motives and goals.

6. Personal, responsible, active attitude to learning: motives for improving the ways of cooperation in educational and cognitive activities, a stable internal position. Motives of responsibility for the results of joint activities.

Reasons for the decrease in learning motivation:

Incorrect selection of the content of educational material, causing overload or underload of the student.

Not owning a teacher modern methods learning;

The inability of the teacher to build relationships with students;

Features of the personality of the teacher;

Low level of knowledge of the student;

Lack of formation of methods of educational activity, methods independent work.

Development deficiencies mental processes, mainly the mental sphere of the child;

Inadequate use by the child of his individual - typological features, manifested in cognitive activity.

V.G. Aseev identifies two ways to influence motivation:

a) "from top to bottom" work is carried out with students to understand motives, goals and ideals are revealed, which gradually become internal from externally understood.

b) "from the bottom up" - through the organization of various types of activities, which contributes to the actualization and reinforcement of the motivations of students

Common Path the formation of the motivation of the teaching is to contribute to the transformation of existing motives (sketchy, impulsive, unstable, unconscious, ineffective) into a mature motivational sphere with a stable structure, that is, with the dominance and predominance of individual motives and selectivity. To form motivation means not to lay ready-made motives and goals in the student’s head, but to put him in such conditions and situations. Ways of formation of educational motivation:

1. The role of educational material. Not every educational material can have a motivational influence, but only such, the information content of which corresponds to the current and emerging needs of the student.

The material should be accessible but difficult. new material should show the limitations of past knowledge, show familiar objects from a new perspective.

It must be remembered that schoolchildren have a need for new impressions, for the exercise of mental functions. In addition, adolescents - in self-affirmation, reflection, among high school students - in search of the meaning of life, self-respect.

2. Organization of educational activities: the study of a topic or section should consist of 3 stages:

a) The stage of evoking the initial motivation - at this stage, the teacher leads the students to realize what needs to be learned in the lesson and why it needs to be learned, the student must understand what he will learn useful and new today, where he can apply what he has learned, what benefits he will get assimilation lesson material.

b) The stage of reinforcing and strengthening the motivation that has arisen - at this stage, the teacher arouses interest in several ways of solving problems and comparing them (cognitive motives), to different ways cooperation with another person (social motives). The teacher can alternate different types of activities (reproductive and search, oral and written, difficult and easy, individual and frontal), use the mark and measure of the difficulty of the material in such a way as to alternate motives and emotions with positive and negative modality among schoolchildren, involving them in self-control and self-esteem.

c) Stage of completion of the lesson - it is important at this stage that each student comes out of the activity with a positive personal experience, and that at the end of the lesson there is a positive attitude towards further learning, that is, a positive motivation for the future.

3. The student's involvement in group forms of organizing various types of activities contributes to the emergence of healthy competition, gives emotional attractiveness to educational activities. The student begins to feel that he is not playing a subordinate, but a main and active role in the learning process.

4. The value of the assessment. For positive motivation, it is not the mark itself that is important, but the information hidden in the mark about the student's abilities. Evaluation increases motivation if it is not related to the student's abilities as a whole, but to the efforts that the student makes in completing the task. The teacher should compare the success of the student not with the success of other students, but with his own previous results. Such an assessment is considered effective, which creates in the child a desire for self-development, self-education.

Practical work

Exercise 1. Write an essay on one of the suggested topics: What makes me learn? What do I like and dislike at the institute (at school)? What is in academic subjects and in different tasks attracts me?

Task 2. Learn techniques for exploring motivation, goals, and emotions through learning. ( Outline pp. 20-21, 24-32 in the book. Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of learning motivation. M., 1990).

Task 3. Read the following situations carefully and:

Identify some of the psychological reasons for the decline in learning motivation that give rise to school difficulties;

Analyze the types and effectiveness of assistance provided to students by teachers and parents;

Suggest ways to help change motivational areas.

