Which of the scientists is in the process of studying memory. Scientific schools in domestic and foreign psychology. Analysis of the results

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The study of memory was one of the first sections of psychological science, where experimental method. Back in the 80s. 19th century the German psychologist G. Ebbinghaus proposed a method by which it was possible to study the laws of "pure" memory, independent of the activity of thinking. This technique is the memorization of meaningless syllables. As a result, he deduced the main curves for memorization (memorization) of the material and revealed a number of features in the manifestation of association mechanisms. Thus, he established that relatively simple events that made a strong impression on a person can be remembered immediately, firmly and for a long time. At the same time, a person can experience more complex, but much more interesting events dozens of times, but they do not remain in memory for a long time. G. Ebbinghaus also found that with close attention to an event, a single experience of it is enough to accurately reproduce it in the future. Another conclusion was that when memorizing a long row, the material located at the ends is better reproduced (the "edge effect"). One of the most important achievements of G. Ebbinghaus was the discovery of the law of forgetting. This law was derived by him on the basis of experiments with memorizing meaningless three-letter syllables. In the course of experiments, it was found that after the first error-free repetition of a series of such syllables, forgetting at first proceeds very quickly. Already within the first hour, up to 60% is forgotten received information, and after six days less than 20% of the total number of initially learned syllables remains in memory. Psychology of memory. / Ed. Yu.B. Gippenreiter and V. Ya. Romanova. - M.: CheRo, 2009. with. 96.

Another well-known German psychologist G. E. Müller carried out fundamental research the basic laws of fixing and reproducing traces of memory in humans. At first, the study of human memory processes was mainly reduced to the study of special conscious mnemonic activity, and much less attention was paid to the analysis of the natural mechanisms of imprinting traces, which are equally manifested in both humans and animals. This was due to the widespread use of the introspective method in psychology. However, with the development of an objective study of animal behavior, the field of study of memory has been significantly expanded. Yes, and late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. the studies of the American psychologist E. Thorndike appeared, who for the first time made the formation of skills in an animal Nemov R.S. Psychology v.1: in 3 books. - M.: ed. center VLADOS, 2009 with. 47.

A special place in the study of memory is occupied by the problem of studying higher arbitrary and conscious forms. memory, allowing a person to consciously apply the techniques of mnemonic activity and arbitrarily refer to any segments of his past.

For the first time, a systematic study of higher forms of memory in children was carried out by the outstanding psychologist L. S. Vygotsky, who at the end of the 1920s began to study the development of higher forms of memory and showed that higher forms of memory are a complex form of mental activity that is social in origin. . Within the framework of the theory of the origin of higher mental functions proposed by Vygotsky, the stages of the phylo- and ontogenetic development of memory were distinguished, including voluntary and involuntary, as well as direct and indirect memory. Vygotsky's works were a further development of the research of the French scientist P. Janet, who was one of the first to interpret memory as a system of actions focused on memorizing, processing and storing material. It was the French psychological school that proved the social conditioning of all memory processes, its direct dependence on practical activities person.

The studies of L. L. Smirnov and P. I. Zinchenko, carried out from the standpoint of the psychological theory of activity, made it possible to reveal the laws of memory as a meaningful human activity, established the dependence of memorization on the task at hand, and identified the main methods of memorizing complex material. For example, Smirnov found that actions are remembered better than thoughts, and among actions, in turn, those associated with overcoming obstacles are more firmly remembered.

There are several main approaches to memory classification. At present, as the most general basis for distinguishing different types of memory, it is customary to consider the dependence of memory characteristics on the characteristics of memorization and reproduction activities.

The classification of types of memory according to the nature of mental activity was first proposed by P. P. Blonsky. Although all four types of memory he singled out do not exist independently of each other, and moreover, they are in close interaction, Blonsky managed to determine the differences between individual types of memory. f-tov ped. in-tov / Ed. V. V. Voronkova - M .: School-Press, 2009. p. 128.

The study of memory until the last quarter of the 19th century. in the works of the philosophers of antiquity Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Augustine, and further in the works of R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, I. Kant, it is defined more as a description of its features than a proper scientific analysis.

The beginning of the scientific study of memory dates back to 1885 - the publication of the famous work "On Memory" by G. Ebbinghaus, who set the task of experimentally studying memory, developed methods for measuring mnemonic processes and established a number of important patterns in the processes of memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting. G. Ebbinghaus firmly stood on the positions of associationism. He understood the processes of memory as the formation of associations: "if some mental formations ever filled consciousness simultaneously or in close succession, then later the repetition of one member of this former experience causes representations of the remaining members."

Scientists were given the task of abstracting as completely as possible from the relationship of the subject with the objective world, from specific human activity and to study the influence of the contiguity factor in the most “pure” form possible. Therefore, in his experiments, G. Ebbinghaus investigated the deliberate rote memorization of mostly meaningless material, which significantly "impoverishes the subject of the psychology of memory," according to P.I. Zinchenko.

Representatives of the associative theory (G. Ebbinghaus, G. E. Müller, A. Pilzeker, and others) made an important contribution to the experimental study of memory by studying the stability, strength, and strength of associations; revealing patterns of influence on the memorization of the number of repetitions, the quantity and quality of the material being memorized, the methods of its presentation, etc. However, the researchers could not explain the selective and purposeful nature of human memory.

The concept of association has firmly entered the psychology of memory, having subsequently received a significant rethinking and scientific justification. The emergence of new concepts of memory in line with well-known areas of psychological science is characterized in terms of content by the fact that they criticized in associative psychology.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology (W. Keller, K. Koffka, M. Wertheimeg, K. Levin, B.V. Zeigarnik and others) opposed the principle of adjacency of elements in time and space as a condition for the emergence and consolidation of associations, putting forward a new principle of integrity. Holistic education - Gestalt is primary in relation to its constituent elements. Gestalt psychologists emphasized the importance of structuring the material, bringing it to integrity, organizing it into a system during memorization and reproduction ("Structural theory of memory"), as well as the role of human intentions and needs in memory processes. Having found a psychological explanation for some facts of memory selectivity (activity, interest, attention, awareness of the task, emotions), Gestalt psychologists could not explain the formation and development of human memory in phylo- and ontogenesis.

Did not give a satisfactory answer to the question of the origin of memory and representatives of two other areas of psychology: behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Proponents of behaviorism (E. Thorndike, D. Watson, E. Tolman, K. Hovland, E. Gilford, J. Dees, J. Miller, O. Selfridge) in their own way narrowed the circle of memory phenomena, limiting themselves to the processes of acquiring and maintaining skills. Researchers emphasized the role of reinforcement in remembering material, based on the assertion that for successful memorization, it is necessary to reinforce the memorization process with some kind of stimulus. However, the behaviorists have retained the spirit of associationism, presenting skill as the result of a simple association of movements.

The problem of memory in psychoanalysis appears in an exclusively one-sided form - it is the disclosure of its emotional side and, deepening this aspect as much as possible, the discovery of the causes that cause the appearance of neurotic symptoms. Thanks to Z. Freud, the dependence of the productivity of memorization on various needs and motives, the role of emotions in remembering and forgetting the events of everyday life was shown. So, according to Z. Freud, forgetting impressions is a spontaneous process that takes place over a certain period of time. In forgetting, there is a selection of present impressions, as well as individual elements of each given impression or experience.

At the same time, in all cases, the "Motive of reluctance" lies at the basis of forgetting, i.e. denial of bad experiences.

A fundamentally new approach to the study of memory is associated with the names of Russian psychologists (L.S. Vygotsky, P.I. Zinchenko, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, A.A. Smirnov, etc.), who began to interpret memory like an activity. In this regard, L.S. Vygotsky wrote: "Memory means the use and participation of previous experience in present behavior; from this point of view, memory, both at the moment of fixing the reaction and at the moment of its reproduction, is an activity in the full sense of the word" .

Activities aimed at memorizing and reproducing the retained material began to be called mnemonic activity.

Thus, thanks to the views of domestic psychologists, according to P.I. Zinchenko (1961), it became possible to study not only the results of memorization, as was the case with G. Ebbinghaus, but also the very activity of memorization, its internal structure. Memory began to be studied in close connection with goals, motives, and methods of performing activities.

The activity approach to the study of memory made it possible to formulate three important provisions:

rejection of the idea of memory as an elementary passive trace, affirmation of the active principle in memory processes;

recognition of the union of memory and thinking. This, in turn, meant that memory can be controlled and developed by learning the techniques of semantic memorization;

consideration of the possibility of memory development as a problem of qualitative restructuring of mnemonic activity.

