1) gender 3) family
2) estate 4) elite
A19. A former farmer acquires a small cafe in the city. That's an example
1) deviant behavior 3) socialization
2) social stratification 4) social mobility
A20. Are the following statements about social norms correct?
A. Political norms govern relations arising from the water of power.
B. Observance of religious norms is supported by the moral consciousness of believers.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A21. specific feature political power, unlike other types of power, is (are)
1) an appeal to all citizens of the country
2) relations of domination and submission
3) the presence of a subject-object relationship
4) manifestation in the form of a set of customs and traditions
A22. Only for a proportional electoral system is characteristic
1) nomination of candidates in single-member constituencies
2) the insignificant role of political parties in the election campaign
3) nomination of candidates by a list of political parties and movements
4) truthful and objective informing voters about candidates and their programs
A23. The features of the concept of "political regime" include (-s)
1) territorial structure of the state
2) methods of exercising state power
3) functions performed by the state
4) form of government
A24. In the country of N., after many years of a dictatorial regime, when power belonged to one party, political reforms began, and a multi-party system began to take shape. Public opinion research services conducted surveys among the population, asking the question: "How do you assess the emergence of a multi-party system in the country?" The results obtained are presented in a histogram.
Analyze survey data. What is the dynamics of the population's attitude to the ongoing reform?
1) The number of citizens who negatively assess the introduction of a multi-party system has increased.
2) The number of supporters of a multi-party system has somewhat increased over the past period.
3) There is a steady increase in those who have not defined their attitude towards a multi-party system.
4) The number of people who negatively assess the multi-party system has not changed.
A25. Are the following judgments about the forms of the state correct?
A. The monarchy and the republic are forms of government.
B. Democracy and dictatorship are forms of government.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A26. The institution of Russian law is law
1) humanitarian
2) international
3) hereditary
4) political
A27. Property relations between spouses are governed by the law
1) constitutional 3) financial
2) family 4) civil
A28. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the guarantor of the territorial integrity of the country, the rights and freedoms of the individual is
1) President
2) Government
3) State Duma
4) Federation Council
A29. The young man bought a gun and decided to go hunting. While the young man was aiming at another duck, the huntsman approached him and asked him to show a license for the right to hunt. But the young man did not have such a document. This offense is
1) criminal 3) administrative
2) civil 4) environmental
AZO. Are the following judgments about the subjects of the federation correct?
A. Subject Russian Federation under the Constitution has the right to self-determination up to secession,
B. All federal regulations are subject to ratification in each subject of the Russian Federation.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
Part 2
When completing the tasks of this part (B1 - B6), write down your answers first in the places allocated for them in the text examination work, and then in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the number of the corresponding task, starting from the first cell. The answer must be given in the form of a word, a sequence of letters or numbers without spaces or other symbols. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the given samples.
IN 1. What word is missing from the diagram?
IN 2. Below are the names of the needs. All of them, with the exception of one, are names under which the natural needs of man are presented in various classifications. Find and indicate the name of the needs of another type, "falling out" of their series.
Biological, physiological, social, organic, natural.
VZ. Determine what type of unemployment the following subjects belong to: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.
SUBJECTS
A) a laboratory assistant who quit due to an allergy to chemicals
B) an engineer who resigned of his own free will
B) a nurse who quit due to moving to another city
D) a typist fired due to a lack of orders with the widespread introduction of personal computers
D) an economist who quit because of a quarrel with his boss
TYPE OF UNEMPLOYMENT
1) friction
2) structural
3) cyclic
Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet (without spaces or any symbols).
84. Select the characteristics of the sensory stage of cognition and circle the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) reflection of objects and their properties in the form of a holistic image
2) fixing the essential properties of the subject
3) saving in memory a generalized image of an object
4) assertion or denial of something about the subject
5) reflection in the mind of a person of individual properties of an object
Write the circled numbers in ascending order. Answer: _________________________________.
85. Read the text below, each position of which is numbered.
(1) The middle class includes people who have an average level of current income for a given society. (2) It is believed that the bulk of the population in Western societies (60-70%) has an income close to the average, and the number of poor and rich is small. (3) The middle strata are defined not only by the totality of market and labor positions, but also by cultural and value orientations. (4) It can be said that the middle strata are status and prestige groups.
Determine which provisions of the text are worn
A) actual character
B) the nature of value judgments.
Write under the position number the letter that indicates its nature. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet.
AT 6. Read the text below that contains the missing words.
Social institutions provide boundaries and forms of joint activity of people in different areas and differ from each other in their _______________________ (1). The main social institutions are ________________(2), family, science, education, religion, business._________________________(3) should not be identified with specific organizations, social groups
or communities. For example, institute _____________________(4)
does not mean a specific company. At the same time, the implementation of the functions of social institutions involves organized forms _______
________________(5) people. No modern society can exist without social institutions: institutions create the conditions in which human life takes place, and people's lives generate and change social institutions. The development of social institutions continues in the course of _______________ (6) society.
Choose from the proposed list of words that need to be inserted into the gaps. The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Remember that there are more words in the list than you need to select. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap.
A) private business B) state
B) subsystem D) functions
D) social institution
E) object
G) evolution
3) public needs
I) joint activity
Note that the spaces are numbered. The table below shows the space numbers. Write under each number the letter that represents the word you have chosen in the list.
Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet.
Don't forget to transfer all answers to answer sheet #1 (no spaces or other symbols between letters and numbers).
Part 3
For. answers to the tasks of this part<С1 - С8) используйте бланк отве-тов № 2. Запишите сначала номер задания (С1 и т.д.), а затем разверну-тый ответ на него.
The number of points for the tasks of part 3 depends on the half-note and the correctness of your answer. Both a complete correct and a partially correct answer will be scored.
C1. What two features of marginal groups does the author single out? Formulate your own definition of the concept of "marginal".
Read the text and complete tasks C4 - C7.
MARGINAL
“Marginals are the designation of individuals and groups located on the “outskirts”, on the “roadsides” or simply outside the framework of the main structural divisions characteristic of a given society or the prevailing socio-cultural norms and traditions ...