1. Sasha (11 years old), according to her mother: “We have one problem - we can’t speak Russian, because of this there is no desire to go to school, there is no desire to do homework. He has so many twos in the language that he just takes aback. The teacher often leaves him after class, I study with him - I make him write dictations, but things do not move. In mathematics, he is doing well - even the teacher praises ... "

2. Vika (12 years old) “My daughter does not listen to me at all, she considers herself an adult, and she herself will not sit down to do her homework until you remind her. In the morning, he doesn’t even get up to school on an alarm clock, if you don’t wake him up .... She moved to "3", began to skip school. On the remarks of teachers - impudent, snarls. You know, I’m ashamed, I myself work in this school, I myself am a teacher, but I can’t find an approach to it ... ”

3. Maxim (13 years old) “Maxim is a normal boy. The main problem is that he does not want to study. Previously, in all subjects, he studied at "4" and "5", but now he does not want to at all. Twos don't sober him up. If I start to say something, it starts to get angry, and the evil one can do whatever you want. She blackmails me with the fact that she gave birth to him in vain. He reproaches his father that he drinks .... He will never admit his guilt.

4. Katya (11 years old) “Terrible girl. He does not want to go to school, he locks himself in his room and sits there. He studies, if he studies, it's normal; There are almost no triples, We already scold her and punish her. Father even spanked several times. The teacher even noticed her on petty theft, pulled something from her directly from the table and gave it to the children. She shamed her, but Katya continued to steal. Katerina survived this, she did not refuse to go to school, but now for six months now I have been kicking her out or escorting her to school. How can we get her to go to school? Help".

5. Lyova (12 years old) “Usually she doesn't skip classes, but she doesn't listen to the teacher's explanations during the lessons. In the class, he is known as a clown, disrupts lessons, messes around. Never completes teacher assignments control works leaves - says: "what's the point of sitting - it will still be" 2 ". Watching TV at home, playing computer. If we forbid playing the computer, he goes outside or to friends.

6. Maxim (14 years old) “Well finished primary school. The teacher spoke of him as a very capable boy who studies below his abilities. Has a wonderful memory. We stopped controlling him early, as he managed himself. Relations with the guys were always normal, he was not offended. Over the past two years, I moved to "2", I went to school more than once, and sat in the lessons, there was no sense. He declared that he would no longer go to school, because he was not interested there, but would look for work.

Task 4. Dodonov B.I. highlights the following types of motivation: pleasure from the activity itself, significance for the individual result teachings, "motivating" force remuneration I am for activities that force pressure on personality.

Which motive do you think is more sustainable? Justify your answer.

Task 5. One of the early studies of personal motivation was the work of H. Murray. He singled out four types of basic motivators of human behavior: the need for achievement, the need for dominance (power motive), the need for independence, the need for affiliation.

Which of these motives do you think has the greatest impact on academic success?

Task 6. Test - EOR questionnaire.

Instruction. When answering questions, you must choose one of the answers: “yes” or “no”. If you find it difficult to answer, then “rather yes than no” or “rather no than yes”.

Questions should be answered at a fairly fast pace, without thinking about the answer for a long time. The answer that comes to mind first is usually the most accurate.

1. Getting involved in the work, I tend to be optimistic, hoping for success.
2. Usually active in activity.
3. Tends to take the initiative.
4. When performing responsible tasks, I try to find reasons, if possible, to refuse them.
5. I often choose extremes: either very easy or completely impossible tasks.
6. When faced with obstacles, as a rule, I do not retreat, but look for ways to overcome them.
7. When alternating successes and failures, he tends to overestimate his successes.
8. The productivity of the activity mainly depends on my own determination, and not on external control.
9. When performing rather difficult tasks in conditions of limited time, the effectiveness of my activity worsens.
10. The tendency to persevere in achieving a goal.
11. I tend to plan my future for a rather distant future.
12. If I take risks, then rather, thoughtfully.
13. I am usually not very persistent in achieving a goal, especially if there is no external control.
14. I prefer to set myself average or slightly overestimated, but achievable goals, rather than strive for the impossible.
15. In case of failure in the performance of any task, its attractiveness for me, as a rule, decreases.
16. When I alternate between success and failure, I tend to overestimate my failures.
17. I prefer to plan my future only for the near future.
18. When working under tight time constraints, my performance usually improves, even if the task is difficult enough.
19. I, as a rule, do not give up on the goal, even in case of failure on the way to achieving it.
20. If I have chosen a task for myself, then in case of failure, its attractiveness for me increases even more.

Key to the questionnaire.

YES: 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20.

NO: 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17.

Processing of results.

For each match of the answer with the key, the subject is given 1 point. The total number of points scored is calculated.

The sum of points from: 1 to 7 - motivation of fear of failure; 8-9 - there is a certain attraction to the motivation of fear of failure, and if 12-13 - to the motivation of failure; 8 to 13 - the motivational pole is not pronounced; 14 to 20 - motivation for success.