Of particular interest is the sociological direction in the study of the psychology of memory. In the works of P. Janet, F. Bartlett, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev presents the idea of the social nature of human memory and the possibility of social control of its processes.

P. Janet (1928) was one of the first to consider human memory as a product of social, historical development. He linked the emergence and development of memory with the needs of people's communication, with the need to preserve and transmit a story, other people's assignments, etc. Thus, memory was not reduced to the mechanical association of impressions and movements, their passive reproduction; it was a special social action, a social reaction to the absence, overcoming the absence.

F. Bartlett's concept reflected the idea of the dependence of memory on the interests of the individual, determined by society. The material accumulated by a person as a result of life experience is organized and reorganized into certain groups under the influence of special interests, and a person remembers it, when it is needed, by "working groups" corresponding to the direction of interests. According to F. Bartlett, reproduction is always not a reproduction, but a personal reconstruction of elements of past experience.

In Russian psychology, the idea of a social approach to understanding the nature of memory was in connection with the study of the genesis of the child's psyche. So, L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria, applying the principle of comparative genetic research, traced the phylogeny of memory on the basis of comparison with ontogenesis data. According to scientists, "a decisive step in the transition from the natural development of memory to a cultural one lies in the pass that separates mnemu from mnemonics, the use of memory from domination over it, the biological form of its development from the historical, internal from external" .

Research by A.N. Leontiev (1931) was the first experimental work devoted to the problem of mediation of higher mental functions, and primarily memory. Using the method of double stimulation, A.N. Leontiev developed a position on the "rotation" of external means and methods of memorization, the essence of which is that memorization from a direct, and then externally mediated process becomes an internally mediated arbitrary act that ensures high memory productivity. This position was confirmed by an empirical regularity known as the "parallelogram of development".

Thus, in domestic psychology, a structural-genetic approach was proposed (A.R. Luria, 1960; A.N. Leontiev, 1972; B.G. Ananiev, 1977; B.F. Lomov, 1984, etc.), according to which is supposed to exist hierarchical systems, underlying the organization of mental functions - from the lower, the origin of which is, to a greater extent, hereditary in nature, to the higher, with the greatest influence of social factors.

In cognitive psychology, the computer metaphor has been adopted. It considers a person as a cognitive system and interprets the processes taking place in this system as a gradual processing of information by analogy with the processing of information in a computer.

The field of the psychology of memory has become central to cognitive psychology. During the 1950-70s. research was carried out within the framework of information and structural-functional approaches, where memory is considered as an information system continuously engaged in receiving, modifying, storing and retrieving information. Memory was compared with a workshop (R. Klacki, 1978), storage (R. Atkinson, 1980), etc., but the main analogy was always blocks of operational and external memory of a computing device. Many models of memory have emerged. The three-component memory model of R. Atkinson and R. Shiffrin (1968) is the most famous in psychology. It presents three information stores - perceptual, short-term and long-term stores with their specific organization, constantly circulating flows between them and the control system (Atkinson, 1980).

It can be noted that, despite the successful development of memory models using computer metaphors, it has become clear that the analogy between information processing in humans and computers is not satisfactory. This is due, first of all, to the fact of the intermittent influence on the effectiveness of the mnemonic system of such variables as motivation, interest, attention, meaningfulness of the material, etc.

However, the cognitive approach has driven numerous studies. The main directions of memory research in cognitive psychology are presented in the work of R. Solso (1996).

Another promising direction in cognitive psychology in the study of memory has become the theory of "levels of processing", or the structural-level approach. So, B.M. Velichkovsky noted: "a common feature of modern approaches to the description of memory is the transition from linear control chains to hierarchical level structures" .

For the first time this new conceptual approach to the study of memory was proposed in 1972 by F. Craik and R. Lockhart. The novelty of the theory was that the main subject of analysis was not the external determinants of memory (the time of presentation of the material, the nature of the material, the number of repetitions, etc.), but the active processes of information processing, the mental operations themselves. Each stimulus can be processed at different levels, ranging from the perceptual, as a simpler level, to the more complex, abstract one. Scientists have shown that certain types of memory can be mapped to levels of processing. At each level, a visual, auditory or other code can be used, however, the nature of information processing is determined not only by the code of the incoming information, but also by the combination of the code with the level.

Information based memory models and layered processing models differ in their relationship to the role of structure and process and the nature of repetition. The informational approach emphasizes the role of structure and rote repetition, while layered processing theory focuses on processes and meaningful repetition.

Since the 70s. and psychology, a systematic approach is beginning to be implemented. B.F. Lomov noted: "The nature of the mental can only be understood on the basis of system analysis, i.e. consideration of the mental in the multitude of external and internal relations in which it acts as an integral system. This requires the study of the internal mechanisms, laws and patterns of the psyche as an integral system ".

The implementation of the principle of consistency in the study of memory problems was a natural development of many modern approaches: informational, structural-functional, and activity-based.

Looking at memory from the vantage point systems approach, S.P. Bocharova defines it as the basic functional system, which performs not only a cognitive function associated with the reflection and transformation of new information, but also a productive one related to the organization of all human activities (Bocharova, 1981; 1984; 1990). Other scientists also point out the need to take into account productive moments. So, V.Ya. Laudis notes that memory provides "a productive reconstruction of the formed and actualized experience in accordance with the values and meanings of the individual."

Supporters of the systemic approach (SP. Bocharova, Ya.A. Bolylunov, JLM. Vekker, V.Ya. Lyaudis, R.M., Granovskaya and others) consider memory as a phenomenon that permeates the entire human psyche. In particular, S.P. Bocharova proposed a scheme that reflects the relationship of memory with the perceptual, intellectual and motor components of the psyche, united in "the general outline of a complex hierarchically organized structure of human activity."

Summarizing the ideas about memory that existed at the end of the 20th century, L.V. Cheremoshkina notes that "memory is a multi-level, hierarchical, dynamic system of organizing information open to the formation of new connections in order to carry out future activities."

It is fundamentally important to note that memory acts as a complex system in which two principles are connected - biological (natural memory - "mnema") and social (associated with the environment, with the ability to manage one's memory, with mastering the methods of its organization and development). Therefore, it is supposed to study the different levels of memory properties - from biochemical to psychological (Petrov, 1977; Sereda, 1985; Chuprikova, 1989; Bocharova, 1990, etc.).

Yu.M. Zabrodin, V.P. Zincheiko, B.f. Lomov (1980) emphasize that the disclosure of the neurophysiological and psychophysiological foundations of mnemonic processes is one of the most important conditions for the further development of the theory of memory. The natural foundations of mnemonic abilities were studied from the standpoint of the differential psychophysiological school. It was shown that the properties of the nervous system are the most important physiological determinants that largely determine the individual originality of memorization processes.

Thus, reviewing the state of modern foreign and domestic works, it can be noted that memory, first of all, acts as an activity and as a system. This means that the psychology of mnemonic processes must be viewed through the prism of purposeful cognitive activity a person who is dynamic and changeable. The conditions for the efficiency of memorization and reproduction are not stable and unambiguous determinants of the mnemonic result.

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Introduction

SECTION I. History of the development of the concept of memory

1.1 The concept of memory

1.3 Memory structure

1.4 Factors of forgetting

SECTION II. Theories of the study of memory

Conclusion

Introduction

What is memory and how does it work? Probably many people ask the same question. The proposed work tries to answer the questions posed, which will be its goal.

Memory is one of the most complex and sufficiently studied processes, including the phases of capturing, storing and retrieving incoming information.

Memory is the basis of personality. According to the ancient Greeks, the goddess of memory Mnemosyne is the mother of nine muses, the patroness of all sciences and arts known then. “A person deprived of memory, in fact, will cease to be a person” (Ch. Aitmatov.). And, conversely, among many outstanding personalities, we often come across examples of phenomenal memory that is limitless in its possibilities. Let's take a few examples. Historians claim that the Persian king Cyrus, A. Macedon and Y. Caesar knew by sight and by name all their soldiers, and the number of soldiers each exceeded 30 thousand people. The famous Themistocles, who knew by sight and by name each of the 20 thousand inhabitants of the Greek capital of Athens, had the same abilities. Academician A.F. Ioffe knew the table of logarithms from memory. A contemporary of A.F. Ioffe - Academician A.A. Chaplygin could learn any book on a dare, unmistakably name the phone number he called five years ago, by chance and only once. Bibliologists - the oldest monument of Indian literature for centuries was transmitted orally, keeping only in the memory of the Indians. The priests still remember the folk epic, all the songs of the Mahabhara in 300 thousand lines. All these examples clearly demonstrate the limitless possibilities of memory.

