Question 1

language like sign system. Basic language features

When communicating, we use linguistic signs - substitutes for objects. We do not transmit the object A, but call the image B. Two meanings are distinguished in the linguistic sign:

Specific - determined by the unique qualities of the sign

Abstract - determined by the relationship of a given sign to other signs of the language

Language serves as an intermediary between thinking and sound, while they cannot be separated from each other. A linguistic sign connects concepts and an acoustic image.

An acoustic image is not only a sound, but also a psychological imprint of the sound, or the idea that we get about it.

Language sign properties

The language sign has the following properties:

Arbitrariness - any concept can be associated with any other combination of sounds

Linearity - we perceive linguistic signs one by one; at the same time, the position of the linguistic sign relative to other linguistic signs is important

Language Sign Functions: Edit

The language sign has two functions:

Perceptual - it can be an object of perception

Significative - he has the ability to distinguish between higher, significant elements of the language - morphemes, words, sentences.

The differences between letters (graphic language signs) and sounds (phonetic language signs) are not functional, but material.

The words of human language are signs of objects. Words are the most numerous and significant signs.

Thus, a linguistic sign is a substitute for an object used for the purpose of communication and allowing the speaker to evoke images of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor.

The difference between human language and other sign systems lies in its universality. Other systems are limited in their application. They are a set of signals that include certain reflexes necessary to resolve the state, but they do not have a separate meaning.

Basic language features

The main functions of the language are:

Communicative (communication function);

Thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);

Expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);

Aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).

The communicative function is the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication.

Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.

From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.

Achieving the functional effectiveness of communication is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.

The thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking.

This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that "language should accompany thought. Thought, not lagging behind language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it coherent" (ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, "in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, by its structure must correspond to the internal organization of thinking" (ibid.).

The speech of an educated person is distinguished by the clarity of the presentation of his own thoughts, the accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.

The expressive function allows the language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to communicate some information, but also to express the speaker's attitude to the content of the message, to the interlocutor, to the situation of communication. Language expresses not only thoughts, but also emotions of a person.

The expressive function involves the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of etiquette accepted in society.

Artificial languages ​​do not have an expressive function.

The aesthetic function is to ensure that the message in its form, in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech (folklore, fiction), but not only for it - both journalistic and non-fiction can be aesthetically perfect. scientific speech and ordinary colloquial speech.

The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its correspondence to the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.

Question 2

The meaning of the concept of "culture of speech" and its main qualities

A culture of speech- possession of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, word usage, grammar and style). Used in modern science in two main meanings: 1) socio-historically conditioned modern speech culture of society; 2) a set of requirements for the quality of oral and writing native speakers of the literary language from the point of view of a socially perceived linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. In mastering the culture of speech, two stages are usually distinguished. The first is associated with the development of literary and linguistic norms by students. Possession of them ensures the correctness of speech, which forms the basis of individual K. r. The second stage involves the creative application of norms in different situations of communication, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally appropriate options. Literacy is a traditional sign of "cultural" speech. Signs: correctness, purity, accuracy, expressiveness, consistency, relevance, richness.

Main features

Processed (literary language is a language processed by masters of the word: writers, poets, scientists, public figures);

Sustainability (stability);

Mandatory for all native speakers

normalization

The presence of functional styles.

Modern concept speech culture as a science identifies 3 leading aspects of speech culture:

- Regulatory (compliance with current regulations);

- ethical (compliance with certain rules of communication, ethical standards of behavior);

- communicative(culture of knowledge of different functional varieties of the language). Expedient and uncomplicated use of the language for the purpose of communication

provide the quality of “good” speech: accuracy, purity, logic,

expressiveness, richness, relevance. Accuracy is the correspondence between the semantic content of speech and the information that underlies it. Speech accuracy is associated with accuracy

word usage, with the correct use of polysemantic words,

synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for the accuracy of speech is

observance of lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects

those words and constructions that more accurately than others convey the shades of meaning that are essential for this particular statement. Purity means the absence in speech of elements alien to the literary language.

(dialect, professional, jargon, etc.) Logic is an expression in the semantic connections of the components of speech of the connections and relationships between parts of the components of thought. The expressiveness of speech is the quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive possibilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can be created by language units of all levels. In addition, there are specific pictorial properties of the language (tropes, stylistic figures) that make the statement vivid, figurative, emotional. Expression

also creates by the use of winged words, proverbs and sayings. Speech

the experience of each of us suggests that, according to the degree of impact on our

consciousness speech is not the same. Two lectures on the same subject

have a completely different effect on a person. The effect depends on the degree

expressiveness of speech. Wealth is the wide and free use of language units in

speech, allowing optimal expression of information. Relevance is the use of language units in speech that correspond to the goals, situation, conditions, content of communication.

Question 3

The main aspects of the culture of speech, definitions.

Three aspects of the culture of speech

The culture of speech is also defined as such a choice and such an organization of language means, which in a certain situation of communication, while observing modern language norms and ethics of communication, can provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks. The definition emphasizes three aspects of the culture of speech: normative, ethical, communicative.

The normative aspect is based on the definition of the norm as the central concept of speech culture given by S.I. Ozhegov:

A norm is a set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) language means for serving society, which are formed as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting, existing, formed again or extracted from the passive stock of the past …

The ethical aspect of the culture of speech is the moral and ethical justification of the sounding and written word: knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations.

The communicative aspect of the culture of speech is associated with the function of the language, in compliance with certain rules of speech communication. For the successful implementation of communicative tasks, an understanding of the areas of communication is necessary. Native speakers, in accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech, must know the functional styles of the language, as well as navigate in colloquial speech and the language of fiction, which differ from functional styles in their linguistic organization.

The basis of the Russian literary language is the literary norm. In the process of active language policy in science, ideas have developed about the normalization of the language, its codification, language variants, and deviations from the literary norm.

There are orthological dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that recommend the norms of correct speech, which provide normative and stylistic assessments of linguistic phenomena in terms of their compliance with the norms of the literary language. Among modern orthological dictionaries are spelling, orthoepic, grammatical; dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, paronyms; phraseological dictionaries; dictionaries of lexical difficulties of the Russian language. Using the vocabulary necessary in a given situation will help overcome the difficulties that arise in the practice of communication.

Question 4

The concept of the language norm

The language norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language. The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), orthographic (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, grammatical, syntactic, intonation, punctuation. Characteristic features of the norm of the literary language: - relative stability,

Prevalence, - general use, - general obligatoryness,

Correspondence to the usage, custom and possibilities of the language system.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargons, other languages.