The marginal situation ... is the source of a new perception and os-thinking of the Universe and society, ... forms of intellectual, artistic and religious creativity. ... Many renewing trends in the spiritual history of mankind (world religions, great philosophical systems and scientific concepts, new forms of artistic representation of the world) owe their emergence to marginal personalities and sociocultural environments.
Technological, social and cultural shifts of the last decades have given the problem of marginalism a qualitatively new outline. Urbanization, mass migrations, intensive interaction between the bearers of heterogeneous ethno-cultural and religious traditions, the erosion of age-old cultural barriers, the influence of mass media on the population - all this led to the fact that the marginal status in the modern world has become not so much exception, how much is the norm of existence of millions and millions of people. At the turn of the 70-80s. ... a turbulent process of the formation of the so-called "informal" social movements began in the world - educational, environmental, human rights, cultural, religious, compatriotic, charitable, etc. - movements, the meaning of which is largely associated with the connection to the modern and social life of precisely marginalized groups ...
However, there is a problem that presents a difficulty for modern democratic consciousness: how to protect society from those marginal groups that adopt totalitarian and misanthropic ideologies? And at the same time - how not to make these groups the object of preventive lawless violence... There is no definite answer to this question. The antidote here can only be the growth of humanistic culture and democratic legal awareness, the development of principles and concepts of human dignity in society, as well as a deep philosophical and scientific understanding of those social problems that give rise to anti-democratic forms of consciousness.
(E. Rashkovsky)
C4. The author writes about the danger to society of marginal groups that adopt totalitarian and misanthropic ideologies. Name two such ideologies and explain what the social danger of each of them is.
C5. Name any three characteristics of society as a dynamic system.
Sat. Give three examples illustrating the constitutional provision on the secular nature of the modern Russian state.
C7. A human child at the moment of birth, according to the apt expression of A. Pieron, is not a person, but only a “candidate for a person”. Explain what A. Pieron meant when he called the child a “candidate for a person” (formulate three judgments).
The last task of the work (C8) is an optional task. By doing it, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose ONE of the statements below.
C8 Select one from the statements below and state your thoughts (your point of view, attitude) about the problem raised.
When performing a task, you should use the appropriate concepts social science course and, based on knowledge, received in the course of social science, as well as data social life and own life an experience, bring the necessary arguments in support of his position.
Philosophy | "A person is important for society only insofar as he serves him." (BUT France) |
Social Psychology | "The pinnacle of ourselves, the crown of our originality, is not our individuality, but our personality." (P. Teilhard de Chardin) |
Economy | "Inflation is the golden time for debt repayment." (K. Melikhan) |
Sociology | "Who knows how to deal with conflicts by recognizing them, takes control of the rhythm of history." (R. Dahrendorf) |
Political science | "When a tyrant rules, the people are silent, and the laws do not work." (Saadi) |
Jurisprudence | "I see the imminent destruction of that state, where the law has no force and is under someone's authority." (Plato) |
TRAININGOPTION 2 Part 1
When completing the tasks of this part, in the answer form No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing (A1 - AZO), put the sign "X" in the box, the number of which corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.
A1. What illustrates the broadest meaning of the term "society"?
1) everyday human interactions
2) international human rights society
3) information society
4) past, present and future of mankind
A2. Global demographic issues include
1) unequal access to limited natural resources
2) pollution of the natural environment by human waste
3) extreme overpopulation of the countries of the "third world"
4) biodiversity reduction
A3. A culture whose works are designed for a narrow circle of connoisseurs is called
1) folk
2) mass
3) national
4) elite
A4. Which of the examples illustrates the interaction of nature and society?
1) creation of the Slavic alphabet
2) slash-and-burn agriculture of the Eastern Slavs
3) collection of tribute by the prince from subject tribes
4) writing a set of laws "Russian Truth"
A5. Are the following judgments about the ways of development of society correct?
A. In an industrial society, the achievements of science began to be actively introduced into production.
B. In the period of post-industrial society, the industrial revolution ended.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
A6. Both sensory and rational cognition
2) are based on ideas about the subject
3) begin with subjective sensations
4) reflect the essential properties of the subject
A7. The needs of a person, due to his biological organization, include the needs for
1) self-realization
2) self-preservation
3) self-knowledge
4) self-education
A8. What attribute characterizes a person as a person?
1) active life position
2) physical and mental health
3) belonging to the species homo sapiens
4) features of appearance
A9. "Individuality is the unique originality of a person, a set of his unique properties." This statement is an example
1) artistic image
2) mythological knowledge
3) religious norm
4) scientific knowledge
A10. Are the following judgments about human freedom correct?
A. Human freedom is synonymous with permissiveness. B. Human freedom is impossible in the conditions of social relations and interactions.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
4) both judgments are wrong
All. People are considered unemployed if they
1) do not have a job and are not looking for work
2) are employed part-time and are looking for a new job
3) are in military service
4) do not have a job, are looking for a job and are ready to start working immediately
A12. Competition
1) leads to higher prices
2) contributes to an increase in the variety of goods and services
3) contributes to a decrease in the quality of goods and services
4) forces producers to increase the cost of producing goods and services
A13. What is the name of the payment for the use of labor?
1) rent 3) wages
2) interest 4) profit
A14. What function does money serve if you bought a music center?
- 2009
. Social science Social science. USE. Thematic working...
Methodological support for the exam in st. petersburg problems and solutions (2)
GuidelinesAT 8); average rate of correct answers - 33 ,33 %. Geometry (B3, B10, B11); ... 2008. Kishenkova O.V. USE–2009 . Social science. Directory. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. Lazebnikova A.Yu., Korolkova E.L., Rutkovskaya E.L. Social science. USE. Thematic working...
About Teaching Social Science
Document... USE on social science(publications developed with the participation of FIPI in 2008- 2009 gg.) USE-2009 . Social science... publication of typical variants of real tasks USE. 2009 . Social science/ FIPI. The authors are the compilers of ... the staged approach). 13 33 . historical process...
Boris Akimov, the founder of the Lavkalavka farming cooperative, told Krasnodar Magazine about how he sees the future of Russia and how to turn the Krasnodar Territory into a gastronomic mecca.