The modern largest mathematician and cyberneticist von Neumann made calculations that showed that, in principle, the human brain can hold approximately 10 20 units of information. This means that each of us can remember all the information contained in millions of volumes of the world's largest Russian state library. Therefore, we can confidently conclude: no one knows the limit of his memory. We have never even come close to the limits of our capabilities, and we use the memory to a tiny fraction of its capacity. Nature has given everyone a colossal loan, but, alas, we do not always use it, either because we simply do not know how to use it, or because we are too lazy to do intellectual gymnastics.

Each of our experiences, impressions or movements leaves a trace that can persist for quite a long time, manifest itself again and become an object of consciousness. Therefore, memory is understood as the imprinting, preservation and subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience, which allows you to accumulate information without losing your previous knowledge, information, skills. Thus, memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several private processes associated with each other. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

The relevance of the chosen topic will be the demand for the study of memory, its functions and processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. After all, many wondered what kind of mechanism it is and how it works ?! What affects our ability to remember the information we need? Scientists are working on these and similar questions, and thanks to their results, we can learn in detail about such a complex mental process as memory.

Section I. History of the development of the concept of memory

1.1 The concept of memory

Memory is the basis of mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the foundations of the formation of the behavior of thinking, consciousness, subconsciousness. Therefore, in order to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about memory.

Images of objects or processes of reality that we perceived earlier, and now mentally reproduce, are called representations.

Memory representations are reproductions of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Imagination representations are representations of objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such a form. The representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter are only the material from which we create new representations with the help of the imagination.

Memory is based on associations or connections. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. We can, having met with one of these objects, by association recall another associated with it. From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: by adjacency, by similarity and by contrast. An adjacency association combines two phenomena that are related in time or space. Such an association by adjacency is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the next one after it is remembered. A similarity association connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one of them is mentioned, the other is remembered.

Association by contrast connects two opposite phenomena.

In addition to these types, there are complex associations - associations in meaning; in them two phenomena are connected, which in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.

For the formation of a temporary connection, a repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required; for the formation of an association, repetition is required. But repetition alone is not enough. Sometimes many repetitions do not give results, and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection arises from one time, if a strong focus of excitation has arisen in the cerebral cortex of the brain, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.

A more important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e. the inclusion of what is required to be remembered in the actions of students, the application of knowledge by them in the process of assimilation.

1.2 Basic processes and types of memory

The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, recognition and reproduction.

Memorization is a process aimed at storing the received impressions in memory, a prerequisite for saving.

Preservation is a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, mastery of it.

Reproduction and recognition are processes of restoring what was previously perceived. The difference between them lies in the fact that recognition takes place when the object is encountered again, when it is perceived again. Reproduction takes place in the absence of an object.

Types of memory. According to the type of material to be remembered, the following four types of memory are distinguished. Genetically, motor memory is considered primary, i.e. the ability to memorize and reproduce a system of motor operations (typing, tying a tie, using tools, driving a car, etc.). Then figurative memory is formed, i.e. the ability to store and further use the data of our perception. Depending on which analyzer took the greatest part in the formation of the image, one can speak of five feats of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. The human psyche is focused primarily on visual and auditory memory, which is characterized by great differentiation.

Almost simultaneously with the motor memory, an emotional memory is formed, which is an imprint of the feelings we experienced. Verbal memory is considered to be the highest type of memory inherent only in humans. With its help, the information base of human intelligence is formed. Verbal (semantic) memory as a product of culture includes forms of thinking, methods of cognition and analysis, basic grammatical rules of the native language.

The most general basis for the allocation of various types of memory is the dependence of its characteristics on the characteristics of the activity of memorization and reproduction. At the same time, individual types of memory are singled out in accordance with three main criteria: 1) according to the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical. 2) by the nature of the goals of the activity - into arbitrary and involuntary. 3) according to the duration of fixation and preservation of the material - for short-term, long-term and operational.

Motor memory is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. Usually a sign of a good motor memory is a person's physical dexterity, skill in work, "golden hands".

Emotional memory is the memory of feelings. The ability to sympathize with another person, empathize with the hero of the book is based on emotional memory.

Figurative memory is a memory for representations, pictures of nature and life, as well as for sounds, smells, tastes. It can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory.

There is, however, such a division of memory into types, which is directly related to the features of the most relevant activity performed. So, depending on the goals of the activity, memory is divided into arbitrary and involuntary. Memorization and reproduction, in which there is no special purpose to remember something, is called involuntary memory. In cases where this is a purposeful process, one speaks of arbitrary memory.

Involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, but in the course of performing activities, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.

Arbitrary memory (information is remembered purposefully with the help of special techniques). The efficiency of arbitrary memory depends on:

1. From the goals of memorization (how firmly, for a long time a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam a lot will be forgotten, if the goal is to learn for a long time, for future professional activity, then the information is not forgotten much.

2. From learning techniques. Learning methods are:

a) mechanical memory, a lot of effort, time is spent, and the results are low. Mechanical memory is a memory based on the repetition of material without comprehending it;

b) logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, selection of the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;

c) figurative memorization techniques (translating information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory can be of different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;

d) mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization).

The ability to constantly accumulate information, which is the most important feature of the psyche, is universal in nature, covers all spheres and periods of mental activity, and in many cases is realized automatically, almost unconsciously. As an example, we can cite a case: a completely illiterate woman fell ill and, in a feverish delirium, loudly shouted out Latin and Greek sayings, the meaning of which she clearly did not understand. It turned out that as a child she served with a pastor who used to memorize aloud quotes from ancient classics. The woman involuntarily remembered them forever, which, however, she herself did not suspect before the illness.

All living beings have memory. Data have appeared on the ability to memorize even in plants. In the broadest sense, memory can be defined as a mechanism for fixing information acquired and used by a living organism. Human memory is, first of all, the accumulation, consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience, that is, that which is no longer in the present. Therefore, memory is a necessary condition for the unity of the human psyche, our psychological identity.

1.3 Memory structure

Most psychologists recognize the existence of several levels of memory, differing in how long each of them can store information. The first level corresponds to the immediate or sensory type of memory. Its systems hold fairly accurate and complete data on how the world is perceived by our senses at the level of receptors. Duration of data saving 0.1-0.5 sec.

Finding out how our sensory memory works is not difficult. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Watch how the sharp, clear picture you see lasts for a while, and then slowly disappears. This is the content of sensory memory. If the information received in this way attracts the attention of higher parts of the brain, it will be stored for about 20 seconds more (without repeating or replaying the signal while the brain processes and interprets it). This is the second level - short-term memory.

Short-term memory is still amenable to conscious regulation, can be controlled by a person. And the "immediate imprints" of sensory information cannot be repeated, they remain only tenths of a second, and the psyche has no way to extend them.

Any information first enters short-term memory, which ensures that the information presented once is remembered for a short time, after which the information can be completely forgotten or transferred to long-term memory, but subject to repetition. Short-term memory is limited in volume, with a single presentation, 7+, -2 are placed in short-term memory. This is the magic formula of a person, i.e., on average, from one time a person can remember from 5 to 10 words, numbers, numbers, figures, pictures, pieces of information. The main thing is to ensure that these "pieces" are saturated with information by grouping, combining numbers, words into a single holistic "piece-image". The volume of short-term memory for each person is individual, according to the volume of short-term memory, one can predict the success of training according to the formula: OKP / 2 + 1 = training score.

Long-term memory provides long-term storage of information. It can be of two types: 1) DP with conscious access (i.e., a person can voluntarily extract, recall the necessary information); 2) DP is closed (a person in natural conditions does not have access to it, only with hypnosis, with irritation of parts of the brain, he can access it and update images, experiences, pictures of his whole life in all details).

RAM is a type of memory that manifests itself in the course of performing a certain activity, serving this activity by storing information coming from both the CP and the DP, which is necessary to perform the current activity.

Intermediate memory - ensures the preservation of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and the time of night sleep is given by the body to clear the intermediate memory and categorize the information accumulated over the past day, transfer it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, the intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, the intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory are reduced, errors appear in speech and actions.

Long-term memory with conscious access is characterized by the pattern of forgetting: everything unnecessary, secondary, as well as a certain percentage of necessary information is forgotten.

Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. With complete forgetting, the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized. Partial forgetting of the material disappears when a person does not reproduce it all or with errors, and also when he recognizes, but cannot reproduce. Temporary forgetting physiologists explain the inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting - their extinction. Research into the forgetting process has revealed interesting feature: the most accurate and complete reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but after 2-3 days. This improved delayed reproduction is called reminiscence.