Question 5

Pronunciation of consonants

The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation. Living pronunciation in his past and state of the art is reflected in poetic speech, in verses, where one or another rhyme speaks of the pronunciation of the corresponding sounds.

Variation of accents

In order to avoid mistakes in setting stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. It is recommended to use special dictionaries and reference books. They give a system of normative marks (single for evaluating pronunciation, accent and morphological variants), which looks like this.

Equal options. Variants of the norm, of which one is recognized as the main one:

a) the mark "permissible" (add.). Most often used in colloquial speech.

b) mark “tolerably obsolete” (additional obsolete). The litter indicates that the variant she evaluates is gradually being lost, and in the past it was the main one.

The dictionary also includes options that are outside the literary norm. To indicate these options, the so-called prohibition marks are introduced:

b) “wrong” (wrong) c) “grossly wrong” (grossly wrong.) A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use.

Question 6

Question 7

Speech Accuracy

The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage. Speech accuracy is determined by:

Knowledge of the subject, - the logic of thinking, - the ability to choose the right words.

Violation of the accuracy of speech as a result of insufficient knowledge of the features of the Russian language is the use of words in an unusual meaning for them; ambiguity not eliminated by the context; generating ambiguity; mixture of paronyms, homonyms.

Each significant word performs a nominative function, that is, it names an object or its quality, action, state. This obliges speakers to pay attention to the meaning of words, to use them correctly.

Reduces the accuracy of speech ignorance of the existence of paronyms and homonyms in the language, the inability to neutralize these phenomena in speech.

Paronyms are words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. The presence of paronyms in the language leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is mistakenly used instead of another.

The use of homonyms in speech, i.e. words that are different in meaning, but the same in spelling and sound, can also lead to semantic inaccuracy, ambiguity of the statement.

Speech intelligibility

According to researchers, the general comprehensibility of a language is determined primarily by the selection of speech means, namely, the need to limit the use of words that are on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language and do not have the quality of communicative validity.

From the point of view of the scope of use, the huge dictionary of the Russian language can be divided into two large groups - the vocabulary of an unlimited scope of use, which includes commonly used words that are understandable to everyone, and the vocabulary of limited use, which includes professionalism, dialectisms, jargon, terms, i.e. . words used in a certain area - professional, social, etc.

Professionalisms are words and expressions used by people of the same profession (journalists, electronics engineers, etc.). They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, material.

Dialect vocabulary - words that are territorially limited, included in the vocabulary of individual dialects, understandable only to a resident of a given area.

Jargons are words and expressions that belong to some kind of jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word jargon is usually used to refer to various branches of the national language, which serve as a means of communication for various social groups.

Terms are words that are the exact designation of a certain concept of any special field of science, technology, art, public life etc. Recall that a concept is a thought about common essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena of objective reality.

Clarity and intelligibility of speech also depend on the correct use of foreign words in it. Borrowing is a normal, natural phenomenon for any language. Borrowed words in the language appear as a result of communication of some peoples with others, as a result of political, economic and cultural ties between them.

The place of foreign words in the Russian language, their further fate is not the same and is determined by their purpose. Borrowings according to the degree of their penetration into the vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into three groups.

The first of them is made up of foreign words that have firmly entered the Russian language. They have been borrowed for a long time, assimilated by all the people and are not perceived as foreign languages. The second group is made up of words that are widespread in the Russian language and are also the only names for the designated concepts, but are recognized as foreign. The third group includes foreign words that are not widely used. These include words that have Russian parallels, but also differ from them in volume, shade of meaning or scope of use.

In the process of communication, people often have to explain how to understand what is being discussed, to clarify what meaning this or that word or expression has. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words. The most rational way of interpreting words is considered to be a logical definition, i.e. definition of the concept through the nearest genus and specific difference.

The synonymous method is common, i.e. explanation using words that sound different but have a common meaning.

Quite often, when explaining a word, a descriptive method is used, in which its meaning is conveyed by describing the very object, concept, phenomenon.

Explaining the meaning of a word, it is sometimes good to turn to its etymology. Etymology teaches us to understand the true meaning of the word, clarifies it. Science not only establishes the original meaning of the word, its original meaning, but also explores the history of its application, the reasons for the changes that it has undergone.

Purity of speech

Expressiveness of speech

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of speech largely depends on the situation of communication.

Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional.

Before analyzing the various visual means of the language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has. The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous, and words that designate several objects, phenomena of reality, are considered polysemantic. The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative. Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are. Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.

The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means, as a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, widely used in oratory, oral communication.

The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon.

Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. With metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

Comparison is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: an object, an image, and a sign.

Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined); folk - poetic (used in oral folk art); individually - author's (created by the authors).

To revitalize speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.

A technique based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs is called antithesis. The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech. A valuable means of expressiveness in a speech is inversion, i.e. changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose.

Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which is translated from Greek means unity.

In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. In practice oratory techniques have been developed. One of these techniques is a question-and-answer move. In addition to the question-and-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load. The means of expression include direct speech. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. As a form of transferring someone else's statement in a speech, it is also used indirect speech, conveying someone's words from a third person. Rich presentation material contains oral folk art. A real treasure for a speaker is proverbs and sayings. Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the people - the creator, the experience of many generations. The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech.

It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary, the effectiveness of communication, enhance the effectiveness of the spoken word .

Question 8

Question 9

Pleonasm. Tautology.

Pleonasm (from other Greek πλεονασμός - superfluous, excess) is a turn of speech in which some element of meaning is duplicated; the presence of several language forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as a language expression in which there is such duplication. The term "pleonasm" came from ancient style and grammar. Ancient authors give different assessments of pleonasm. Quintilian, Donatus, Diomedes define pleonasm as an overload of speech with unnecessary words, therefore, as a stylistic vice. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as an enrichment of speech with words that are superfluous at first glance, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, pathos, impracticable in laconic speech. Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautology and, in part, paraphrase. The relationship between the terms pleonasm and tautology is understood by linguists in different ways. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense). Pleonasm is found in folklore: once upon a time, sadness-longing, path-path, sea-okiya. It is also widely used in fiction, usually with the aim of concretizing the details of the narrative or enhancing emotions, assessments: In fact, extremely strange! - said the official, - the place is completely smooth, as if it were a freshly baked pancake. Yes, unbelievably even! (N. Gogol, "The Nose"); The old fear again seized him all over, from head to toe (F. Dostoevsky, "Crime and Punishment"); “I haven’t seen you for a whole week, I haven’t heard from you for such a long time. I crave, I long for your voice. Speak up. (A. Chekhov, "Ionych").2. A kind of lexical error associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, when words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view are used in a phrase or sentence. For example, in the sentence They ensured the rhythmic and uninterrupted operation of the enterprise, the definitions express similar meanings; here one of them is sufficient. The author's inscription on the cover of the book Dedicated to my dad - Sergei Mikhailovich is pleonastic; Enough Dedicated to Dad...