Analyze the results and draw conclusions.

SECTION 3

PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

General characteristics of educational activity.

The learning process can be carried out in the form of incidental learning or in the form of purposeful learning. Incidental learning occurs in the course of activities that have a different purpose. So, a child, performing an action with an object, simultaneously gets acquainted with its properties - color, shape, size. Teaching as an activity takes place where a person's actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, and abilities.

The founder of the activity theory of learning is L.S. Vygotsky, who introduced fundamental changes in the theoretical ideas about this process. He considered the activity aimed at teaching as a specific activity in which the formation of mental neoplasms takes place through the appropriation of cultural and historical experience. The sources of development, therefore, are not in the child himself, but in his activity of learning, aimed at mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge.

Purposeful learning is possible either in the form of learning activities or in the form of independent work. The actual psychological theory of learning activity was formed in the general theory of learning. Among its developers include D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina, A. K. Markova. Educational activity is a special form of learning aimed at mastering the generalized concepts of learning actions and self-development in the process of solving educational problems specially set by the teacher. Learning activity can be considered as a specific type of activity. It is aimed at improving, developing, shaping the personality of the student through the conscious, purposeful appropriation of social experience by him. Let us note the main characteristics of educational activity that distinguish it from other forms of learning:

1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems;

2) general methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it;

3) general methods of action precede the solution of problems (I. I. Ilyasov);

4) educational activity leads to changes in the subject itself (D. B. Elkonin, I. Lingart);

5) change in the mental properties and behavior of the student depending on the results of his own actions (I. Lingart).

Educational activity has a certain subject (psychological) content. It highlights the subject of educational activity, means, methods, product and result. The subject of educational activity is the assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, development of techniques and methods of action, their programs, "algorithms, in the process of which the development of the student himself takes place. Intellectual actions (symbolic, linguistic, verbal means) the form of which knowledge is assimilated, as well as background knowledge, with the help of which the individual experience of the child is structured Ways of educational activity can be completely different.These include reproductive, problem-creative, research and cognitive actions. behavior of the student, his individual experience.The result of educational activity is the need to continue it or to withdraw from it.

D. B. Elkonin singles out the activity characteristics of this form of teaching. Educational activity is of a public nature: in terms of content, as it is aimed at mastering the social experience accumulated by mankind; in meaning, because it is socially significant and socially evaluated in form, because it corresponds to socially developed norms of communication and takes place in special public institutions. In addition, learning activity, like any other, is characterized by subjectivity, activity, objectivity, purposefulness, awareness. It has a certain external structure.

Structure of educational activity.

The external structure of learning activity includes five main components:

Motivation;

Learning tasks presented in the form of learning tasks;

Learning activities with the help of which learning tasks are solved; ,

Actions of control turning into self-control;

Assessment activities leading to self-assessment.

Let's analyze each of the components in more detail. Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activity of learning. When analyzing learning motivation, it is important to study the motives that encourage a child to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. Motives for learning activities can be external or internal. If educational activity is motivated by some external stimuli (encouragement, reward, punishment), then in this case it will only be a means to achieve other goals - personal success, satisfaction of ambition, avoidance of punishment. At the same time, educational activity is to some extent forced and acts as an obstacle that must be overcome on the way to the main goal. If the student treats learning activity as his main goal, they say that he has intrinsic motivation. In this case, learning activity can be guided by interest in the knowledge itself, the methods of obtaining it, curiosity, and the desire to improve one's educational level. Such learning situations do not contain internal conflict. Although they are also associated with overcoming difficulties and require strong-willed efforts, but these efforts are aimed at overcoming external obstacles, and not at fighting with oneself. Such learning situations are optimal from a pedagogical point of view. In the works of L. I. Bozhovich and her collaborators, who studied the educational activities of schoolchildren, it is noted that some students are more motivated by the very process of cognition in the entrance of educational activity, while others are motivated by relationships with people that develop within it. Accordingly, it is customary to distinguish two large groups of motives for educational activity - cognitive and social.

Cognitive motives are associated with the content of educational activities and the process of its implementation. Among them there are:

Broad cognitive motives, consisting in the orientation of students to master new knowledge;

Educational and cognitive motives, reflecting the orientation towards the assimilation of methods of obtaining knowledge;

Motives of self-education, consisting in the direction of self-improvement of methods of obtaining knowledge.