1.4. forgetting factors

Most memory problems are not related to memory difficulties, but rather to recall. Some data modern science allow us to assert that information is stored in memory indefinitely, but most of it a person (under normal conditions) cannot use. It is practically inaccessible to him, he “forgot” it, although he rightly claims that he once “knew” about it, read, heard, but ... This is forgetting, temporary situational, sudden, complete or partial, selective and etc., i.e. a process leading to a loss of clarity and a decrease in the volume of data that can be updated in the psyche. The depth of forgetting can be amazing, sometimes those who "forget" deny the very fact of their acquaintance with what they need to remember, do not recognize what they have repeatedly encountered.

Forgetting can be due to various factors. The first and most obvious of these is time. It takes less than an hour to forget half of the rote material.

To reduce forgetting, it is necessary: 1) understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but incomprehensible information is forgotten quickly and almost completely); 2) repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only about 50% of mechanically memorized information remains in memory). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, since these days the losses from forgetting are maximum. Better like this: on the first day - 2-3 repetitions, on the second day - 1-2 repetitions, on the third-seventh day - one repetition, then one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions in a month is more effective than 100 repetitions in a day. Therefore, systematic study without overload, memorization in small portions during the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and psychic overload and almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session.

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity immediately preceding memorization and occurring after it.

The negative impact of pre-memorization activity is called proactive inhibition. The negative effect of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition, it is especially pronounced in those cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.

When we noted that forgetting is marked by the time elapsed after memorization, then we can assume an obvious relationship: the longer the information is in the psyche, the deeper the forgetting. But the psyche is characterized by paradoxical phenomena: older people (age is a temporary characteristic) easily recall the past, but just as easily forget what they just heard. This phenomenon is called "Ribot's law," the law of backward movement of memory.

An important factor in forgetting is usually considered the degree of activity in the use of available information. Forgetting what is not a constant need or need. This is true most of all in relation to semantic memory for information received in adulthood.

Childhood impressions, motor skills (cycling, playing the guitar, being able to swim) remain quite stable for decades, without any exercise. There is, however, a case when a man who spent about three years in prison forgot how to tie not only his tie, but also his shoelaces.

Forgetting may be due to the work of the protective mechanisms of our psyche, which displace traumatic impressions from consciousness into the subconscious, where they are then more or less securely held. Consequently, what is “forgotten” is that which disturbs the psychological balance, causes constant negative tension (“motivated forgetting”).

Play Forms:

recognition - a manifestation of memory that occurs when an object is re-perceived;

memory, which is carried out in the absence of perception of the object;

Recall, which is the most active form of reproduction, largely dependent on the clarity of the tasks set, on the degree of logical ordering of the information memorized and stored in the DP;

reminiscence - delayed reproduction of previously perceived, seemingly forgotten;

eidetism - visual soldering, which retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of the perceived.

Forgetting is expressed in the inability to remember or in erroneous recognition and reproduction.

Memory disorder. Memory is one of the most vulnerable abilities of a person, its diverse violations are very common. As La Rochefoucauld noted: "Everyone complains about their memory, but no one complains about their mind." Typical memory disorders clearly demonstrate its dependence on the whole complex of a person's personality characteristics, and their analysis allows us to better understand memory precisely as a psychological phenomenon.

The individual parameters of human memory have a very large range, so the concept of "normal memory" is rather vague. For example, your memories suddenly become livelier and sharper, more detailed than usual, they reproduce the smallest details, you didn’t even suspect that you “remember” all this. In this case, they speak of memory hyperfunction, which is usually associated with strong excitement, feverish excitement, taking certain drugs or hypnotic influence.

Violation of emotional balance, feelings of insecurity and anxiety set the thematic focus of memory hyperfunction, which in these cases takes the form of obsessive memories. We irresistibly recall (in the most vivid figurative form) our extremely unpleasant or shameful actions. It is almost impossible to expel such memories: they return again and again, causing us to feel shame and repentance (“memory of conscience”).

Much more common is the weakening of memory functions, the partial loss of the ability to store or reproduce the available information. The earliest manifestations of memory impairment include a weakening of selective reproduction, difficulties in reproducing the necessary this moment material (dates, names, titles, terms, etc.). The memory loss can then take the form of progressive amnesia. Its causes: alcoholism, injuries, sclerosis, age-related and negative personality changes, some diseases.

With amnesia, the ability to memorize new information is first lost, and then the information reserves of memory are consistently reduced. First of all, what was learned quite recently, i.e. new data and new associations, is forgotten, then memories of recent years life. The events of childhood and adolescence fixed in the memory remain much longer.

Faster people lose memory associated with the rules of complex mental actions, complex assessments, the most stable way of holding, gait, etc.

Violation of direct memory, or "Korsakov's syndrome", is manifested in the fact that memory for current events is impaired, a person forgets what he has just done, said, seen, so the accumulation of new experience and knowledge becomes impossible, although previous knowledge can be preserved.

Violations of the dynamics of mnestic activity can be observed (B.V. Zeigarnik): a person remembers well, but after a short time he cannot do it, for example, a person memorizes 10 words. And after the 3rd presentation - he remembered 6 words, and after the fifth - he can already say only 3 words, after the sixth - again 6 words, i.e. fluctuations in mnestic activity occur. This memory impairment is often observed in patients with vascular diseases of the brain, as well as after brain injury, after intoxication as a manifestation of general mental exhaustion. Quite often there are forgetfulness, inaccuracy in assimilation of information, forgetting intentions as a result of a person's emotional instability.

Violations of mediated memory are also distinguished, when indirect methods of memorization, for example, drawings, symbols associated with some information, do not help, but make it difficult for memory to work, that is, hints do not help in this case, but interfere.

If the “Zeigarnik effect” is observed during the full functioning of the memory, i.e. incomplete actions are remembered better, then with many memory impairments, a violation of the motivational components of memory also occurs, i.e., incomplete actions are forgotten.

Interesting are the facts of memory deceptions, which usually take the form of extremely one-sided selectivity of memories, false memories (confibulation) and memory distortions. They are usually caused by strong desires, unsatisfied needs and drives. The simplest case: a child is given a candy, he quickly eats it, and then "forgets" about it and absolutely sincerely proves that he did not receive anything. It is almost impossible to convince him (like many adults) in such cases. Memory easily becomes a slave to human passions, prejudices and inclinations. That is why unbiased, objective memories of the past are very rare. Memory distortions are often associated with a weakening of the ability to distinguish between one's own and others, what a person actually experienced and what he heard or read about. With repeated repetition of such memories, their complete personification occurs, i.e., a person quite naturally and organically considers other people's thoughts, ideas that he himself sometimes rejected, recalls the details of events in which he never participated. This shows how closely memory is related to imagination, fantasy, and what is sometimes called psychological reality.

It turned out that the same subcortical areas (primarily the limbic system) that are responsible for the affective and motivational activation of the psyche play an important role in fixing information.

It was found that damage to the occipital lobes of the brain causes visual impairment, frontal lobes - emotions, the destruction of the left hemisphere negatively affects speech, etc. But, to everyone's surprise, until very recently it was necessary to state the fact that not only animals, but people can also suffer extensive brain damage without obvious memory impairment. The only regularity found was of the most general nature: the more extensive the damage to the brain, the more serious its consequences for memory. This position is called the law of mass action: memory is destroyed in proportion to the weight of the destroyed brain tissue. Even removing 20% of the brain (during surgical operations) does not lead to memory loss. Therefore, doubts arose about the existence of a localized memory center, a number of psychologists unambiguously argued that the entire brain should be considered an organ of memory.

With a direct impact on some parts of the brain, complex chains of memories can emerge in the mind, i.e. a person suddenly remembers what he has long forgotten, and easily continues to remember the “forgotten” after the operation. Secondly, if not a memory center, then, in any case, a site was found that regulates the transfer of data from short-term memory to long-term memory, without which it is impossible to memorize newly received new information. This center is called the hippocampus and is located in the temporal lobe of the brain. After bilateral removal of the hippocampus, patients retained the memory of what was before the operation, but the memorization of new data was not observed.

They also try to influence memory processes by pharmacological and physical factors. Many scientists believe that searches in the field of memory management should be aimed at creating biologically active compounds that selectively affect learning processes (for example, caffeine, biogenic amines), short-term or long-term memory (substances that inhibit DNA and RNA synthesis, affect protein metabolism). etc.), on the creation and formation of engrams - substances that affect the change in cell proteins (from protoplasm to soma).

Now the study of pharmacological agents that affect memory is proceeding rapidly. It has been established that the long-known pituitary hormones can serve as memory stimulants. "Short" chains of amino acids - peptides, especially vasopressin, corticotropin significantly improve short-term and long-term memory.