Typical examples of non-normative pleonasm are phrases in which the meaning of one word repeats the meaning of another: more important (more redundant, because more important means "more important"), first premiere (premier is enough - "the first performance of a play, film or performance of a musical work"), atmospheric air (enough air - "a mixture of gases that forms the atmosphere of the Earth"), eventually (correctly in the end or enough in the end), return back (the verb return indicates movement back, in the opposite direction), import from abroad (it is enough to import - "to import from abroad").

Some pleonastic phrases have become entrenched in the language and are not considered erroneous, for example: go down, go up, a period of time, an exhibit (Latin exponatus means "exposed"), people's democracy (democracy in Greek means "power of the people").

In fiction and journalism, non-normative lexical redundancy can act as a means of speech characteristics of characters: - Here you are laughing and baring your teeth, - said Vasya, - and I really, Marya Vasilievna, adore and love you dearly (M. Zoshchenko, "Love").

TAUTOLOGY (Greek - the same and - the word) - a kind of pleonasm; the use of single-root words in a sentence or text.

Tautology is found in proverbs and sayings: Friendship is friendship, and service is service; To live life is not a field to cross; Free will; in phraseological turns: to walk shaking, packed full, eat eaten. Expressively colored tautological combinations are characteristic of folklore: Soon a fairy tale is told, but not soon the work is done; sit down, bitter grief. The intentional use of single-root words serves as a means of lexical expressiveness in fiction and journalism: “I will laugh with my bitter laughter” (N. Gogol); “How clever is the mind, how efficient is it, / How terrible is the fear, how dark is the darkness! // How life is alive! How deadly is death! // Like youth young yuna!" (Z. Ezrohi), “The law is the law” (from the newspaper).

A tautology is a lexical error if the use of cognate words is not justified by stylistic purposes and is random: to put together, to dance a dance, to treat sports in a sporty way, to confirm the statement. Usually they say about an unintentional tautology like this: butter oil.

Question 10

Synonym classification

Synonyms, pointing to the same concept and having the same lexical meaning, differ in their expressive coloring, attachment to a certain style, frequency of use.

Many synonyms differ from each other at the same time lexical meaning and expressive colors. So, synonyms can be differentiated:

According to the subjects they designate [synonyms "buffoon - actor - comedian - actor - artist" reflect different moments in the development of the theater and different attitudes towards the profession of an actor (cf. next paragraph)

According to the social assessment of the designated subject (synonyms "salary - salary" reflect a different attitude towards the remuneration received for work);

According to applicability in a particular style of speech (the synonyms “horse - horse” are not always stylistically reversible; in the verse “where are you galloping, proud horse?” The substitution of the synonym “horse” will produce a comic effect - “where are you galloping, proud horse?”) ;

According to the etymological meaning, which can give one of the synonyms a special color (synonyms "brave - fearless" connect general concept courage in the first case with "daring", "determination", in the second - with "lack of fear"; therefore, these synonyms in a certain context can be used as words opposite in meaning, as antonyms);

By the presence or absence of figurative meanings: for example, in the famous epigram Batyushkov K. N. Advice to the epic poet:

"What name do you want?

Your semi-wild poem

"Peter the Long", "Peter the Great", but only "Peter the Great"

Don't name her.

Homonyms(ancient Greek ὁμός - the same + ὄνομα - name) - words, morphemes and other units of the language that are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs and paronyms.

In relation to words belonging to the same parts of speech, linguistics often distinguishes between homonymy and polysemy. Homonymy is a random coincidence of words, while polysemy is the presence of different historically related meanings for a word. For example, the words "boron" in the meaning of "pine forest" and "boron" in the meaning of "chemical element" are homonyms, since the first word is of Slavic origin, and the second arose from the Persian "borax" - the name of one of the boron compounds. At the same time, for example, the words "ether" in the sense organic matter and "ether" in the sense of "broadcasting and television" linguists call the meanings of one word, that is, polysemy, since both come from other Greek. αἰθήρ - mountain air. However, another part of linguists draws the line between polysemy and homonymy in a different way. Namely, if most people see a common shade of meaning in two coinciding words (as linguists say, “a common semantic element”), then this is polysemy, and if they do not see it, then this is homonymy, even if the words have a common origin. For example, in the words “braid” (tool) and “braid” (hairstyle), the common semantic element noticed by most people is “something long and thin.” Finally, some linguists consider all separate meanings of polysemantic words to be homonyms. In this case, polysemy is a special case of homonymy.

Coinciding words related to different parts of speech, all or almost all Russian linguists unconditionally refer to homonyms. Examples of such homonyms are "flow" (flow) and "flow" (flow).

Classification

Full (absolute) homonyms - homonyms that have the same entire system of forms. For example, attire (clothes) - outfit (order), forge (forge) -bugle (wind instrument).

Partial homonyms - homonyms that do not have the same form. For example, weasel (animal) and affection (show of affection) diverge in the genitive plural form ( weasels - caresses).

Grammar homonyms, or omophorions - words that match only in separate forms (the same part of speech or different parts speech). For example, the numeral three and verb three coincide only in two forms (to three - we are three, three apples - three are stronger!).

Question 11

Question 12

Question 13

functional styles.

The stage of division of the literary language is the division of each of its varieties - book and spoken languages ​​- into functional styles. According to the definition of V.V. Vinogradov, functional style is “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally integrated set of methods of using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of one or another nationwide, nationwide language, correlative with other similar ways of expression that serve for other purposes, perform other functions in the speech social practice of a given people. In short, the variants of the literary language, due to various areas of communication, are functional styles.

In the modern Russian book literary language, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, religious and preaching.