In one of your interviews, you say: “We are starting to change reality quite powerfully.” Do you really think it's possible?
I think that sometimes even the most utopian ideas can come true, it all depends on the perseverance and willpower of their creator. We believe that when small family farms are committed to an ecological path, can receive money for their products and have the opportunity to develop, then gradually the reality will change.
"Lavka" makes it possible to balance one's consumption with the resources of the land." Don't you think that the possibilities of the earth, taking into account the environmental factor, are decreasing in comparison with the growing needs of man? What is the proportionality you are talking about?
Of course, the more people on the planet, the more food is needed. And the more they want, the greater the load on the ground. How to deal with this, so that it would be good for a person and not difficult for the earth? In this case, we try to implement the principles of seasonality and locality. The consumer must understand that if a tomato does not grow in Moscow in winter, then instead of it, he can choose local products that, from a gastronomic point of view, will be no worse, but more interesting, tastier and healthier. These are, for example, such forgotten vegetables as turnips, rutabaga, parsnips or celery root. It turns out that a person does not sponsor companies that deliver these tomatoes or other products through the seas and oceans in winter by plane, steamer or in any other way, and thus there is a significant reduction in the load on the land.
Do you think people will undergo a massive revision of their relationship with nature, or will it still be a minority concern?
At the moment, this is a concern for a microscopic minority. Rather, even a minority of the minority of those people who are concerned about this issue and who are still ready to measure their actions with this concern. Many people think and talk about it, and then go to the nearest supermarket and buy what they are used to. It is important not only to realize, but also to begin to act in accordance with awareness. If the situation develops as it develops, without cataclysms, then in general there will be more and more such people. This can be seen in the US and Europe.
In your opinion, something should happen so that people more actively reconsider their relationship with nature, is a turning point possible?
I would not want a turning point to arise, because this can only happen as a result of some kind of environmental catastrophe, which will become a signal for change. If it suddenly turns out that global warming is taking some catastrophic forms and speeds, and one of the reasons is human activity on Earth, then everything will have to be reviewed faster, because the question of human survival will be at stake. But I am for the evolutionary process. I hope that some trend or fashion towards being more socially responsible and doing more meaningful things will lead to change.
You called your company "new colonization". What did you mean?
This is one of the ideas that seems fruitful to us. It means a new development by us, the inhabitants of Russia, of our own country. We live in the largest country in the world, but at the same time, the inhabitants of megacities have a stereotype that there is no life outside their cities. Our country is a vast expanse, but at the same time great opportunities. We ourselves know our own country much worse than Europe and other countries. But it cannot go on for so long, and if we do not develop our territories, there will be a more active group of people who will be interested in this. But we think it will be very sad if this happens. Therefore, to prevent this from happening, you need to develop the territory yourself. Agriculture can be the driver of development, but for it to be competitive, it must be organic. In this case, we could offer environmentally friendly products on the market that are understandable to the whole world. Then we will be competitive in the global economy, and not just in our own country.
The progressive organic & local food movement was born in the West. That is, we, Russians, up to a certain point did not tend to strive for tasty and healthy natural food, without prompting from outside?
The fact that it was born in the West is neither bad nor good for us. One way or another, some cultural codes, myths or stereotypes are first born in the West, but eventually come to us. So it was with the fashion for a healthy lifestyle. Previously, it was not, but now everyone is fond of fitness or running.
Previously, 10-15 years ago, the consumers of eco-products were followers of various new age trends. Now, not without your PR strategy, the creative class and people from different communities have joined them. Has it become a fashion statement?
When a phenomenon arises, it first becomes fashionable. There are also negative features in this. But, on the other hand, it is like a given of the society in which we live. But it is important that at some point it ceases to be fashionable, but becomes a natural part of life. Like in America, for example, when going to a farmer's market or buying farm products online has already become a part of life. Therefore, we would like it to become commonplace through fashion.
We ourselves know our own country much worse than Europe and other countries. But it cannot go on for so long, and if we do not develop our territories, there will be a more active group of people who will be interested in this.
Have you noticed that your regular customers themselves reached for the earth or did they experience some other changes?
Of course, there are such examples. When a person begins to constantly buy products from us and is somehow interested in those values that are important to us, they understand that to be closer to the earth, it is not necessary to be a farmer, and living outside the city does not mean being a collective farmer. This is a normal situation for a developed Western society, when a successful person lives outside the city in his own house, his children walk in the fresh air, because they have nothing to be afraid of, they have access to fresh products.
Life in the village is no longer marginalization, as we thought for a long time. On the contrary, in the village, using both the village benefits and the achievements of civilization, a person greatly improves the quality of life of his family. And gradually this process occurs among our customers and not only. People move from Moscow to the countryside, sometimes they even become farmers, although this is not an easy task. Or at least they realize that life without traffic jams and in nature with clean and tasty food is much more interesting and worthy.
Can you remember those important moments after which your worldview changed, and you turned from a hedonist into a preacher who carries the values of healthy and local food?
It was a gradual process, which was due to the fact that we gradually immersed ourselves in the history of the origin of products. We went to farms, met families, were interested in the details of the origin of products. It became important for us where the animals are kept, what they are fed, where these feeds grow, who are the people who work there. The more we dived, the more we realized how much really depends on the decision of the final consumer what to buy. He could invest in sausage, which is produced in the depths of the Tula region: in the forests where pigs roam freely, where there is a processing workshop, own feed, and recently there was still collapse and chaos, and now, thanks to the farmer, there are jobs and a new life in the village arose.
Or he can buy a sausage made from who knows what. If there is meat, then this pork is grown on hormones, antibiotics and growth accelerators. I began to understand that it is important to choose these products yourself and tell people that there is a chain of relationships between the choice of a product and life around. A few years ago, I did not even think that by buying sausage, I was making a socially significant gesture.
You write that your farmers are mostly people who have moved from the city to the countryside. It turns out that ordinary villagers are not ready for your cooperative rules or they grow little for sale?
This is a multifaceted problem. If we talk about the southern regions, the original peasantry is still preserved there. But communications with them do not quite add up, precisely because they do not quite understand what trading via the Internet is, it seems to them that this is something from the realm of fantasy. If we talk about central Russia, then if farmers appear there, then more often they move from the city. Unfortunately, there are almost no local peasants left there.