According to the hypothesis about physical structure memory, the phenomenon of memory is based on the spatio-temporal pattern of bioelectrical activity of discrete and electrotonic nerve populations. Therefore, for memory management, it is more adequate to influence the brain and its subsystems with electrical, electromagnetic factors. Success can be achieved by influencing the brain with various physical factors - electrical and acoustic. Memory can be developed, trained, significantly improved, and its productivity increased.

Section II. theories of the study of memory

2.1 Studies of memory by domestic and foreign scientists

Interest in the problem of memory has been manifested since ancient times. We found attempts to approach its understanding in Plato and Aristotle, who comprehended these issues mainly from a philosophical position. Ancient Greek philosophers believed that the human mind can be likened to a wax tablet for writing on it and the events taking place are imprinted.

Higher successes in the scientific study of memory were achieved by English psychologists of the 18th - 19th centuries. who collected a large amount of experimental material, which made it possible to formulate a number of theoretical positions. In particular, the concept of associations has been developed. And their role in memory processes.

The problem of the development of memory and its individual differences has been given great influence by Soviet and foreign psychologists. One of the earliest works is the study of Gellet (1909), who conducted experiments on himself and his two-year-old son. A comparative study of the productivity of the memory of children from 5 to 10 years old was carried out by Decroly and Degan. From later works, one can point to the study of Mc Elvey (1933) and Mc Peach (1935), who studied the memory of preschool children for objects. Lomley and Calhoun devoted their research to the development of memory for words.

Of the Soviet works devoted to the study of memory, it is necessary to indicate, first of all, the work of A.N. Leontiev (1931), who studied age and individual differences in the productivity of memorizing meaningless syllables and meaningful words, as well as the development of direct and indirect memorization. In an extensive study, P.I. Zinchenko (1961) compared the productivity of two types of memorization - voluntary and involuntary - in subjects of different ages.

L.V. Zaikov and D.M. Mayants investigated the differences in children's memorization of objects presented alone and in pairs. In the work of E.D. Kazheradze (1949), the subject of study was the influence exerted on memory capacity by grouping objects with varying degrees of complexity or difficulty in naming each group with the corresponding generalizing words. In the studies of N.A. Kornienko (1955) compared the development of memorization of visual and verbal material.

The study of individual differences in memorization is devoted to big number a review of which is presented in the monographs of Meiman (1913, 1916), Gaupp (1913), I.S. Prodanova in the generalizing works of Whipm 1913), S.A. Rubinstein (1940), Mac Peach and Aaron (1952), Havland (1951).

The vast majority of these studies are aimed at calculating how the productivity of memorization changes with age, its volume, speed, and duration of retention of the memorized material, i.e. quantitative and qualitative side of the processes.

It is in this direction that the earliest studies of memory, carried out by Jacobs (1887) and Boltanov (1992), studied the memorization of single digits in primary and secondary school students.

Such were other studies carried out at about the same time - at the end of the 19th century. and in the middle of the twentieth century conducted by Benet and Henri (1894) Bourdon (1894) Ebenhaus (1894) Keluis (1900) Nechaev (1900) Smedley, Cooley Maxilan (1900) Lobzin (1901) Snulten (1904) Menman and Winteler (1905) Bernstein and Bogdanov (1905) Pohlman (1906) Norsworthy (1906) Droli and Degan (1907) Wing (1905).

All of them used as material for memorization: numbers, geometric figures, letters, nonsense syllables, words, phrases, etc.

The results of all these studies showed that all people are divided into two types according to their ability to memorize: quickly and slowly remembering material. It has been experimentally proven that people who memorize quickly are able to reproduce 8 elements from the 1st time, while those who memorize slowly remember only 3. If we add to the characteristics of these groups also the fact that those who memorize quickly quickly forget, and those who memorize slowly forget slowly, then it becomes it is clear that to assess the quality of memory as a whole, it is impossible to use any one indicator. Therefore, it should be noted that people's memory differs in several parameters: speed, strength, duration, accuracy, filling volume. All these quantitative characteristics of memory are essentially and qualitatively different.

Those. speaking of people with good or bad memory, bearing in mind the general undifferentiated characteristics of memory, one can also single out the level of development in each person according to its types.

So, for example, verbal - logical memory for knowledge in speech form, logical schemes, mathematical symbolism of a person with a well-developed this type of memory easily remembers the words of an idea, logical constructions. The memorized material often does not evoke visual associations; such a person easily remembers surnames, first names and patronymics. But the figurative identification of the model is carried out with great effort. The verbal-logical type of memory is associated with the mindset of a person prone to philosophical generalizations and theoretical reasoning. .

Speaking about figurative memory for representation, it is also necessary to emphasize that its level of development is also not the same for different modalities, i.e. the dominance of certain types of memory of visual, auditory, emotional, motor and others is not the same, as well as their functioning.

For this reason, a reservation should be made in the statement about the coincidence of the properties of fast learning and fast forgetting, and slow learning and slow forgetting. Because, among others, there are also those who memorize slowly and quickly forget, and those who are gifted with a very good memory, quickly memorize and slowly forget.

Sometimes, in order to better remember the material, it is necessary for one person to read it, because when memorizing and reproducing it is easier for him to rely on visual memory, then it is easier for another to rely on auditory memory and acoustic images.

It is easier for a third person to memorize and reproduce the movement, and he can be recommended to write down the material or to accompany his memorization with any movements.

Pure types of memory in the sense of unconditional dominance of one of the above are extremely rare. Most often, you will encounter various combinations of visual, auditory, motor memory. Their typical mixtures are: visual-motor, visual-auditory, auditory-motor. However, for most people, visual memory is still dominant.

There are unique cases of such memory. One of them introduced us to A.R. Lurie. He studied and described in detail the memory of a man named Sh., who could quickly and permanently memorize visual information. The amount of its memory has not been experimentally determined. A.R. wrote to him. Lurie: “It was indifferent to present him with meaningful words, meaningless syllables, numbers or sounds, he only needed a pause of two or three seconds.” For ordinary people, this time is much longer.

As it turned out, Sh.'s memory mechanism was based on eidetic vision, which he had especially well developed. After a single visual perception of the material, Sh. As if continued to see it. He was able to restore the visual image after a long time, even after several years.

Eidetic memory is not uncommon. In childhood, all people have it, and in adults it gradually disappears. This type of memory is well developed among artists and, apparently, is one of the inclinations for the development of the corresponding abilities. The sphere of professional application of such memory can be music, i.e. activities in which there are special requirements for visually accurate memorization and reproduction of what he saw.

The greatest development in a person is usually achieved by those types of memory that are most often used. A big imprint on this process leaves professional activity. For example: scientists have a very good semantic and logical memory, but a relatively weak mechanical memory. Actors and doctors have a well-developed memory for faces.

Memory processes are closely related to the characteristics of a person's personality, his emotional mood, interests, needs. They determine what and how a person remembers, stores and recalls. Memorization also depends on the attitude of the individual to the material being memorized. Attitude determines the selective nature of memory. We tend to remember things that are interesting and emotionally meaningful to us. A significant role in remembering can be played by the general state of the individual at the time of imprinting, as well as the physical state in general, the evidence of this is a painful impairment of memory. In such cases, a characteristic memory disorder occurs, which in its features reflects the personality disorders of the patient. The well-known researcher of memory disorder T. Ribot wrote on this occasion that our more or less self-image at any given moment of time is supported by memory, and feeds on it, and as soon as the memory enters a state of disorder, a person’s self-image immediately changes. There is, not very noticeable, but similar to a noticeable disorder of human memory, which we do not notice in the same way as character accentuations. Also, disorders in life are very common, so it is important to be aware of such typical disorders.

According to the dynamics of the flow of mnemonic processes, amnesia is divided into retrograde, anterograde, retarded. Retrograde amnesia is a forgetting of past events, anterograde - the inability to remember for the future; retarded amnesia is a type of memory change associated with the preservation in memory of events experienced during an illness and their subsequent forgetting. Another type of amnesia is progressive amnesia - it manifests itself in the gradual deterioration of memory, until it is completely lost. At the same time, what is not stable in memory is first lost, and then more durable memories.

Freud paid great attention to the analysis of the mechanisms of forgetting that occur in everyday life. He wrote that one of the common mechanisms is to disrupt the train of thought, by the power of an internal test; coming from something repressed. He argued that in forgetting lies the motive of unwillingness to remember.

An example of motivated forgetting according to Z. Freud are cases when a person involuntarily loses, lays, somewhere things that he intentionally wants to forget, because. they can remind him of psychologically unpleasant circumstances. Therefore, such forgetting is especially often manifested in cases where these memories are associated with negative experiences.