The spoken language is not divided so clearly into functional styles, which is quite understandable: the bookish language is consciously cultivated, society as a whole and its various groups and institutions are interested in the functional flexibility of the bookish language (without this, the effective development of such areas of public life as science, lawmaking is impossible). , office work, mass communication, etc.); the spoken language develops spontaneously, without guiding efforts on the part of society. However, here, too, some differences can be observed, determined by (a) the scope of the spoken language, (b) the communicative goals of speech, (c) social characteristics speaker and listener and the psychological relationship between them, as well as some other variables.

So, family conversations and dialogues of colleagues differ; conversation with the child and communication of adults; speech acts of condemnation or reproach and speech acts of request or exhortation, etc.

Characteristic properties of the literary language. So, the literary language is characterized by the following properties that distinguish it from other subsystems of the national language:

1) normalization; at the same time, the literary norm is the result of not only a linguistic tradition, but also a purposeful codification, fixed in grammars and dictionaries;

2) the consistent functional differentiation of means and the associated permanent tendency towards the functional differentiation of options;

Language for philosophers of the XX century. turns out to be a reality that hides the secrets of being, as for the philosophers of the XVII-XIX centuries. - thinking.

The term "language", depending on the context of its use, has entered into the following meanings:

1. Language is a sign system, which is a universal means of establishing a relationship between a person and environment in the course of her life. A person learns a language, and then uses it in various activities for a specific purpose.

2. Language is a system of special signs and symbols, which is interpreted in a certain pragmatic context of its use.

3. Speech - calculus, that is, the construction of a formal model by means of the language. It has received the name of a formalized, logistic language (see 4).

The functions of the language are cognitive, informational (transmission of information, knowledge from person to person, from generation to generation), communicative (communication in a communicative act), representative (representation by a person of his own experiences, moods, sensations, thoughts, etc.), heuristic (with with the help of one language, new languages, new sign-symbolic systems, new systems of knowledge are created), etc.

Modern language is divided into natural (colloquial, national) and artificial (formalized).

Natural (national, colloquial) language is a sign system that arose historically and reflects, objectifies, representing the sphere of sensations, desires, moods, intentions of people, as well as their images and thoughts. The functions of natural language are communicative, cognitive, informational, representative, etc. The languages ​​that perform the above functions include verbal (lat. ver-halts) and non-verbal (sign language, etc.).

Artificial (formalized) language - a logically constructed language, a special system of signs based on the purpose of encoding certain information, mathematical and logical operations on artificially created symbols, etc. Features of artificial languages ​​\u200b\u200bare the accuracy of their construction according to clearly defined rules; clarity of their understanding. Artificial languages ​​include code systems, signs traffic, scientific speech (language of mathematics, mathematical logic etc.), programming language, etc.

Depending on the sphere of cognitive and practical activities people distinguish between such varieties of languages: ordinary (everyday); means language mass media; business; scientific; philosophical; legal, etc.

Language is the object of study of philosophy and such sciences as linguistics (linguistics), semiotics, logic, psycholinguistics, and the theory of artificial intelligence, each of which develops its own concept of language.

Philosophy and specific sciences study language in a structural sense: "objective reality - thinking - language"; relationship between thinking and language. In the XX century. speech as an object of study acquired independent meaning and began to be studied in its immanent existence and functioning as a special system of signs. According to a new line of research, language began to be seen: as a manifestation of thoughts; as an image of knowledge; as a syntactic system where there is a relationship between graphic signs, etc.

Semiotic concept of language

Semiotics (Greek semeiotike - the study of signs) - the science of signs and language as a sign system; humanitarian discipline, which explores all the facts of culture (language, science, philosophy, art, theater, cinema, literature, etc.) as phenomena that have sign expression. The ideas of semiotic analysis of language were considered in their works by philosophers (Aristotle, T. Hobbes, D. Locke, G. Leibnitz) and linguists (A. Humboldt, F. de Saussure, E. Benveniste, O. Potebnya), but as a special science ( system of knowledge about signs) was formed at the beginning of the 20th century. The founders of semiotics are American philosophers and linguists C. Pierce (1830-1914) and C. Morris (1901-1979).

Semiotics studies signs and language as a sign system in three aspects - semantic, syntactic, pragmatic.

Semantics (Greek semantikos - meaning) is an integral part of semiotics, a theory that studies the meaning and meaning of linguistic expressions, analyzes language as a sign system with the functions of definition and designation. The main semantic categories are statements, name, term, meaning, meaning, denotation, reference, description (the content of these categories will be defined in 2.4).

Syntax (Greek syntaxis - connection, construction) is an integral part of semiotics that studies the rules for combining and placing linguistic signs in a certain sign system, abstracting from the definition and designation functions that semantics explores.

Pragmatics (Greek pragma - action, deed) is an integral part of semiotics that studies the ways of using signs and language as a sign system in specific practical situations.

The main object of research in semiotics is the sign.

Sign (lat. nota - sign, mark, notch) - an object (object, image) that represents another object, object properties, relationships between objects, actions, events, situations, state of affairs, etc. in the process of practical and cognitive activity of people. It contains certain information about the object it represents. For example, fingerprints at a crime scene are a sign that says: there was a person at the crime scene who can be identified with the subject of the crime.

Each sign has its own definition and denotes a certain object (signified and denoted functions of the sign). The definition of a sign constitutes its meaning, and the designations - its objective meaning (see 2.4).

Types of signs:

1. Depending on the element of which system certain signs are, they are divided into language and name signs. A linguistic sign is a letter, a symbol (a unit of natural or formalized language as a sign system), which has a graphic image. The totality of linguistic signs create the alphabet of the language. The custom mark is an element in the custom system. For example, a change in the habitat of some wild animals is a sign of ecosystem disturbance on Earth.

2. According to the method of connection with the signified object, signs are divided into copy signs, index signs, sign signs, and symbol signs.

The sign-copy means the similarity between the sign and the signified object. Examples of copy signs: reflection of a person in a mirror (the image of a person in a mirror is a sign of the authenticity of a person and his mirror reflection); photo; copies of documents; fingerprints on a certain object.

Index sign (Latin index - pointer) - in mathematics and logic - a symbol (numerical or alphabetic indicator) that other symbols are assigned to distinguish them from each other. For example, Av A2, Al, xv x2> xn, where 1, 2, n are index signs.

A sign-attribute (sign, symptom, pointer) is a sign of the relationship between an object and its properties, between objects. Examples: smoke is a sign of fire; high temperature in humans is a sign of illness; broken car on the road - a sign of a traffic accident.