Social motives also fall into several subgroups:

Broad social motives reflecting the desire to gain knowledge in order to be useful to society, understanding

the need to learn, a sense of responsibility, the desire to prepare well for a future profession;

Narrow social motives (positional), which are manifested in the desire to take a certain position in relations with others, to get their approval;

The motives of social cooperation are associated with orientation to other people. At the same time, the student not only wants to communicate and interact with others, but also seeks to realize, analyze the ways of his cooperation, and constantly improve them.

All types of motives are closely interconnected and are formed in direct dependence on each other. Analyzing educational activity, it is important to take into account the entire structure of the motivational sphere of the individual.

The most important component in the structure of learning activity is the learning task. It is offered to the student as a specific educational task, the formulation of which is essential for the solution and its result. According to A. N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions. The main difference between the educational task and other various tasks is that its goal and result are to change the very subject of educational activity, and not to change the objects with which he acts (D. B. Elkonin).

Almost all learning activities can be represented as a system of learning tasks (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. G. Ball). They are given in certain educational situations and involve the implementation of appropriate educational activities - subject, control and auxiliary. There must be two components in the structure of any learning task (A. G. Ball):

1) the subject of the task in the initial state;

2) a model of the required state of the learning task.

A procedure that provides a solution to a learning problem,

is called a method of solving it (A. G. Ball). If the learning problem is solved in only one way, then the student's goal is to find it. In other cases, when the problem can be solved in several ways, the student is faced with the choice of the most concise and economical. At the same time, a certain experience in the application of knowledge is accumulated, which contributes to the development of logical search techniques, the improvement of the child's mental abilities.

Mashbitz formulated the basic psychological requirements for learning tasks:

1. Not one learning task should be designed, but a set of them.

2. When designing a system of educational tasks, it is necessary that it ensures the achievement of not only immediate, but also distant educational goals.

3. Educational tasks should ensure the assimilation of the system of means necessary for the successful implementation of the educational

activities.

4. The learning task should be designed in such a way that the means of activity that need to be mastered act as a direct product of learning. In most educational tasks, according to E. I. Mashbits, the executive part acts as a direct product, and the indicative control part is a by-product. The implementation of this requirement also involves the use of tasks for students to understand their actions, that is, to develop their reflection.

“Initially, students still do not know how to independently set and solve educational problems, therefore, at the beginning of training, this function is performed by the teacher.

Acceptance of the learning task by the student occurs when the teacher explains why it is necessary to complete the learning task. At this time, the student always (consciously or unconsciously) compares the learning task with the meaning of the teaching for himself, with his capabilities, that is, he redefines or redefines it. This stage determines the degree of readiness of the student for learning activities.

The solution of a learning problem is possible only with the help of learning actions that make up the third component of learning activity. Learning actions are active transformations of an object by a child in order to reveal the properties of the object of assimilation (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. K. Markova). The assimilation of each fundamental concept in the study of any educational subject corresponds to a certain system of educational actions. The composition of educational activities is heterogeneous. The psychologist most often has to deal with insufficient or irrational use of those educational activities that are common to various subjects. Specific learning activities reflect the characteristics of the subject being studied and are therefore used within a given field of knowledge. Teaching such learning activities is carried out by the teacher. Sound analysis of a word, addition, and the ability to read a musical text can serve as examples of specific learning activities.

According to another classification - from the position of the subject of activity in the doctrine - the actions of goal-setting, programming, performing actions, actions of control (self-control), evaluation (self-assessment) are distinguished. Each of them corresponds to a certain stage of educational activity and implements it. So, awareness of the purpose of solving a problem as an answer to the question “why am I doing this?” refers to goal setting. Performing.actions are aimed at solving the problem. They include verbal practical (actions with objects or their images), mental (perceptual, mnemonic, mental).

The correlation of educational actions with the mental activity of students makes it possible to single out such varieties as perceptual, mnemonic, mental, and intellectual. Each of these actions is divided into a number of smaller ones. Perceptual actions include recognition, identification, analysis of the appearance of objects; mnemic ones involve imprinting, filtering information, its structuring, preservation, updating. Mental actions contain comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, classification.

The set of learning actions forms a way to solve a learning problem. It is the well-formedness of the methods of educational work that is the main indicator of the maturity of educational activity.