Many factors relating to memory have been established by the genital theory of memory. One of them was called the Zeigarnik Effect, discovered by B.V. Zeigarnik. It consists in the following: if people are offered a series of tasks and one of them is allowed to be completed, and the other is interrupted unfinished, then it turns out that, as a result, the subjects are almost twice as likely to recall incomplete tasks than those completed by the time of interruption. This is explained by the fact that when receiving a task, the subject has a need to remember it, which intensifies in the process of completing the task. This need is fully realized when the task is completed, and remains unsatisfied if it is not completed. Due to the connection between motives and memory, the former affects the selectivity of memory, preserving in it the environments of unfinished tasks. Carrying out relevant experiments, B.V. Zeigarnik noted another interesting fact - “The predominance of incomplete tasks is expressed not only in the number of tasks held, but also in the sequence in which the subject lists incomplete tasks.” From this observation, we can draw the following conclusion: a person involuntarily retains in his memory and primarily reproduces what meets his most urgent, but not yet fully satisfied needs.

Speaking further about memory, the question arises whether memory is a sign of great intelligence. In reality, there are a huge number of people who have a phenomenal memory, but do not have a deep intellect, because phenomenal memory is not always the true criterion of the mind.

Another statement is also true, it is not at all necessary to be a person of average or below average abilities in order to have a phenomenal memory, for example, truly great mathematicians like A.M. Ampère, John Wallace, Carl Friedrich Gauss, also had a phenomenal memory. But memory, helping them in their work, was by no means the cause of their genius.

And yet it must be said that memory and intelligence are closely interconnected, because. the more gifted a person is mentally, the better his memory. So, for example, a person's vocabulary is a pretty good indicator of both memory and intelligence. It is known that people with poor experience gravitate towards rote memorization.

Any work of a scientific nature helps to improve memory, because. enriches with new categories, points of view, based on which it is possible, by classifying, to memorize facts and phenomena. So memory can't be torn away from others mental processes, including from thinking, with which it is closely connected, because in most cases, with good intelligence, we have a good memory. Ceteris paribus, memory is a valuable quality, the ability of an intellectual D. This parallelism, however, is not required. A number of studies are cited, including the well-known psychologist Offner, who proved a smaller amount of memorization, a lower rate of memorization and less fidelity in mentally retarded people. The memory of the weak-minded is purely mechanical in nature, without the inclusion in this process of any intellectual processing of the information received. The memory of the weak-minded almost does not reflect the specific features of human memory; its mediated nature and its most essential qualities lie in the fact that a person owns his knowledge and can use it. Mechanical memory is observed in mentally retarded people and does not carry the highest manifestations of memory and cannot be reasonably used. Experiments conducted with schoolchildren by H. Ebbenhaus at the Bresnavy Gymnasium showed that the elements of memory contained in the immediate reproduction of a series of simple relative impressions are, on average, no better than those of gifted children. True, there are a number of other studies that establish better memory in more gifted children. Studies conducted in France showed that gifted students had stronger memory, success in schoolwork among students diverged widely. Since some good students showed an unsatisfactory memory, and some averagely gifted ones, the memory turned out to be very good.

If it is true that giftedness and memory do not run in parallel, then giftedness alone without memory would, figuratively speaking, be a commander without an army or a painter without colors. Therefore, the question of why one person has a better memory than another, or why one person is smarter than another. We can say that this is still a physiological mystery.

Perhaps, in exceptional cases, the brain may have such a structure that a certain type of long-term memory, for example, for numbers, arises with particular ease, and therefore there are people who remember names and do not remember faces. Conversely, absent-minded scholars remember in great detail aspects of their subject, but have difficulty remembering their home address.

2.2 Memory as an intelligence system

Memory integrates not only individual cognitive units and then their aggregates (sets of percepts, concepts, etc.), but also various cognitive processes - sensory, perceptual and mental - into an integral system of intelligence. And this aspect of the integrative function of memory is also largely determined by the organic connection of memory, first of all, with mental time, and then with the specifics of mental space. The integration of the intellect into an integral system (as well as the synthesis of any psychophysiological formation) is carried out at different levels of organization of neuropsychic processes, primarily at the level of their nervous mechanisms (at the level of general code structures of nervous excitation as an information process and, at the same time, the central mechanism for the formation and synthesis of any mental process ). And the integrating function of memory is also directly related to this level of intelligence integration.

The function of memory as the transmission of information over a temporal channel, as the storage of information, goes far beyond the actual psychological level. But precisely because this function of memory is of such a multilevel nature, in the present context, of particular interest is, first of all, the psychological level memory, and in particular, the psychological level of its integrating function in the processes of synthesis of various cognitive structures into an integral system of intelligence as a mental education. It is the presence of this psychological aspect of the integrity of the intellect that gave us reason to speak of the intellect as one of the highest forms of psychological gestalts. But such a psychological synthesis can no longer be carried out only on the basis of common properties all processes as mental processes. It is carried out on the basis of general psychological characteristics that exist in sensory, perceptual, general thinking and conceptual cognitive processes.

Conclusion

The question of whether memory is a sign of great intelligence cannot be said unambiguously. in fact, there are a huge number of people who have a good memory and even a phenomenal one, but do not have a deep intellect. And it has already been said above that phenomenal memory is not always the true criterion of the mind. Although it is fair to say that most people, in addition to their high intellectual abilities, had a good or even excellent memory, which in itself was not the cause of their genius. Memory is not only a gift of nature, but also the result of purposeful upbringing.

Memory ensures the integrity and development of a person's personality, occupies a central position in the system cognitive activity. However, it should be emphasized that the capabilities of memory only partially reflect the innate properties of the human brain. To a large extent, memory can be developed through systematic training, and many of the examples cited testify to this. Of undoubted importance, especially for the highest manifestations of memory, is general level human erudition, which makes it possible to connect each new fact with existing knowledge.

Therefore, it would be correct to say that there is no bad memory if it is not associated with pathology. Memory can be improved with the help of special exercises, memory can be improved by constantly memorizing poems. Active development of memory occurs as a result of reading, writing, speaking, reading a monologue aloud and then there will be no need to carry notebooks with you. Cognition of the world would be impossible if people did not have the ability to capture and retain for a long time in memory what they learned about reality in the process of perception and thinking.

So, the work done on this topic reflects the general knowledge accumulated to date and answered the questions of interest.

Bibliography

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Akmola region

Zharkainsky district

Karasu school

Aydar Bizhan-Bek

6th grade

Memory Secrets

Direction: Science of Man and Nature

Supervisor : Shadrina Oksana Alexandrovna, teacher primary school

Karasu school, 2013

Introduction

What is memory
Types and forms of memory
Memory mechanisms

Chapter II. Memory Features

2.1 Memory of schoolchildren

2.3 Practical part

Conclusion

Bibliography

annotation

Target: study of children's memory elementary school and 6th grade students.

Hypothesis: memory, then we can determine the patterns of its improvement

Tasks:

2. Determine the types of memory in students;

3.Together with a teacher-psychologist, carry out diagnostics for the study of memory in elementary school students;

4. Analyze, evaluate and compare the memory of students of different ages;

5. Study ways to develop memory;

7.Make a presentation and speak among the students of the school;

8. Issue and distribute booklets on the topic.

Object of study:the possibility and properties of memory.

Research methods:Analysis of the literature on the problem under study, conversation, diagnostics, analysis of the results.

Results of the work and conclusions:

We learned about the existence of different types of memory in students of our school. On the basis of the conducted studies, we came to the conclusion that our hypothesis was confirmed.Data processing shows that auditory memory predominates in some, visual memory in others, logical memory is well developed in others, and mechanical memory in others. But there are those who have well-developed combinations of all types of memory.As a result of my experiments, I received statistical data on the development of auditory and visual memory in first graders, found out what material they remember better and what is more interesting for them at their age.In order to improve memory, it is necessary to perform and remember the following that in adolescence important processes are going on with memory restructuring. Logical memory begins to develop actively and soon reaches such a level that a person switches to the predominant use of this type of memory, as well as to arbitrary and mediated memory. Complaints about memory at this age are more common than among younger students. Along with this, there is an interest in how to improve memorization. We must remember that our memory largely depends on us. Memory can be improved with the help of special exercises, memory can be improved by constantly memorizing poems. Active development of memory occurs as a result of reading, writing, speaking, reading a monologue aloud and then there will be no need to carry notebooks with you. Learn to say “yes” to yourself and that will be the solution.

Area of practical use of the results:

The results of our work can be used by students of the school. This is a presentation, recommendations, exercises for the development of memory, tests that stimulate creative thinking, interest in enriching vocabulary, the ability to use computer programs improve memory.