Farmers as members of the cooperative decide what the final price of their products will be. In this case, how do you manage to maintain a balance of interests and continue to develop steadily?
We have a table of margins on our website in the "Suppliers" section. When a farmer fills out a questionnaire, he sees that there will be a certain mark-up for a particular product, depending on what category the product is, whether it is packaged, whether there are documents. As a result, having set the price, he himself understands what the final price will be. After all, we want to have several farmers for all positions and that they form internal competition, including on price. We are creating a platform that brings the buyer and the farmer together, and although they are selected by us according to certain criteria, they get maximum freedom of action: they can set a price, communicate with buyers on a blog, and come to hold promotions in the store.
How many restaurants has LavkaLavka opened or supervises to date?
We have one small Lavkalavka cafe in Moscow. We opened another partner restaurant "CoCoCo" with Shnurov in St. Petersburg. Our restaurant will open in May in Moscow. We are also participating in the opening of a partner farm restaurant that shares our concept in the Tula region.
Do Moscow restaurants buy groceries at Lavka?
They buy, but not so much - only a few dozen restaurants. But still, these sales are not the most important, the end consumer is important for us. Perhaps, with the formation of our restaurant in Moscow or the Tula region, the situation may change, and restaurants will begin to act differently. So far, restaurateurs have strong stereotypes, and they cannot get used to the fact that products can be uncalibrated, cost more or, for objective reasons, we cannot deliver them on time.
What is on your list of Russian gastronomic rarities?
Spelled, White Sea herring, which even under Empress Catherine began to be salted and delivered to Moscow, juicy and sweet Danilovsky onions, Belevskaya marshmallow, turnip "Petrovskaya", Vyaznikovsky cucumbers, rutabaga Krasnoselskaya, Suzdal horseradish, Antonovka apples, Vladimir goose, Romanov sheep and other specialties that we are trying to find.
Besides Ivan Novichikhin, what farmers do you cooperate with in the Krasnodar Territory?
We buy Pure Food cheeses from Lefkadia, Kirill and Olesya Kovlenko grow and supply many rare vegetables, such as sweet potato and Jerusalem artichoke, Valery Zhomer supplies cherries and purple apples.
What value can you highlight in our region?
You have great potential in the field of vegetables, which has not yet been fully realized. It is wrong when Turkish vegetables are sold on the market in Krasnodar. Huge winemaking potential. In Khost, for example, meat pigeons are bred, there are mussels on the Black Sea coast, and local oysters are going to be bred there. In fact, the Krasnodar Territory is a place where, like in Greece, everything can be. The Krasnodar Territory can become the gastronomic Mecca of Russia.
Are you living your own values?
I'm trying that way. In any case, if we talk about the choice of products, then definitely. I live between Moscow and Pereslavl. In Pereslavl-Zalessky I have a house, and my own small farm, which is gradually increasing. We have 2 km of off-road, so I can’t finally move here. I suppose that as soon as this problem is solved - in the next couple of years, I will make my village my main place of residence.
When you first started out, it seemed to me that here it is, marketing 3.0 or funky business, which is the future. This is true?
Something like that. I am a more creative person than a systematic one. Thank God, I have two partners who are much more businessmen in spirit than I am, although not quite either. And now, thanks to them, everything that I come up with spins. If creativity is not turned into a system, then business does not work. From this point of view, we have a good division of labor.
Farmer's cooperative LavkaLavka is an international project. Already now he works in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad and Kyiv. The LavkaLavka cooperative brings together farmers, buyers, shops, restaurants, hotels, suppliers of eco-products, agricultural equipment and many others - all those who care about farm food, ecology, agricultural development, gastronomic traditions and responsible consumption.
First write down the task number (26, 27, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.
Read the text and complete tasks 26-31.
Each ethnic group has its own unique stereotype of behavior. Sometimes the behavioral stereotype of an ethnic group changes from generation to generation. This indicates that this ethnos is developing, and ethnogenesis is not dying out. Sometimes the structure of an ethnic group is stable, because the new generation reproduces the life cycle of the previous one.
The structure of an ethnic stereotype of behavior is a strictly defined norm of relations: between a collective and an individual, between individuals, among themselves, between intra-ethnic groups ... These norms tacitly exist in all areas of life and everyday life, being perceived in a given ethnic group and in each individual era as the only possible a way of coexistence... Coming into contact with another norm of behavior in another ethnic group, each member of this ethnic group is surprised, lost and tries to tell his fellow tribesmen about the eccentricities of another people...
Different peoples arose in different eras and had different historical destinies. Of course, ethnic groups are influenced by the geographical environment through the daily communication of a person with the nature that feeds him, but that's not all. Traditions inherited from ancestors play their role, habitual enmity or friendship with neighbors play their own role, cultural influences, religion have their own meaning, but, besides all this, there is a law of development that applies to ethnic groups as to any natural phenomena. We call its manifestations in the diverse processes of the emergence and disappearance of peoples ethnogenesis ...
The stereotype of the behavior of an ethnos is as dynamic as the ethnos itself. Rituals, customs and norms of relationships change either slowly and gradually, or very quickly.
According to the book L.N. Gumilyov "Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the earth". M., 1994. S. 92-93
Plan your text. Select for this. the main semantic fragments of the text and title each of them.
Show answer
The following semantic parts can be distinguished:
1) development and stability of the ethnic group;
2) norms of relations within an ethnic group;
3) what influences the development of an ethnos.
Other formulations are possible that do not distort the essence of the fragment, and the allocation of additional semantic blocks.
What three types of norms does an ethnic stereotype of behavior include?
Show answer
The correct answer should include the following types of norms:
1) between the team and the individual;
2) individuals among themselves;
3) intra-ethnic groups among themselves.
Show answer
Your answer should include the following factors:
1) geographical environment;
2) traditions;
3) relations with neighbors;
4) the natural law of the development of ethnic groups.