The next component of educational activity is the actions of control (self-control). These actions play a special role, since mastering them characterizes learning activity as an arbitrary process controlled by the student himself (D. B. Elkonin). Control involves correlating the course and result of the completed educational action with the model. Therefore, in the action of control, three links can be distinguished:

Model of the desired result of the action;

The process of comparing this image and real action;

Making a decision to continue or correct an action.

Initially, the control over the implementation of educational activities is carried out by the teacher. He divides the result obtained into certain elements, compares them with a given model, points out possible discrepancies, correlates them with the nature of the educational activities. As you can see, comparing the result with the sample is the main point of the control action. Gradually, as students master control, self-control develops.

P.P. Blonekim considered four stages of the manifestation of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material. The first stage is characterized by the absence of any self-control. The student at this stage has not mastered the material and cannot control anything. The second stage - "complete self-control" - at which the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material. The third stage - selective self-control - when the student controls only the main thing in matters. The fourth stage is characterized by the absence of visible self-control. The student exercises control on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, will accept.

Thus, the formation of self-control occurs

as a step by step process. It is prepared by the questions of the teacher, fixing the main thing, the main one. The teacher, as it were, creates a general program of such control, which in the future will become the basis of self-control.

Similarly to the formation of self-control, the actions of assessment (self-assessment) develop in the structure of educational activity. Evaluation allows you to determine to what extent the method of solving a problem is mastered and how much the result of educational actions corresponds to their goal. marks. Evaluation of the teacher should serve as the basis for the formation of self-esteem of the student in educational activities. A. V. Zakharova notes that in the process of forming subject self-esteem in the structure of educational activity, there is a transition of self-assessment into quality, a characteristic of the subject of activity - his self-assessment. This indicates a special significance this component of educational activity.

Assimilation by students of increasingly complex forms of self-control and self-esteem is the psychological basis for the formation of their independent work.

The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous. With its broad interpretation, this term replaces the concepts of learning and teaching. According to periodization age development D. B. Elkonin educational activity is leading in primary school age. However, it continues to be one of the main types of activity in subsequent age periods - adolescence, senior school and student. In this sense, educational activity can be defined as the subject's activity in mastering generalized methods of solving life problems and self-development, carried out by solving educational problems specially set by the teacher. Initially, learning activities are carried out on the basis of external control and evaluation by the teacher, but gradually they turn into self-control and self-esteem of the student.

Educational activity, like any other, is motivated, purposeful, objective, has its own means of implementation, its own specific product and result. Among all other types of activity, educational activity is distinguished by the fact that its subject and subject coincide: it is aimed at the student himself - his improvement, development, formation as a person thanks to his conscious, purposeful development of social experience. The activity of the student is focused on the development of deep systemic knowledge, the development of generalized methods of action and the ability to adequately and creatively apply them in a variety of situations.

There are three main characteristics of educational activity that distinguish it from other forms of human activity: 1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems; 2) generalized methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it (in contrast to everyday concepts, which are assimilated outside of activities specially aimed at this); 3) the development of the general method of action is ahead of the practical solution of problems in time.

In addition, learning activity differs from other types of human activity in that in it the subject consciously pursues the goal of achieving changes in himself, and the Czech theorist of learning I. Lingart singles out as its main distinguishing feature the dependence of changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student on the result of his own actions.

The actual activity characteristics of educational activity include its subject, means and methods of implementation, product and result. Subject educational activity, that is, what it is aimed at, is primarily the assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, the development of techniques and methods of action, their programs and algorithms, in the process of which the student himself develops. According to D. B. Elkonin, learning activity is not identical with assimilation. Assimilation is its main content and is determined by the structure and level of its development. At the same time, assimilation mediates changes in the intellectual and personal development of the subject.

Funds educational activities, with the help of which it is carried out, are represented by three types: 1) mental logical operations that provide cognitive and research activity - comparison, classification, analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, induction, deduction. Without them, no mental activity is possible at all; 2) sign systems, in the form of which knowledge is fixed and individual experience is reproduced. These include the language, alphabet, number system used in various areas of life and scientific disciplines symbolism; 3) the so-called background, i.e. the knowledge already available to the student, through the inclusion of new knowledge in which the individual experience of the student is structured.