A sign-symbol is a sign that has no resemblance to the signified object, but specifically expresses something general, abstract (concept, idea, hypothesis, theory, quality, property, abstract essence of a certain object). For example, a coat of arms, a flag, an anthem are signs-symbols of a certain state (they symbolize the idea of ​​statehood).

The process of functioning of signs is denoted by the term "semiosis" - (Greek zeta - sign). It means the interpretation of signs and designates the very process of interpreting a sign in relation to "object - sign - interpretation", as a result of which the phenomenon of the birth of the meaning and meaning of a sign arises. The semiotic concept of language as a sign system is the basis of modern logical-semantic and pragmatic concepts of language.

Language Comparison

All languages ​​of the world have a single (sign) structure, although outwardly they can differ greatly. There are several ways to classify languages:

• areal, according to cultural and historical areas (place of distribution);
• typological; for example, according to the way of expressing grammatical meaning, languages ​​are divided into analytical, isolating, synthetic and polysynthetic;
• genetic, by origin and degree of relationship. Languages ​​are grouped into groups; those, in turn, into families. For some families, it is proposed to unite into taxa of a higher level - macrofamilies. The classification of languages ​​on the basis of genetic characteristics is the responsibility of linguistic systematics.

Language dynamics in the world

About 2/3 of the world's population speaks the 40 most common languages. Most people speak Chinese, Spanish, Hindi, English, Russian, Portuguese and Arabic. French is also widely spread, but the number of those who consider it their native (first) is relatively small.

It takes about 100,000 native speakers for a language to survive. There are currently just over 400 languages ​​that are considered endangered.

Languages ​​die along with the last carrier, and therefore the danger threatens, first of all, peoples who do not use writing.

One of the reasons for the death of languages ​​is their uneven distribution among the inhabitants. So, 80% of the world's population knows only 80 languages. At the same time, 3.5 thousand languages ​​account for 0.2% of the inhabitants of the Earth. The main reason for the process of disappearance of languages ​​is considered to be globalization and migration. People leave villages for cities and lose the language of their people.

About half of the currently existing languages ​​will be out of use by the middle of the 21st century. Many languages ​​disappear due to the fact that their speakers come into contact with a stronger language environment Therefore, the languages ​​of small nationalities and the languages ​​of peoples that do not have statehood are under the threat of extinction in the first place. If less than 70% of children learn a language, it is considered endangered. According to the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages ​​in Danger, approximately 50 languages ​​are currently threatened with extinction in Europe.

Language Features

• communicative (or communication function) - the main function of the language, the use of language to convey information;
• cognitive (or cognitive function) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society;
• informative (or accumulative function) - transmission of information and its storage;
• emotive (or emotional function) - expression of feelings, emotions;
• voluntarily (or call-incentive function) - impact function;
• metalinguistic - explanations by means of the language of the language itself;
• phatic (or contact-setting);
• ideological function - the use of a particular language or type of writing to express ideological preferences. For example, the Irish language is used mainly not for communication, but as a symbol of Irish statehood. The use of traditional writing systems is often perceived as cultural continuity, and the transition to the Latin script as modernizing.
• omadative (or shaper of reality) - creation of realities and their control;
• metalinguistic
• nominative, denotative, representative
• conative
• poetic
• axiological

 Communicative function:

Language as a means of communication between people. This is the main function of the language.

 Thought-forming function:

Language is used as a means of thinking in the form of words.

 Cognitive (cognitive, cumulative) function:

Language as a means of knowing the world, accumulating and transferring knowledge to other people and subsequent generations (in the form of oral traditions, written sources, audio recordings).

 Nominative function:

Language, as a means of orienting a person in space and time, participates in the knowledge of the world.

 Regulatory function:

The function of controlling the behavior of other people with the help of language.

Language is a multifunctional phenomenon; all functions of language are manifested in communication.

Language characteristic

Language evolution

Note

see also

• World languages ​​- full list Wikipedia language articles

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Language (sign system)" is in other dictionaries:

A sign system used for the purposes of communication and cognition. The systemic nature of Ya is expressed in the presence in each Ya, in addition to the dictionary, also with and n taxis and semantics. The syntax defines the rules for the formation of expressions Y. and their transformation, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

language- a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity (see thinking), a way of expressing a person's self-consciousness, transmitting from generation to generation and storing information. Historically, the basis for the emergence of I. is ... ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

language- A system of signs that provides communication and includes a set of characters (dictionary) and rules for their use and interpretation (grammar) [GOST 7.0 99] language A set of symbols, conventions and rules that are used to represent information. ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

A system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, the development of culture and is capable of expressing the totality of knowledge, ideas and beliefs of a person about the world and about himself. As a fact of spiritual culture, language in its development and ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

A muscular organ covered with a mucous membrane and equipped with taste buds. The tongue is involved in the act of chewing and swallowing, and also serves as an organ of taste and speech. In English: Tongue See also: Human oral cavity Speech activity ... ... Financial vocabulary

A system of signs associated with universal rules for their linking and serving communicative purposes ... Psychological Dictionary

language- 3.1.6. language: A system of signs that provides communication and includes a set of characters (dictionary) and rules for their use and interpretation (grammar) Source ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

language- LANGUAGE is a complex developing system of signs endowed with meanings, which is a means of objectifying the content of consciousness, expressing the totality of knowledge and beliefs, feelings and experiences of a person. I. is: 1) a system of signs and their rules ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

LANGUAGE, a, pl. and, oh, husband. 1. A movable muscular organ in the oral cavity, perceiving taste sensations, in humans also participating in articulation. Lick tongue. Try on ya (i.e. taste). Serpentine me. (such an organ bifurcated at the end in ... ... Dictionary Ozhegov

The entire modern way of the world consists of many separate systems. If you have not thought about it yet, then just imagine: everything that we are used to reading, understanding and interpreting is all signs. Man came up with their special combinations to record, store and perceive information.

In order for there to be no countless number of symbols, like a variety of phenomena in this world, special structures were created. It is them that we are going to consider in this article, as well as give a vivid and understandable example of a sign system. This linguistic topic will be of interest not only to specialists. And we will begin to consider it sequentially so that all the data is perceived easily and simply.

Definition

Before considering in detail any example of a sign system, we consider it necessary to understand what kind of phenomenon it is.

So, a sign system is a kind of collection of basically the same type of signs, which has an internal structure and, to some extent, explicit laws for the formation, interpretation and use of its elements. Its main task is to provide full-fledged collective and individual communication processes.