Show answer
1) the answer to the question, for example: the dynamism of the stereotype of behavior is manifested in the fact that rituals, customs and norms of human relations are constantly changing;
2) examples, let's say:
Changing the norms of family and marriage relations among European peoples: from a decisive role in choosing a spouse of relatives to an independent and free choice of a marriage partner;
Changing the attitude of the Russian nobility towards European foreigners: from the feeling of their complete alienation in the period of Muscovite Russia to the passion for everything foreign in subsequent centuries.
Other examples may be given.
L. Gumilyov cites such facts. The knights who captured Palestine resented the Arab custom of polygamy, and the Arabs considered the uncovered faces of French ladies to be shameless. What feature of the ethnic stereotype is manifested in these facts? Give the position of the text that helped you answer this question.
Show answer
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) a feature of the ethnic stereotype is indicated: the attitude to one's own norms of behavior as the only possible one;
2) a fragment of the text is given: “Coming into contact with another norm of behavior in another ethnic group, each member of this ethnic group is surprised, lost and tries to tell his fellow tribesmen about the eccentricities of another people.”
The author believes that ethnic groups develop according to the laws of nature. At the same time, many researchers attribute ethnogenesis to social phenomena. Which of these points of view do you think is more correct? Based on the text and social science and historical knowledge, give two arguments (reasons) in defense of your opinion.
Show answer
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) the student's opinion is expressed: agreement with a particular point of view;
2) two arguments (explanations) are given, for example:
in case of agreement that the development of ethnic groups is a natural
phenomenon, it can be said that
The processes of formation and development of nations cannot be directed by the activities of people, do not depend on their will;
Like a living organism, ethnoi in their development go through the stages of origin, "childhood", maturity and extinction;
in case of agreement that the development of ethnic groups is a social
process, it can be stated that
Social phenomena have a decisive influence on the development of ethnic groups: norms of relations, interaction with neighbors, etc.; even natural factors affect an ethnic group most often indirectly;
Through production, which in itself is a social phenomenon.
Other arguments (explanations) may be given.
Current page: 7 (total book has 16 pages)
The national policy in the Russian Federation is based on the relevant legislative acts, the main of which is the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The main principles and norms of this policy, enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, are: equality and self-determination of peoples, as well as subjects of the Federation, regardless of their national composition (Article 5); equality of all before the law and court, equality of rights and freedoms of man and citizen, regardless of race, nationality, language, etc. (Article 19); freedom to determine and indicate one's nationality and free choice of the language of communication (art. 26); the right of citizens of the Russian Federation to have citizenship of a foreign state (dual citizenship) (Article 62); guarantees of the right to preserve the native language, creation of conditions for its study and development (Article 68); guarantee of the rights of indigenous peoples (art. 69); protection of the rights of national minorities, the original habitat and traditional way of life of small ethnic communities (art. 72); taking into account historical and other local traditions in the implementation of local self-government, etc.
WHAT ARE CULTURAL-BEHAVIORAL STEREOTYPES? In practical terms, the problem of determining which ethnic group this or that person belongs to (or rather, whether he belongs to “his” ethnic group or another) is solved quite easily, because people have accumulated experience in how to distinguish representatives of certain ethnic groups by external , but more often - according to stereotypical cultural and behavioral characteristics. Here is what historian L.N. Gumilyov, a researcher of the ethnic history of our country, writes about this: “Four people enter the tram - equally dressed, speaking Russian equally well, etc. Suppose one of them is Russian, and the others are Caucasian, Tatar and Latvian from the Baltics. Is there a difference between them or not? It would seem that everyone understands what is. However, one of my opponents said that unless some stupid, far-fetched national conflict occurs between them, no one will know that there is a difference between them, and in general there really is none. “No,” I replied, “there may not be any national conflict here.” Any event will cause a different reaction in these people. Gets, for example, in the same tram violent drunk and begins to hooligan. What will happen? Well, the Russian, of course, will sympathize, he will say: “You, keryukha, come out before they take you away.” The Caucasian will not endure and will give in the teeth. The Tatar will step aside and will not get involved. A Westerner will immediately call a policeman. These are four completely different stereotypes of behavior! So, it is precisely the stereotypes of behavior among different ethnic groups that are always more or less different, but these differences, under close living conditions, are often hidden.
WHAT IS SOBORTANCY? catholicity the central concept of Russian religious and philosophical thought. This is the unity of the general (social) and the individual (personal). Sobornost expresses, as noted by the philosopher A. S. Khomyakov (1804–1860), who introduced this concept into philosophical use, “the possibility of collecting a multitude into unity.” Moreover, unity in this case cannot be likened to a pile of grains of sand or bricks laid in a wall. Sobornost is “a free and organic unity, the living principle of which is the divine grace of mutual love.” Philosopher L.P. Karsavin (1882–1952) wrote that “cathedralism is a symphony, harmonious harmony.” P. A. Florensky (1882–1937) compared sobornost with a polyphonic Russian song, during the performance of which freedom of voices is allowed while maintaining harmonic unity; in it, unity is achieved by internal mutual understanding, improvisation is welcomed, which does not decompose the whole.
1. What ethnic characteristics are currently the most significant?
2. There is an opinion that in our country, in contrast to Western Europe, there is a tendency towards national isolation, and not towards integration. Do you agree with this? Justify your answer.
3. Give examples of interethnic conflicts that arose in prosperous, economically developed countries. Explain the reason for such conflicts.
4. What reasons played the most important role in the emergence of conflicts on the territory of the former USSR? Do you agree that most of these conflicts are not caused by ethnic factors?
5. What is more important: the right of the nation to self-determination or the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the state? Justify your answer.
§ 12. Global problems of mankind
WHAT ARE THE GLOBAL PROBLEMS OF HUMANITY? These are problems on the solution of which the very existence of mankind depends. They declared themselves in the second half of the 20th - early 21st century. Global problems have a global (global - hence the name) character and directly concern all peoples and states. Their solution cannot be postponed, because they are a threat to the very existence of mankind.
Many similar problems arose before people before. So, ancient authors spoke about the perniciousness of military conflicts. And in the Middle Ages, during periods of internecine wars, the Christian church more than once called for "God's peace" between the states of Europe.