Introduction

Man, inherently very inquisitive. From ancient times it interested questions such as: “What?”, “Where?”, “Why?” other. Memory has become one of subjects of his study. Memory - the most enduring of our abilities.Already in ancient times, people gave great importance memory. Memory is not some kind of independent function, but is connected in the purest way with the personality, its inner world, interests, aspirations.
Therefore, the development and improvement of memory occurs in parallel with
human development, and certain stages of memory are a consequence of changes
human relationship with the outside world and people. Memory, like all mental processes, has age and individual characteristics.
We we remember not only the information received through the channels of perception(through sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch), but also one's own thoughts, feelings, images, actions. A person not only absorbs the flow of information from the outside, but actively seeks her, as if questioning the world around, along the way it and change, transform in your soul all mined information, and only then sends them to storage. All our life nothing but the path from the experienced past to
unknown future, sanctified only in that elusive moment, that
moment really experiencedsensations we call"real". Everyone has it of us have a unique memory that allows us to be aware of
own individuality and personalities of others of people. Man without
no memory has a past, or is deprived of part of it. Lost in memory
Human loses its own "I", loses individuality. Here
why so interestingand frightening cases of memory loss. So So
important to train and improve your memory. This is especially important in
adolescence,while studying. After all, memory is
one of conditions for the accumulation of knowledge.Many people often complain of poor or deteriorating memory. Are there ways to test, improve or train your memory, or will it get worse one way or another? What factors affect our memory?

Our work on the world around us is devoted to the study of human memory, which is very relevant in our information time, when it is necessary to remember a lot and reproduce it instantly. We were interested in the questions: “How does the process of memorization take place, where is information stored in the head, does everyone have the same memory and can it be improved?”.

Thus, the goal Our work is to study the memory of elementary school children and 6th grade students. To achieve the goal, we have set the following main tasks :

To study the features and types of memory;
Determine the types of memory in students;
Together with a teacher-psychologist, conduct diagnostics on the study of memory in elementary school students;
Analyze, evaluate and compare the memory of students of different ages;
Learn ways to develop memory;
Develop recommendations with exercises for students of different grades;
Make a presentation and speak to the students of the school;
Publish and distribute booklets on the topic.

Object of study- the possibility and properties of memory.

Hypothesis: If we define the possibilities and properties memory, then we can determine the patterns of its improvement.

In the first chapter research work memory, features and its types are considered.

In the second chapter, the results of diagnostics and practical recommendations.

Chapter I. Memory is the basis of human life.

1.1 What is memory

Memory is a thought process that includes the recording, storage and retrieval of information. Recording information is carried out through memorization, and its extraction through recall. The quality of memorization is due to the attention of a person to the object of the record. The opposite of remembering is forgetting. It serves as an important condition for memorization, since it unloads the central nervous system making room for new connections. Memory is determined by the work of the entire brain, but first of all, it is a biological phenomenon due to the activity of the sense organs. Depending on this, several types of memory are distinguished: visual (visual), verbal (associated with the function of hearing), olfactory, tactile, etc. Human memory is an infinitely complex mechanism - it is a function of the brain, the neural activity of which allows you to filter, save and destroy memories . Memory is one of the forms of reflection of the real world. At the same time, unlike perception, memory is a reflection of what acted on us before, that was already for us the subject of our perception, thoughts, feelings, which we have already dealt with in our reality, in our actions and deeds. Memory serves as the basis for the accumulation and use of experience, the preservation of knowledge, which leads to the possibility of a wider and deeper knowledge of reality, the possibility of foresight and creativity. Reflection of the world is not a mirror, passive process. It is inextricably linked with the characteristics of a person's personality, is carried out in the vigorous activity of people, depends on the direction and nature of the activity. Memory is a form of reflection of reality, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience. Thanks to memory, a person assimilates social experience and accumulates his own, individual, as well as acquires and uses knowledge, mind, skills and impressions about the world around him. Among the many abilities that every normal person is gifted with, one of the most important functions is the ability to consolidate, preserve and reproduce one's experience. This ability constitutes the function of memory.

Memory- important cognitive function. She creates
opportunity for learning and development. Memory underlies the formation
speech, thinking, emotional reactions, motor skills, creative processes. Memory is of two types - short-term and long-term. Short-term memory is the storage time of information from seconds to tens of minutes. Information can be stored in short-term memory for several minutes. If the subject is presented with 16 letters within 50 seconds and immediately asked to list them, then he will name 10-12, that is, about 70% of what he saw. But after 150s he will remember 25-30% of the information, and after 250s it is all lost from short-term memory. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity and fast access to data. It is characterized by the storage time of information, which is comparable to the life span of an organism, resistant to influences that violate short-term memory.

1.2 Types and forms of memory

Memory is not something homogeneous: it contains
a number of complex processes. These are memorization, preservation, reproduction and
forgetting. The processes of memory are inextricably linked with all other processes of reflection of the real world, including the processes of thinking. Human memory is conscious, meaningful memory. memorization - this is the consolidation of those images and impressions that arise under the influence of objects and phenomena of reality in the process of sensation and perception, the process of fixing traces of excitation in the brain. Memorization is a necessary condition for obtaining new knowledge by an individual; it can be involuntary and arbitrary.Involuntary memorizationis a product and a condition for the implementation of cognitive and practical actions. The person at this
does not set a goal to remember, does not expend volitional efforts.
Arbitrary memorizationis a product of special actions. A person sets himself the goal - to remember, i.e. expends willpower. Before school, the child is mainly occupied with the game that interests him. At this time, the child remembers easily and quickly what is interesting to him. It is noticed that poems, stories, pictures, events that made a greater impression on him, caused strong feelings, children remember, and what left them indifferent, they easily forget. Without much effort, the material with which the child acts is remembered. Along with the brightness of the content, the mood of a person matters. The productivity of memorization increases if mental activity is included in the process of perception. In children entering school, voluntary memorization is poorly developed. Educational activity requires the student's volitional efforts to remember, keep in memory educational material whether he is interested in it or not. Productivity depends on the conditions that the teacher creates and the ways the child uses to remember. The smaller the children, the greater the role played by sensory perception. Therefore, visual material is used for memorization (where possible). At the same time, layouts, manuals, pictures should be used not only for memorization, but also for reproduction. Like all processes, memory processes change in connection with the overall development of the child. These changes include, first of all, an increase in the speed of memorization and an increase in the amount of memory. If it is necessary to memorize the same material, a small child spends more time and repetitions than older children, and the latter more than adults.

1.3 Mechanisms of memory

Starting to study at school, children already know how to memorize arbitrarily. So a first-grader often does not remember what was given at home, although they easily and quickly remember what is interesting, what causes strong feelings. They have a very great influence on the speed and strength of memorization. Therefore, children easily remember songs, fairy tales and strong feelings. Involuntary memorization plays an important role in the educational activity of a younger student. Studies show that by the third or fourth grades, involuntary memorization becomes more productive. The productivity of voluntary memorization is manifested in the fact that the volume of memorization increases with age; child tells more
details and conveys the content relatively deeply. involuntary
memory becomes more meaningful. Depending on the understanding of the memorized material by children, there are:meaningful (logical)
rote.Mechanical learning of children, as in adults, is less effective than meaningful; remembering meaningless material in childhood is more difficult. This is explained by the fact that memorization without comprehension requires great volitional efforts, and it is difficult for children. The productivity of memorization depends on the motives, motives for capturing the material, the child must learn,
why he remembers the material, and want to achieve this.
The amount of memorized material increases if it is included in
gaming or labor activity and with it any
actions. Psychologists say: "A child's memory is an interest." For kids
primary school age is very important intensity of emotional
learning background. Often the incomprehensible becomes especially significant for the child. It attracts increased attention, awakens curiosity, makes
search for meaning, find out what it means to hear, and for this
remember it - remember even involuntarily, imperceptibly, despite the full
incomprehensibility of what is remembered. The material intrigues children with its sound side: the originality of the combination of sounds, a clearly defined rhythm, which in itself facilitates memorization.
Mechanical memorization, which the student resorts to, is explained
the fact that he does not own rational methods of memorization.