At the same time, it is worth remembering what, in fact, a sign is - a material object that becomes a substitute (embodiment) of another object, phenomenon, property. It fixes, stores and perceives information (which we also call knowledge).

Types of sign systems

Theoretical studies of semiotics have classified the functioning structures of data transmission that exist today as follows:

natural;

verbal;

functional;

Iconic;

Conventional;

Recording systems.

We will touch on these types in more detail after we consider the next question - what is a language as a sign system. For now, let's dwell on the criteria on the basis of which they stand out.

signs

We are already a sign system, but we have only got acquainted abstractly with the definition of the term. As a very broad category, it does not include all the elements called signs. So, what signs allow it to be such?

• First, in any system, at least two characters must be combined.
• Secondly, the elements must be systematized according to a certain principle.
• Thirdly, the emergence of new elements can be carried out only according to a clearly defined principle.

The study of signs and sign systems

The issues of sign structures are dealt with by a separate science - semiotics. In essence, it is a borderline discipline between linguistics, sociology, literature, psychology, and biology.

The study in semiotics is carried out in three main directions, which are designated as branches of science:

• Syntactics. The object of study is the objective laws of sign systems, the relationship between their elements, the patterns of their combination and formation.
• Semantics. It studies the meaning, in other words, considers the relationship between the sign and its meaning.
• Pragmatics. It studies the relationship between the system and the subjects using it.

One of the separate aspects of the study - This concept is due to the fact that in any culture there is information transmitted through signs. As a rule, this applies to texts. It is noteworthy that the text of culture in the concept of this science is any carrier of information.

Language as a system of signs in semiotics

We all deal with language every day. Perhaps we have not thought about this before, but statements formed from words, syllables and letters (sounds in oral speech) are all a system. Semiotics gives it its exhaustive interpretation.

Language is a sign formation that serves to store the transmission and build-up of information that has a physical nature. Its functions are communication and obtaining information in the process of diverse human activity.

In turn, within the framework of the language, different sign codes are used, for example, transcription, sign language, shorthand, and others. Languages ​​in semiotics - according to the most generalized criterion - are divided into natural and artificial. Let's continue to delve into the topic of what the sign system of a language is.

Semiotics about language

As we can see, language is the closest example of a sign structure for us. In addition, in semiotics, it is also the most important of the phenomena, occupying a special place among other auxiliary systems. Language is not only a means of expressing information, but also a means of shaping human thoughts, emotions, a way of expressing will, that is, the range of functions performed is extremely wide.

At the same time, for comparison: specialized sign systems (by the way, they are usually artificial) transmit only information limited in type and quantity or recode it.

The sphere of language use is also special in comparison with specialized formations. It affects absolutely all areas of scientific and practical activity. Specialized sign structures, on the contrary, are narrowly focused.

The language is formed, develops in the process of use, obeying internal laws and external influences. Special sign systems are the result of a one-time agreement of people, they are absolutely artificial.

Natural and artificial languages

The functions of the language in comparison with other systems are much wider. We also mentioned that the main criterion for separating languages ​​classifies them into artificial and natural. Now let's look at these two types of languages ​​in a little more detail.

So, natural language is the one that appeared along with man. Its development occurs naturally, a person does not produce a conscious action on it.

About artificial languages, as you might guess, let's say that they are purposefully created by man systems for specialized purposes. The creation of artificial systems is due to the fact that in some cases it is inefficient or even impossible to use the means of natural languages.

On the question of artificial languages

We have already learned enough in the consideration of the topic: "Language as a sign system". We consider the features of artificial languages ​​to be interesting. Their classification includes such subspecies as:

Planned languages ​​are ways of international communication; have an auxiliary function; such is the well-known Esperanto, in which a lively interest flared up in the last century;

Symbolic languages ​​- mathematical signs, physical, logical, chemical;

Human-machine communication languages ​​- these include programming languages.

Semiotics as a science

The study of signs is the subject of a special science - semiotics, which studies the emergence, structure and functioning of various systems that store and transmit information. Semiotics is the study of natural and artificial languages, as well as general principles, which form the basis of the structure of all signs.

Science considers language in a broad sense, that is, it covers both natural and artificial. Natural systems are considered to be primary modeling systems. The languages ​​of culture are secondary, because through them a person socializes informationally, perceives knowledge and influences the world around him.

Secondary modeling systems are otherwise called cultural codes. - cultural code: cultural texts, with the exception of natural language. To understand these phenomena, it is worth giving examples more specifically. So, models of behavior, religious texts, beliefs, rituals, units (objects, works) of art - all these are secondary modeling systems.

Such systems are built in the image of a natural language, but are used as artificial ones: in a certain field of activity, for the exchange of specific information. Such sign systems are deliberately studied, some of them are available only in certain social groups. For comparison, let us recall that natural language is a universal property.

Typology, features, examples

Earlier in our article, we considered various issues related to a given topic - a sign system, examples of it, categories of definition. Now let's touch on their types in more detail, giving examples for clarity. They will apply not only to languages.

Natural signs are natural phenomena, certain things that can point us to other phenomena, objects, assessment. They carry information about the image they embody. They can also be called signs. For example, the natural sign of fire would be smoke. To correctly interpret them, you need to have some information.

Such that are images of things and phenomena that display. Otherwise, they can be called signs-images. They are often created artificially, purposefully giving them a characteristic shape. We see good examples of sign-images in music: imitation of thunder, birdsong, wind noise, etc. Only this is already a reflection not in form, but in another criterion - material.

Functional signs are those that have a pragmatic function. What makes them signs is that a person includes them in his activity. They can serve as a detail by which you can get information about the entire mechanism. The fact that the teacher opens the class journal is a sign of the upcoming survey of those present. Other, secondary meanings of functional signs are displayed in signs - a black cat that crossed the road - to trouble, a horseshoe brings happiness.

Signal signs are intuitive: they are warning signs. We all know the meaning of traffic light colors well, for example.

Conventional signs are artificial, created by people to denote certain phenomena. With the subject of designation, they may not be at all similar. So, a red cross - means an ambulance, a zebra - a pedestrian crossing, etc.

Verbal sign systems are spoken languages. We spoke separately about language as a sign system. We gave an example of the sign system of the language above.

Symbols are compact signs pointing to an object or phenomenon, which also have a second meaning. Their task is to highlight objects in a number of similar ones. Example: legend geographical map, state attributes - flag, coat of arms, anthem.