The problems of war and peace, like other acute problems, became more acute as humanity advanced along the path of progress. Intensive development of industrial production in the XX century. and the advent of atomic weapons have put humanity on the brink of destruction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBAL PROBLEMS. One of the global problems of our time is saving the world, elimination of the threat of nuclear war. Important steps in this direction are already being taken: agreements on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons have been signed, countries are agreeing on the reduction of strategic weapons, etc. But these steps are largely technical, taken at the state level. And the main success in their implementation depends on the efforts of thousands and millions of people of good will.
One of the most important global problems, which has recently received increasing attention, is ecological. Ecology is a science that comprehensively studies the impact of human activity on the environment, the relationship between nature and society. The environmental policy is focused on preventing and minimizing the harmful effects of economic activity, aimed at protecting the natural environment, rational and efficient use of natural resources, and maintaining ecological balance. Huge harm to nature is caused by industrial enterprises, power plants, testing of the latest weapons, etc. Suffice it to say that up to 10 million tons of oil and oil products are poured into the waters of the World Ocean annually. For example, in 2010, an accident on an oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of the United States led to an environmental disaster throughout the region.
Each person is able to contribute to the improvement of the environment. Nowadays, there are no longer enough slogans calling for “do not litter”, “do not break” and “do not litter”. In the first place are active actions to help nature. If you are faced with the facts of a destructive, barbaric attitude towards natural resources, you should contact the environmental authorities, the police, the prosecutor's office. Moreover, the current Criminal Code of the Russian Federation provides for serious liability for environmental crimes. The subject of initiation of criminal cases may be: violation of the rules of environmental protection during production work, water pollution, air pollution, marine pollution, damage to land, illegal hunting, illegal felling of trees and shrubs, destruction or damage to forests, etc.
As in the whole world, in Russia every year the mass democratic movement for the conservation of nature, the “green” movement, is expanding. However, while participating in this movement, one should not indiscriminately interfere with industrial construction, army exercises, etc., out of love for nature. Collective forms of nature conservation are very important, but the individual efforts of each of us can bring the main benefit.
Overcoming the backwardness of underdeveloped countries(mainly African and Asian), ensuring their economic development is another important global problem. We are talking about overcoming complex backwardness: raising the standard of living, providing food, developing science and education. In a number of countries in Africa and Latin America, part of the population is constantly malnourished, many are deprived of medical care. Child mortality here is four times higher than in prosperous states. Today, 80% of earthlings do not have acceptable living conditions, 70% are illiterate or semi-literate. Without solving the problem of the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries, it is impossible to satisfactorily solve other global problems of our time. And this problem will become amenable to solution when the people of the Earth truly feel like a single human race.
Partly related to the problem of underdevelopment of a number of countries demographic problem. Its paradox lies in the fact that population growth is observed in the most economically backward countries, and its decline is observed in the states of the “golden billion”. A separate aspect of the demographic problem is immigration from underdeveloped countries to economically prosperous or developing countries. The fact is that the surplus population in the poor countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America lacks local cash resources and is forced to move to those countries where there is a chance to physically survive (mainly to European countries). And if we take into account that the period of doubling the population in these countries is 20-25 years, then it is obvious that in the future the flow of hungry immigrants will constantly increase. A particularly difficult situation arises with illegal immigration. Illegals rush primarily to those states whose legislation does not provide for measures to regulate immigration (the possibility of expelling illegal immigrants, etc.). Unfortunately, Russia also belongs to such countries.
In economically developed countries, such as, for example, Germany, France, Great Britain, there is a shortage of workers, which is replenished by attracting foreigners. As a result, the demographic picture in Europe is changing: here the percentage of immigrants from Asia and Africa is becoming increasingly significant. According to experts, if this trend continues, the number of foreign workers will soon exceed the number of indigenous people.
In Russia, the decline in the population (the excess of deaths over births) is explained by a clear deterioration in the socio-economic living conditions of the majority of citizens.
Recently, the problem has become truly global fight against terrorism. Explosions of embassies, trade and cultural centers, assassinations of political figures, attacks on army units hinder the stable development of world processes, put the world on the brink of at least local wars that can develop into large-scale military conflicts. For our country, the anti-terrorist operation in Chechnya has taken on special significance in this respect.
In September 2001, the United States was subjected to a monstrous terrorist attack: the buildings of the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington were destroyed, thousands of people were killed. Together with the buildings, the myth was destroyed that some countries (for example, the United States, which considered itself safe overseas) could be out of the field of action of international terrorists. Terror attacks, monstrous in their consequences, were committed in Spain, France, England and Russia.
Thus, at the beginning of the XXI century. humanity has faced new challenges, many of which pose a serious threat to humanity. Let's list them again. This is the need to save the world from an all-devouring military fire that can occur at one of the “points of instability”. This is an environmental threat. This is the threat of overpopulation of economically underdeveloped regions of the world and mass migration of the excess population of the South to the countries of the North. As a result, there is a demographic problem of violation of the natural proportions of the indigenous population and immigrants.
This is the threat of escalation of conflicts on religious and ethnic grounds (and unresolved territorial disputes). For example, such as the Middle East confrontation between Israel and the Arab countries, India and Pakistan balancing on the brink of war and peace, the conflict in Northern Ireland, etc. This is the threat of terrorism, which is based on a complex of social contradictions of the era of globalization. This is the threat of economic crises associated with the depletion of the world's mineral reserves, and above all energy resources: oil, gas, coal.
This is a cyber threat that has arisen due to the rapid growth of information and communication technologies.
Faced with the challenge of the new millennium, humanity must, like never before, feel its unity, its responsibility for the future. It should by common efforts, in the words of the philosopher V.S. Solovyov, "if not to ensure heaven on Earth, then save it from turning into hell."
HOW DEVELOPED IDEAS ABOUT THE WORLD? The first to condemn the war was the great European philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536). In his treatise The Complaint of the World, he passionately wrote about the disasters that war brings and about the benefits of peace. He lashed out with accusations against the rulers of the world, shedding the blood of their subjects ...
Two decades later, the Combat Book of the World (1539) by S. Frank (1499–1542/43) appeared. Between the two treatises, the Peasants' War and the Reformation broke out. With Erasmus the world complains, with Frank it calls for a fight...