Chapter II. Memory Features

The younger the child, the greater the role of practical actions in all his cognitive activity. Therefore, motor memory is detected very early. Children's memory is especially rich in images of individual concrete objects once perceived by the child. But rising to the level of generalizations, the child operates with separate images, in which both the essential and general features inherent in a whole group of objects, and those particular details that the child has noticed are merged. Of course, children's ideas have a number of characteristic features, primarily due to the child's inability to perceive objects, so children's ideas, especially in unfamiliar things, turn out to be vague, fuzzy and fragile. Wishing to bring up these abilities in the child as quickly as possible, we most often read him morals, thereby instilling a sense of inferiority, give him instructions, thereby killing his independence, and also generously protect him with a mass of prohibitions, forcing him to comply with them under a mass of threats and fear of punishment. . This does not contribute to an increase in arbitrariness, consciousness, self-control. Nature itself determined the property of childhood - the lack of opportunities to easily control oneself, stretching for a long time - thirteen to sixteen years - the maturation of the mechanism of arbitrary self-regulation. And if most adults understood this, they could make their lives and their children's lives happier. “Pick up your toys after you,” the mother says to the child and goes to the kitchen. She thinks that the baby is capable of this task, firstly, to make it interesting and desirable for himself, and secondly, to solve it on his own, overcoming the obstacles and temptations that arise in his way: he stumbled upon an interesting box, heard the chirping of a bird outside the window, lost kind of cube. The perfection of arbitrary mental self-regulation necessary for such a task is simply not yet available to the child, and the demand of his mother is incommensurable with his capabilities. The same picture is observed at school in the learning process. In the first years of school, the child must perceive and understand a large amount of information. Due to little experience, in most cases it is difficult for a child to imagine, to connect the processes and phenomena of the world, to realize, and then also to keep in memory and be able to reproduce a layer of knowledge that is torn off, not connected with other objects. This is a colossally difficult task for a primary school child. In most cases, the child mechanically learns the rules, texts, solves problems and examples according to the template, retells the read fairy tales and stories without a shadow of thought. But after all, a child at this age is dominated by visual-figurative thinking. It must be assumed that it would be advisable to use this natural gift of nature. Yes, we can say that visual-figurative and effective material is widely used in the practice of primary school teachers. But if you think about it, it's a template for thinking. It is remembered well and for a long time: what he invented and imagined himself; that which is the organization of one's own mind and imagination; what is bright and unusual! “The arbitrariness of mental regulation is the higher, the more verbal instructions or thoughts are able to guide our lives, drawing specific images of the desired results, and it is these images that can cause real sensations in a person that include involuntary mechanisms its psychophysical regulation.

2.1 The memory of the student

Initially junior school studentbetter remembers visual material: objects that surround the child and with which he acts, the image of objects, people. the duration of memorization of such material is much higher than the memorization of verbal material. If we talk about the patterns of verbal material, then throughout younger age children remember words denoting the name of objects better than words denoting abstract concepts. Students retain in memory such specific material that is fixed in memory based on visual samples and is significant in understanding what is remembered. They remember worse that material that is not based on a visual image (geographical names that are not associated with a geographical map, descriptions) and is not significant in the assimilation of what is remembered. The concrete-figurative nature of the memory of younger schoolchildren is also manifested in the fact that children cope even with such difficult memorization techniques as correlating, dividing text into parts, if at the same time relying on clarity, on illustrations. For younger students, the mental action of generalization, that is, the selection of some common features various items. Children of this age and classification are easily mastered. Involuntary memorization continues to play a significant role in the accumulation of experience among younger students, especially in the conditions of their vigorous activity. At this age,visual memory. This feature of younger schoolchildren is determined by the originality of other mental processes, and especially thinking. Children of this age begin to acquire the ability to think logically, to establish causal relationships and relationships between objects and phenomena, but they can do this only in relation to specific, figuratively represented relationships. The visual-figurative nature of memory and the focus on the exact assimilation of what is supposed by the teacher leads to such a feature of memory as literalness. The literalness of the memory of younger schoolchildren is manifested in the reproduction of texts. It enriches the active vocabulary of the child: develops formalized speech, helps to master scientific concepts. By the third grade, the child has "their own words" when playing the material. The literalness of the reproduction of the material is an indicator of the arbitrariness of memory. But by the end of elementary school it starts to get in the way creative development memory and hinders the mental development of the child. Therefore, starting from the first grade, the child should be taught to memorize material logically, to learn to highlight the main thing. Memory is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning. memory like cognitive process ensures the integrity and development of the individual. Of all types of memory - motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical, phenomenal memory is based on exceptionally strong imagery.

2.2 Techniques for improving and developing memory

There are very effective techniques improvement and development of memory. In all cases, the key to good memory performance is organization and consistency in memory training. Many people find that their memory capacity skyrockets when they use the technique of focusing on what they want to remember. Being in a situation where it is especially important to remember something, you can focus your attention with the help of the so-called "memory switch". As such, any gesture or movement is used, such as connecting the thumb and forefinger together or raising the thumb up. Whatever specific sign you choose, it is designed to remind you that you need to be especially attentive and vigilant now. Thanks to this, you will be able to remember everything that is necessary. To fix the “switching sign” in your mind, relax, close your eyes, make the chosen gesture and repeat: “Now I will be alert and attentive, I will be aware of everything. I will fix this information in my memory so that I can remember it when I need it. ”. Do this exercise several times a day, and later that day, practice using this "Switch Sign" in real life situations. Find at least three real-life situations where you're particularly motivated to remember something, and use your "switch sign" to increase your alertness. While making this gesture, repeat the words in quotation marks above to increase concentration. Repeat the described procedures for fixing in memory within 2-3 weeks. Later, when this connection is fixed, the need to repeat the entire set of exercises will disappear by itself. As soon as you find yourself in a responsible situation, use only your "switch sign" and you will automatically become more attentive and alert. The key to recalling a situation is to visualize yourself as vividly as possible in the situation you want to remember. Pay attention to the environment, buildings, people around you in this situation. Imagine that you are the director of the film and that this particular moment of the script should now play out in front of you. To remember a forgotten name, imagine and recreate in more detail the first meeting with this person. Remember who else was at the same time, the situation. Mentally say hello to this person as you would when you first met, and listen carefully as he tells you his name. To remember a forgotten phone number, imagine that the person you are about to call is sitting by the phone waiting for you to call. Now go to your phone and open the notebook that contains the name of this person. This should show a phone number. If it is not fully visible, start dialing its initial digits, and the number will clear up to the end.

To find out where you put an item, remember when you last held it in your hands, what you did with it. Mentally imagine how you use this item. When you're done using it, watch where you put it away. To keep you and your actions in the memory of the people around you, try to do things that do not occur to others. Remember that emotions, humor, witticisms, metaphors - everything unexpected leaves a brighter mark on people. By resorting to the help of these means, you will make an unforgettable impression in the memory of others. Look into the eyes of a new acquaintance, and once again call your name, saying goodbye to him or handing him your business card. By effectively using your notebook, you will always have the necessary information at hand without overloading your memory in vain.

2.3 Practical part

Studies have shown that students have better developed logical memory. I think this is due to the fact that in high school age we are faced with the task of not so much remembering as understanding the content.

Conclusion

Summing up my work, I can say that the goals and objectives set by me at the beginning of the work, I consider achieved. The above facts and studies state the fact that people's memory is different. Data processing shows that auditory memory predominates in some, visual memory in others, logical memory is well developed in others, and mechanical memory in others. But there are those who have well-developed combinations of all types of memory.As a result of my experiments, I received statistical data on the development of auditory and visual memory in first graders, found out which material they remember better and what is more interesting for them at their age. From Experience 3. it follows that the average first-grader remembers better the material that is interesting to him or has some meaning for him. As a result of our research, we obtained statistical data on the development of auditory and visual memory in first graders, found out what material they remember better and what is interesting for them at this age.In order to improve memory, it is necessary to perform and remember the following, that during adolescence, important processes related to with memory restructuring. Logical memory begins to develop actively and soon reaches such a level that a person switches to the predominant use of this type of memory, as well as to arbitrary and mediated memory. Complaints about memory at this age are more common than among younger students. Along with this, there is an interest in how to improve memorization. We must remember that our memory largely depends on us. Memory can be improved with the help of special exercises, memory can be improved by constantly memorizing poems. Active development of memory occurs as a result of reading, writing, speaking, reading a monologue aloud and then there will be no need to carry notebooks with you. Learn to say “yes” to yourself and that will be the solution. And I want to give you recommendations on the rules for handling memory.

Literature:

1. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (Otomi plaster) 3rd ed. M.: Ast-premier, 1999

2.Children's Encyclopedia Man v.7, 3rd ed. For middle and senior

age. M.: Pedagogy, 2009

3. Ivanova V. Secrets of memory M .: Ast-premier, 2007

4. Crossroads of Her Majesty "Memory". M.: Enlightenment, 2010

5. Rose S. Memory device. From molecules to creation. - M .: Mir, 2005.

6. Hubel D. Eye, brain, sight, memory M.: Mir, 2000.

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