Indices are compact designations of objects and phenomena. Sometimes they also have a shape similar to the designation object.

Conclusion

In our article, we touched on a very broad topic: "What is a sign system", we also gave examples, and also paid special attention to the language. We considered the current classification modern stage development of semiotics.

Now you know what a language is like as a sign system, we also covered the functions of the language and the purposes of its use. In parallel, we considered the most general classification - they are artificial and natural. And they concluded that language is a sign system that serves to store, transmit and increase information. We hope that the linguistic-semiotic topic was interesting for you too!

The understanding of language as a system of signs was substantiated in the work of F. De Saussure “Course of General Linguistics”: “A language sign connects not a thing and its name, but a concept and an acoustic image. This latter is not a material sound, a purely physical thing, but a mental imprint of the sound, an idea that we receive about it through our senses ... "," A linguistic sign is, therefore, a two-sided mental essence ... ".

Let us also pay attention to the nature of the sign and its two-sidedness: both its sides, both the concept and the acoustic image, in the understanding of Saussure, are equally psychic: “This definition raises an important terminological question. We call a sign the combination of a concept and an acoustic image, but in common usage this term usually denotes only an acoustic image, for example, the word arbor, etc. It is forgotten that if arbor is called a sign, then only insofar as the concept of “tree” is included in it, so that the sensual side presupposes the sign as a whole.

The ambiguity will disappear if we call all three available concepts by names that presuppose each other, but at the same time are mutually opposed. We propose to retain the word sign to designate the whole and replace the terms "concept" and "acoustic image" respectively with the terms "signified" and "signifying"; the last two terms have the advantage of marking the opposition that exists both between themselves and between wholes and parts of this whole. As for the term "sign", we are content with it, not knowing what to replace it with, since everyday language does not offer any other suitable term.

So, according to Saussure, a sign is a psychic essence and in general, in its constituent sides: the signified is a concept, the signifying is an acoustic image. In modern linguistics, the views of Saussure often adapt to the worldview of the linguists who expound and serve these views, and it turns out that the signified is an object, thing, and the signifier is the sound, material shell of the word; another option: the signified is the concept, denoting - the sound of the word. But this, as one can easily see, does not correspond to the views of the Genevan linguist, for whom the linguistic sign is psychic in its entirety, which means that the language built from signs is also psychic.

Following Saussure, modern linguistics often sees in a linguistic sign two "priority properties": the first is the arbitrariness of the sign, the second is the linear nature of the signifier.

Let us consider what is meant by the arbitrariness of a sign in the "Course of General Linguistics".

“The link connecting the signifier with the signified is arbitrary; since by a sign we understand the whole that arises as a result of the association of some signifier with some signified, we can express the same idea in a simpler way: A linguistic sign is arbitrary.

Thus, the concept of "sister" is not connected by any internal relation with the sequence s-oe: - r, serving in French its signifier; it could be expressed by any other combination of sounds; this can be proved by differences between languages ​​and by the very fact of the existence of different languages: the signified "bull" b-oe-f (fr. Boeuf on one side of the language boundary and signifiers o-k-s(German Ochs) on the other side of it. And then the scientist explains the word “arbitrary”: “The word “arbitrary” also requires explanation. It should not be understood in the sense that the signifier can be freely chosen by the speaker (as we shall see below, a person is not in a position to make even the slightest change in a sign already adopted by a certain linguistic community); we only want to say that the signifier is unmotivated, i.e. arbitrary in relation to the given signified, with which it has in reality no natural connection.

The second property of the sign in the "Course of General Linguistics" recognizes the linear nature of the signifier: "The signifier, being by its nature perceived by ear, unfolds only in time and is characterized by signs borrowed from time: a) it has extension and b) this extension has one dimension - it's a line."

According to Saussure, the lack of motivation of the sign and the extension of the signifier define two fundamental (in modern terms) principles of the study of language, and the consequences of these principles are incalculable, they subjugate the entire linguistics of the language.

Let's consider these positions from the materialistic understanding of language - practical, real consciousness. A linguistic sign is real and objective (as, indeed, any other sign); it is a material-ideal phenomenon, and not a mental one: its meaning is ideal, its objective form, accessible to perception through the senses, is material.

The thesis about the lack of motivation of the sign deserves attention, but cannot be unconditionally accepted, even if we share the understanding of the sign proposed by Saussure as a two-sided mental entity. First, if both the signifier and the signified are equally psychic and form a psychic whole, so to speak, merge into this whole, then it is impossible to imagine the independence of one side of this dual psychic essence (the signifier) ​​from the other (the signified). Secondly, it is simply not true (and the facts of various languages ​​show this well) that the sound-morphemic structure of a word (the signifier) ​​does not depend on its semantics (the signified). In derivative words (the majority of such words in developed literary languages), the motivation of their material structure by the expressed meaning is revealed well enough to see it: any compound word of the German language (there are many such words in this language) speaks and even shouts about his greater or lesser motivation: bergbauingehieur-schule`school of mining engineers'; Blumengarten`flower garden", etc. In Russian derivatives, simple and complex, dictionaries also clearly show their motivation there by the meaning for which they were created by the language: run in and run out, stick and unstick, student and teacher, flower girl and florist, balloonist and astronautics. It is the needs of the information expressed and the word-formation patterns that have developed in the language that predetermine the sound-morphemic shell that the word newly born in the language will receive. There is no arbitrariness in the sense of independence of one side of the word from the other (material from semantic) in the language.

By the way, a prominent modern linguist - E. Benveniste casts doubt on the idea of ​​the arbitrariness of a linguistic sign: “One of the components of a sign, an acoustic image, represents a signifier in it; another, i.e. concept, signified. The connection between signified and signifier is not arbitrary; on the contrary, it is indispensable. The concept (“signified”) “bull” in my mind is inevitably identified with the sound complex (“signifier”). And how could it be otherwise! Together they are imprinted in my mind, together they appear in the representation under any circumstances. The symbiosis between them is so close that the concept of "bull" is, as it were, the soul of the acoustic image. There are no empty forms in consciousness, just as there are no unnamed concepts.

And further: “Now we see the sphere of “arbitrary” and can outline its boundaries. The arbitrariness lies in the fact that some one sign, and not some other, is attached to this, and not to another element of the real world. In this sense, and only in this sense, it is permissible to talk about chance, and then, perhaps, rather, not in order to solve the problem, but in order to outline it and temporarily circumvent it.