In Paris in 1623, E. Kruse published a book entitled The New Kinei. Cineas was a wise adviser to the ancient monarch Pyrrhus, advising to avoid wars. "New Kinei", according to Kruse, was supposed to instruct the rulers of the contemporary world...
The response to the "New Cineus" was the "Grand Plan", contained in the memoirs of the Duke of Sully (1638). The book outlined a program to pacify Europe...
In the 17th century a grandiose plan for the protection of the world is the Czech philosopher and educator Jan Amos Comenius. Justification of the idea of the world is devoted to his treatise "Only one thing is necessary" (1668).
W. Peni (1644–1718), administrator of a colony in North America, later named Pennsylvania in his honor, in 1693 published his “Experience on the Present and Future Peace in Europe”. It spoke of the need and possibility of creating a general union of states ...
An interesting circumstance prompted Abbé Charles de Saint-Pierre (1592–1670) to the idea of devoting himself to the cause of peace. Once, while traveling, an axle broke in his carriage. "Why did this happen? he thought as he watched his crew being repaired. Because the road is in a terrible state. Why aren't roads being repaired? There is no money in the treasury for this: the king of France is at war." This anecdote contains, as it were, in embryo the argument that Saint-Pierre would subsequently develop against the war. War not only takes away human lives, but also devours huge resources that could be successfully used for the purposes of the general welfare.
HOW TO OVERCOME WORLD TERRORISM? The US-led War on Terror is right in that the object of the fight (terrorism) is a clear evil. But this war is called upon, among other things, to approve the scheme for organizing the world in the 21st century, which was proposed to other countries by the leaders of the United States. The basis of this scheme is the so-called "pyramidal model of globalization". In accordance with this model, at the top of the pyramid are the leading countries that accumulate, that is, accumulate, collect, all the achievements and wealth of the Earth. The middle of the pyramid is made up of the countries of the so-called "second world" - industrial, designed to extract raw materials and develop environmentally harmful industries to provide the "top" with products. And developing and underdeveloped countries (countries of the "third world") are doomed to remain at the bottom of the pyramid in all respects, including the standard of living. Their role in the global process is to be a source of raw materials and labor.
Thus, the hopeless situation in the countries of the "third world" creates a breeding ground for those who are dissatisfied with the conditions of their existence and are ready to fight for justice as they understand it. This discontent is especially acute in some Islamic countries where terrorists are recruited. The point is not in the ideology of Islam, but in the difficult socio-economic situation in the countries of the "third world". And as long as it persists, terrorism will exist.
We think, we compare, we draw conclusions
1. The English scientist R. Malthus in 1798 published an article entitled "An experiment on the law of population." It argued that population growth outpaced food supplies and would always be detrimental to the environment. Malthus believed that this harm could only be reduced in two ways, which he called "positive and preventive control." A "positive" control is not really positive. It includes "natural" disasters: wars, famines and diseases that cause suffering to people and contribute to a decrease in population growth as a result of an increase in the death rate. Malthus also spoke of "preventive" controls, such as late marriage and sexual abstinence. They would help reduce population growth by reducing its reproduction.
Are the ideas expressed by R. Malthus relevant in our time? Give a detailed answer to this question.
2. Formulate two value approaches to migration processes. Justify each of them.
3. What contradictions arise in resolving the global problems of our time? Is it possible to eliminate them?
4. Highlight the main factors contributing to the spread of global terrorism. What are the ways to overcome this phenomenon?
5. Build your hierarchy of global problems of mankind. Justify your choice. Why do you think one problem is more important than the other?
Tasks for chapter II
(Check your knowledge)
Option 1
Part A
Choose the correct answer.
A1. From the point of view of Marxism-Leninism, history was made under the influence of
1) higher unknowable forces
2) economic processes
3) outstanding personalities - leaders, dictators, etc.
4) changes in the cultural life of societies
A2. What is the characteristic of an industrial society?
1) the leading role of agriculture
2) a weak level of division of labor
3) mass industrial production
4) the decisive importance of the service sector in the economy
A3. A return to old, obsolete forms, stagnation and degradation is
1) negative progress
2) retroduction
3) inconsistent progress
4) regression
A4. A former farmer acquires a small cafe in the city. That's an example
1) deviant behavior
2) social stratification
3) socialization
4) social mobility
A5. What is the characteristic of a nation as an ethnic community?
1) national identity
2) federal state structure
3) the presence of a national army
4) separation of powers
Part B
IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the spheres of public life and related events: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
Historical _________________ (1) stretched over millennia and considers different stages in the development of human society up to the present day. It is integrated into social _________________ (2), which are its integral essence: __________________ (3) people (individuals, social groups), products of human _________________ (4) (material, spiritual), judgments, statements (theories, ideas, concepts). It is based on ___________________ (5), i.e., certain facts or phenomena of social life that have occurred or are occurring. It is in them that economic, social, political and cultural ties and _______________ are embodied (6).
List of terms:
A) attitude
B) regression
D) process
E) action
G) events
H) activity
I) structure
B3. Distribute the social relations listed below into three types (socio-cultural, political, production).
1) creation of a political party
2) participation in the church choir
3) a project for a new TV show
4) holding a meeting of a joint-stock company
5) lobbying for a bill to reduce property taxes
6) cancellation of the meeting of the trade union of communal workers
7) adoption of a child from an orphanage
8) transfer of a building protected as a cultural monument to private ownership
9) establishment of a creative union of animators
10) cancellation of registration of the party "People's Unity"
11) sale of a controlling stake in CJSC Istok
12) replenishment of the fund of the municipal library
Socio-cultural: ________________
Political: _________________
Production: ____________________
B4. Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.
(A) National relations are a synthesis of political, socio-economic, cultural, linguistic and other relations within multinational and national societies. (B) It seems that the main core of relations between nations on a global scale is the strengthening of the trend towards integration, all-round rapprochement and cooperation. (C) Complex national-ethnic processes are taking place on the territory of the former USSR. (D) According to many scientists and politicians, a significant role in this is played by national egoism, previous grievances, haste in resolving vital issues. (E) At the same time, there is an improvement in the forms of interrelations both between the subjects of the Russian Federation and between the states - the former republics of the USSR.