Ways educational activities can be diverse, including reproductive, problem-creative, research and cognitive actions, but they all fall into two categories: mental actions and motor skills. The most complete and detailed description of the method is presented by the theory of the phased formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina). According to this theory, the objective action and the thought that expresses it constitute final, initially different, but genetically related links in a single process of gradual transformation of a material action into an ideal one, its internalization, i.e., the transition from outside to inside. The action is functionally connected with the object to which it is directed, includes the purpose of transforming the given object and the means of such transformation. All this taken together constitutes the performing part of the action being formed.

In addition to the performing part, the action includes the orienting basis of the action (OOD). A correct DTE provides the subject with a correct picture of the circumstances in which an action should be performed, drawing up an action plan adequate to these circumstances, using the necessary forms of action control and applying appropriate methods for correcting errors. Thus, the level and quality of the performance of the formed action depend on the OOD. The orienting operations that are part of the OOD can be active when the action is at the stage of initial orientation in it and is being built in its entirety, and passive when it is the turn to perform an already established, formed action. OOD is psychological mechanism regulation of performing and control operations that are included in the action in the process of its formation and with the help of which the correctness of the process of developing the action is assessed.

The formation of OOD is determined according to three criteria: the degree of its completeness (complete - incomplete), the degree of generalization (generalized - specific) and the way students receive it (independently - in finished form). Complete OOD assumes that the student has accurate and sufficient information about all the components of the action being formed. Generalization of OOD is characterized by the breadth of the class of objects to which this action is applicable in practice. Self-development of OOD gives the student the most accurate orientation in the performance of an action that quickly passes to the level of automatism. The combination of each of the three components determines the type of DTE.

Theoretically, there can be eight types of DTEs, but in reality, three types are most common. In accordance with them, three types of teaching are distinguished. First type is present when performing an action according to the trial and error method, when the task of learning a certain action is not specifically set. At the same time, the assimilation of the action occurs with errors, insufficient understanding of the material, inability to highlight the most significant features and issues. Second type involves setting the task of special training in action and a reasonable study of its external aspects before the start of practical implementation. Here the type of OOD is set by the teacher, while the student himself is not able to orient himself in the newly performed action. The assimilation of knowledge in this case occurs more confidently, with full understanding the content of the material and a clear distinction between essential and non-essential features. Third type It is characterized by the fact that the student, having met with a new action for him, is able to compose and implement its orienting basis himself. With this type of teaching, a quick, effective and error-free assimilation of an action is ensured, which involves the formation of all its basic qualities.

According to the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, the process of mastering knowledge and forming actions goes through six stages: 1) motivation (attracting the attention of the student, awakening his interest and desire to acquire relevant knowledge); 2) understanding of the OOD; 3) performance of an action in a material (materialized) form; 4) performing an action in terms of loud speech; 5) performing an action in terms of speech to oneself; 6) performance of an action in terms of inner speech (in the mind). The orienting basis of a given mental action is explained to the student at the very beginning of its formation, then the action itself is performed based on the OOD, and first in the external plan with real objects. After reaching a certain level of mastery in the external execution of an action, the student begins to perform it by speaking aloud, then speaking to himself, and ultimately completely in his mind. This is mental action in the proper sense of the word.

Along with mental actions, students develop perception, voluntary attention and speech, as well as a system of concepts related to the action being performed. The action as a result of its formation on the basis of this theory can be transferred to the mental plane either in its entirety, or only in its indicative part (understanding of the action). In the latter case, the performing part of the action remains external, changes along with the internal OOD, and turns into a motor skill that accompanies the mental action.

Skill in psychology it is defined in different ways, but the main essence of all its definitions is that it represents a performance of an action strengthened and brought to perfection as a result of repeated purposeful exercises. The skill is characterized by the absence of directional control from the side of consciousness, optimal execution time, quality. It is a multi-level motor system: it always has a leading and background levels, leading auxiliary links, automatisms of different ranks. The process of skill formation is no less complicated.

N. A. Bernshtein distinguishes two periods in the construction of any skill.

First period - skill establishment- includes four phases:

1) establishment of the leading sensorimotor level;

2) determining the composition of movements by observing and analyzing the movements of another person;

3) identification of adequate corrections as “self-perception of these movements from within”;

4) switching background corrections to lower levels, i.e., the process of automation.

Second period - skill stabilization- also breaks down into phases:

1) triggering different levels together;

2) standardization of movements;

3) stabilization, providing resistance to various interferences, "unbreakability".

Almost the same periods of skill formation are established by L. B. Itelson, considering the actual psychological side of its formation (Table 1).