Particularly interesting is the idea expressed in the second of the cited quotes from the work of E. Benveniste: the sign is correlated with an element of the real world, and this correlation, apparently, is accidental in the only sense that the material form of the sign is chosen by the language not according to the prescription of the “element of the real peace." E. Benveniste caught the weak point of the sign theory of Saussure and his followers, whom the signs of the language tore off from the world of things they designate, and at the same time from the world of people served by them. Meanwhile, we know the words of Karl Marx to the effect that neither thought nor language form a special realm in themselves: they are manifestations of real life. This truth, despite its solid philosophical age, should be remembered by the linguists of our time.

As for the second principle of Saussure's sign theory (“the linear nature of the signifier”), this principle apparently reflects one of the essential realities of language. Indeed, any signs of a language used as part of other, more complex signs form a linear sequence. This is obvious if by signifier we understand the real material units from which a word or sentence is built. But for Saussure, the signifier is an acoustic image fused with a concept. At least two things remain unclear: a) whether the acoustic image of a single element of language or a speech chain consisting of many such elements is meant; c) if the second is also meant, and if the signifier is linear, why not assume that the signified is linear, and hence the sign as a whole! After all, the essence of the signifier, the signified, as well as the sign as a whole is one and the same - mental?

The arbitrariness of the sign and the linear nature of the signifier entail important consequences, among them: the invariability of the sign, its continuity in time - the variability of the sign. The arbitrariness of the sign will not allow people to change it at their discretion, because there is no apparent reason why another should be put in place of one word. The language is not changeable, according to F. de Saussure, because, firstly, the arbitrariness of the sign prevents it from changing, secondly, the plurality of signs necessary for the formation of any language, thirdly, the too complex nature of the language system, fourthly, the resistance of the inertia of the speaking community to any linguistic innovation. In the latter case, we mean the inertia of language skills. “Precisely because the sign is arbitrary,” says Saussure, “it knows no other law than the law of tradition, and, conversely, it can be arbitrary only because it relies on tradition.”

In the “Course of General Linguistics” we read: “Time, which ensures the continuity of the language, has another effect on it, which at first glance is the opposite of the first one, namely: it changes linguistic signs with greater or lesser speed, so that in a certain sense one can speak simultaneously as about the immutability of the linguistic sign, and about its variability.

In the end, both of these facts are mutually conditioned: the sign can change because its existence is not interrupted. In every change, the prevailing moment is the stability of the former material; unfaithfulness to the past is only relative. That is why the principle of change relies on the principle of continuity.”

Let us find out what Saussure understands by the variability of a sign. According to the scientist, this is a shift in the relationship between the signifier and the signified. “Other social institutions - customs, laws, and the like - are based, in varying degrees, on the natural relations of things; they have the necessary correspondence between the means used and the goals set. Even the fashion that determines our costume is not completely arbitrary: it is impossible to deviate beyond a certain measure from the conditions dictated by the properties of the human body. Language, on the contrary, is not limited in any way in the choice of its means, because it is impossible to imagine what could prevent the association of any concept with any sequence of sounds.

“... With its arbitrary nature, language differs sharply from all other social institutions. This is clearly shown in the way he develops; there is nothing more difficult than its development: since the language exists simultaneously in society and in time, no one can change anything in it; meanwhile, the arbitrariness of its signs theoretically ensures the freedom to establish any relationship between sound material and concepts. It follows from this that the two elements, united in a sign, live apart to an unprecedented degree, and that language changes, or rather evolves, under the influence of all forces that can affect either sounds or meaning. This evolution is inevitable: there is no language that is free from it."

We have considered the concept of F.D. Saussure. It is complex and dialectical. And I want to accept it and at the same time I want to disagree with it. The scientist was connected by the principle of the arbitrariness of the sign and the understanding of the sign as a two-sided mental entity.

Let's try to look at things differently. A sign is a material carrier of social information. It is involuntary in the sign system, because the creation of each new sign is conditioned by the achieved state of the entire system. It is arbitrary in relation to real objects only in the sense that the very properties of these objects do not require that they be denoted by one and not by another sound combination. However, the sign is not accidental in relation to the object either, because there are real connections between objects that predict many connections between words, in particular, already existing and newly formed ones. If the language has a verb read and there are regular ways of forming arbitrary words, then it is not entirely by chance that an abstract action will be called a word reading, the person performing this action, in a word reader, and the place where the implementation of this action is carried out, reading room. It turns out that the real properties of real objects influence people's choice of the form that the newly created word will receive. Thus, the arbitrariness of the sign and in relation to the object becomes very, very relative.

But if the sign is not arbitrary, and besides, it does not represent a two-sided psychic essence, those considerations about the variability and non-variability of the sign that are expressed in the quotations we have used to comprehend the theory of F. de Saussure cease to operate.

The signs of a language have stability, which is explained not by their own nature, but by the stability of society, its labor skills, its social institutions, the laws of consciousness and the results achieved by its development. Society is interested in the stability of the language, which provides the possibility of mutual understanding of the members of the team and the continuity of labor and other experience, its transmission from one generation to another. But whenever needs arise in a society that the existing system of language cannot satisfy, changes begin in it. Language is stable, but also changeable. Changes in language are again caused not by its own properties, not by the two-sided mental essence of the sign, but by the conditions of its application, the interaction of language and consciousness, as manifestations of real life.

It is true that language is different from all other social institutions and cannot be changed by the will of statesmen or scientists. It is too complicated, and it is subject to the general tradition of its application, since it is needed by everyone and for the implementation of all types of labor activity. In addition, the changes taking place in him and the possibilities of such changes are not realized in everyday communication and are not of interest to him.

How can one relate to the idea of ​​complete isolation, independence of changes in each of the two sides of the language? And this idea seems to be somewhat divorced from the real appearance of the language. Sounds themselves can, of course, develop independently of the change in the meaning of words, but the sound appearance of a word is usually correlated with its morphemic structure. The morphemic structure, in turn, is correlated with the meaning of the word. Therefore, any restructuring of meaning, if it is connected with word formation, also changes the sound side of the language, the word. And if so, then we can speak about the independence of the sound change of the sign from the change in its meanings only for those words in the semantic structure of which changes occur without the participation of the mechanism of word formation. So if we can talk about the independence of changing the meanings of a word from changes in its sound, then this independence must be recognized as not absolute, but relative.