Determine what provisions of the text are:
1) actual character;
2) the nature of value judgments;
3) the nature of theoretical statements.
AT 5. Find manifestations of vertical social mobility in the list below. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) a citizen moved from a two-room apartment on the fifth floor to a three-room apartment on the ninth floor, located in the same building
2) an ordinary engineer is appointed as a project manager
3) the officer was deprived of his military rank for committing an unseemly act and dismissed from the army
4) a small food merchant started selling used items
5) a citizen has remarried
6) the technician has agreed to perform additional site maintenance duties
Part C
“I agree with the idea that there is a natural aristocracy among people. The foundations for it are virtue and talent" ( T. Jefferson).
“Describing a flower with love for nature contains much more civic feelings than exposing bribery, because here there is contact with nature, with love for nature” ( F. M. Dostoevsky).
“I don’t know with what weapons they will fight in the third world war, but in the fourth world war they will fight with sticks and stones” ( A. Einstein).
"The art of making progress is to keep order by making changes, and to make change by keeping order." A. Whitehead).
"Our true nationality is man" ( G. Wells).
C2. Read the text and do the tasks for it.
Gaining more and more strength, civilization often showed a clear tendency to impose ideas with the help of missionary activities or direct violence coming from religious, in particular Christian, traditions ... So civilization steadily spread across the planet, using all possible ways and means for this - migration, colonization, conquest, trade, industrial development, financial control and cultural influence. Little by little, all countries and peoples began to live according to its laws or created them according to the pattern established by it ...
The development of civilization, however, was accompanied by the flowering of bright hopes and illusions that could not come true ... At the heart of her philosophy and her actions was always elitism. And the Earth, no matter how generous it is, is still not able to accommodate a continuously growing population and satisfy its more and more new needs, desires and whims. That is why a new, deeper split has now emerged - between the super-developed and the under-developed countries. But even this rebellion of the world proletariat, which seeks to partake of the riches of its more prosperous brethren, takes place within the framework of the same dominant civilization ... It is unlikely that it will be able to withstand this new test, especially now, when its own body is torn apart by numerous ailments. The NTR is becoming more and more obstinate, and it is becoming more and more difficult to pacify it. Having endowed us with unprecedented strength and instilled a taste for a level of life that we did not even think about, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our abilities and demands under control. And it is time for our generation to finally understand that now it depends only on us ... the fate of not individual countries and regions, but of all mankind as a whole.
A. Peccei
1) What global problems of modern society does the author highlight? List two or three issues.
2) What does the author mean by stating: “Having endowed us with unprecedented strength and instilled a taste for a level of life that we did not even think about, the scientific and technological revolution does not sometimes give us the wisdom to keep our abilities and demands under control”? Make two guesses.
3) Illustrate with examples (at least three) the author’s statement: “The development of civilization ... was accompanied by the flowering of bright hopes and illusions that could not be realized.”
4) Is it possible, in your opinion, to bridge the gap between rich and poor countries in the foreseeable future? Justify the answer.
C3. Try, following the idea of L. N. Gumilyov about the stereotypes of behavior of different ethnic groups, to highlight the stereotypes of behavior of the ethnic group to which you belong, or any ethnic group with whose representatives you were lucky to live side by side, make friends, cooperate, etc.
Option 2
Part A
Choose the correct answer.
A1. The tradition of appointing as Prime Minister the leader of the party that won the majority of seats in Parliament is the norm.
1) moral
2) religious
3) political
4) linguistic
A2. Which example illustrates the interaction of nature and society?
1) creation of the Slavic alphabet
2) collection of tribute by the prince from subject tribes
3) slash-and-burn agriculture of the Eastern Slavs
4) writing a code of laws Russkaya Pravda
A3. Deviant behavior is
1) any changes in a person's life
2) non-compliance with the norms accepted in society
3) movement of a person within his group
4) change in the status of a person
A4. The declassed poorest stratum of the population, alienated from property, which includes morally and physically degraded people, is called
1) the poor
3) marginals
4) lumpen
A5. The concepts of "development", "interaction of elements" characterize society as
1) dynamic system
2) part of nature
3) the entire surrounding material world
4) interaction of people in social groups
Part B
B1. Find the characteristics of nationalism in the list below. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) national exclusivity
2) religious tolerance
3) human rights
4) tolerance
5) private property
6) traditionalism
B2. Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.
Society is dynamic: both individuals and social groups are constantly changing their _____________________ (1). This phenomenon is called social _______________________ (2). Sociologists distinguish several types of it.
Movements that do not change the social position of individuals and groups are called ___________________ (3) mobility. Examples are the transition from one age group to another, a change in job, and the relocation of people from one locality or country to another, i.e. ______________________ (4). __________________ (5) mobility implies a qualitative change in the social position of a person. Examples include obtaining or losing a title of nobility in a feudal society, a professional career in a modern society, etc. The channels of mobility are social _________________ (6): family, school, property, church, army, etc.
The words in the list are given in the nominative case, singular. Each word can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap with words.
List of terms:
A) migration
B) mobility
B) horizontal
D) institute
D) status
E) vertical
G) group
H) stratification
I) marginalization
B3. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of "social norm". Find and indicate a term that refers to another concept.
1) sanction
2) social control
3) deviant behavior
4) social community
5) self-control
B4. Establish a correspondence between positive sanctions and examples illustrating them: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
AT 5. Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts of the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.
1) economic problems, 2) demographic issues, 3) the problem of preventing world conflicts, 4) global problems of mankind, 5) problem of global terrorism.
Part C
C1. Choose one of the statements below for writing an essay.
“If there were no such points at which the interests of all would converge, there could be no question of any kind of society” ( J. J. Rousseau).
“... Cursed be these interests of civilization, and even civilization itself, if in order to preserve it it is necessary to rip off the skin from people” ( F. M. Dostoevsky).
"Revolution is a barbaric form of progress" ( J. Jaures).
"Every nation can and should learn from others" ( K. Marx).
"War has become a luxury that only small nations can afford" ( X. Arendt).