Quote

Quote

(lat. cito - I cite), a thematically, as well as a syntactically or rhythmically isolated speech fragment of a work, used in another work as a sign of “alien speech”, as a reference to the content of an authoritative source. If the quote is inside the main text, it is always separated from the actual author's speech: punctuation (with quotation marks) or syntactically (using the turns "as he said", "as he said", "according to words"). Quote can be used in a text frame - serve epigraph or the title, like Lermontov's verse "The lonely sail turns white" in relation to the story of V.P. Kataeva. Quotations are either complete or incomplete (cf. Reminiscence). They are often used to save artistic means, serving to express the meaning: it is easier to refer to someone else's text, the ideas of which have long been mastered by readers, than to build detailed proofs of already known truths. But sometimes a reference to someone else's opinion is used not to confirm the correctness of the new author, but with the opposite goal - to "grow meaning" to the familiar to readers. speech material. So, A.S. Pushkin in the last stanza "Eugene Onegin" refers to catchphrase from Saadi: "There are no others, and those are far away." This quote reports a classic situation of separation, but the poet puts a specific biographical meaning into it: “others” are dead lyceum students, and “those” are exiled Decembrists.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

Quote

QUOTE- excerpt from literary work given with verbatim accuracy. The quotation is given either for the sake of documentary accuracy, or for the sake of its expressiveness. The first goal is realized mainly in scientific works, the second - in works of art and in the community. The expressiveness of a quotation, in turn, may depend on the meaning directly inherent in it or on those connections that are established with the quoted context. The first kind of expressiveness is, for the most part, the expressiveness of a maxim: such are all the quotes-proverbs from Krylov's fables ("this, pike, science to you"), quotes-sayings from "Woe from Wit" ("Everyone lies calendars"). Their connection with the context is erased over time, leaving behind them an independent meaning. In this area, the ingenuity of the author is manifested in the choice of the most striking expression for the quote.

The second kind of expressiveness of a quotation (by its connection with the context) requires the ability to choose from the cited author exactly those words that most reflect his whole worldview, are most closely related to the entire cited work. Such is the well-known given in the verses of Vl. Solovyov’s paraphrase quote from Lermontov: “With eyes full of azure fire” (in Lermontov: “With eyes full of azure fire”), a quote in which, due to the connection with the context, the whole world Lermontov erotica.

The artistic possibilities of a quotation are manifested not only in the choice of quoted words, but also in their appropriate use: thus, on the one hand, a quotation acquires special expressiveness due to its connection with the quoted text, on the other hand, a reference to the quoted author or work would be inappropriate in a literary work. creativity, sounding prosaic - the author's task here is to emphasize the connection, but avoid direct reference. Examples of this technique are found in V. Bryusov: 1) in the poem "Treason" the words: "gloomy and dull fire of voluptuousness" sound like a somewhat modified quote from Tyutchev, - the connection of the quote with the world of Tyutchev's poetry is emphasized by the mention of Tyutchev's name in one of the previous lines; 2) in the poem "Mon rêve familier" the line "you are with me again, dreams of my creation” preceded by an epigraph from Lermontov “I love the dreams of my creation”, establishing a connection between the quote and the images of Lermontov's poetry.

Valentina Dynnik. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Synonyms:

See what "quote" is in other dictionaries:

- (lat., from citare to refer to whom). Link to any place in another work; citing the words of another writer in support of a well-known opinion. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. QUOTE ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Quote- QUOTE excerpt from a literary work, given with verbatim accuracy. The quotation is given either for the sake of documentary accuracy, or for the sake of its expressiveness. The first goal is carried out mainly in scientific works, the second ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

Citation, citation, excerpt, extract; extract, winged word, winged word, precedent text, repetition, excerpt, excerpt, selections, epigraph Dictionary of Russian synonyms. quote see excerpt 3. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical… … Synonym dictionary

QUOTE- (from lat. citare - to call, to call). An exact verbatim excerpt from what l. text, statements. C., according to the rules of Russian punctuation, are enclosed in quotation marks; when quoting, the source of the quotation (author, work) is indicated. Quoting can... New dictionary methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

quote- A part of the text borrowed from any work without changes and used in another text, most often with an indication of the source from which it was taken. [GOST R 7.0.3 2006] quote A fragment of text borrowed from another publication or ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

QUOTE, quotes, wives. (from Latin cito I call to witness). Verbatim excerpt from some text, essay. Support your reasoning with quotes from the classics. Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

QUOTE, s, wives. An exact verbatim extract from what n. text, statements. Quotes from the classics. Write out, quote. | adj. quotation, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

- "QUOTATION", USSR, MAIN EDITION OF THE LITERARY DRAMA PROGRAMS OF THE TsT, 1988, color, 125 min. Teleplay. Based on the play of the same name in verse by Lenid Zorin. Video recording of the performance of the Mossovet Theatre. A vivid exposure in the spirit of perestroika of “those who can ... ... Cinema Encyclopedia

Quote- QUOTE, or excerpt, text from k. l. works reproduced verbatim by the author in the publication in order to substantiate his own statements or refute the cited author, etc. Main. requirements for C. its relevance, i.e., the necessity dictated by ... Publishing Dictionary

This article lacks links to sources of information. The information must be verifiable, otherwise it may be questioned and removed. You can ... Wikipedia

Books

• Gospel Text in Russian Literature of the 18th-20th Centuries Quote Reminiscence Motif Plot Genre Issue 6, Zakharov V. (ed.). The collection was compiled on the basis of materials of the VI International Conference "Gospel Text in Russian Literature of the 18th-20th Centuries: Quotation, Reminiscence, Motif, Plot, Genre", which took place in…

propositional logic , also called propositional logic, is a branch of mathematics and logic that studies the logical forms of complex propositions built from simple or elementary propositions using logical operations.

The logic of propositions is abstracted from the meaningful load of propositions and studies their truth value, that is, whether the proposition is true or false.

The picture above is an illustration of a phenomenon known as the Liar Paradox. At the same time, in the opinion of the author of the project, such paradoxes are possible only in environments that are not free from political problems, where someone can be branded a liar a priori. In the natural layered world on the subject of "truth" or "falsehood" is evaluated only separately taken statements . And later in this lesson, you will be introduced to the opportunity to evaluate many statements on this subject (and then look at the correct answers). Including complex statements in which simpler ones are interconnected by signs of logical operations. But first let us consider these operations on propositions themselves.

Propositional logic is used in computer science and programming in the form of declaring logical variables and assigning them the logical values ​​"false" or "true", on which the course of further execution of the program depends. In small programs where only one boolean variable is involved, that boolean variable is often given a name, such as "flag" and the "flag" is implied when that variable's value is "true" and "flag is down" when the value of this variable is "false". In programs large volume, in which there are several or even a lot of logical variables, professionals are required to come up with names of logical variables that have the form of statements and a semantic load that distinguishes them from other logical variables and is understandable to other professionals who will read the text of this program.

So, a logical variable with the name "UserRegistered" (or its English equivalent) can be declared, having the form of a statement, which can be assigned the logical value "true" if the conditions are met that the data for registration is sent by the user and this data is recognized by the program as valid. In further calculations, the values ​​of the variables may change depending on what logical value ("true" or "false") the "UserLogged in" variable has. In other cases, a variable, for example, with the name "More than Three Days Until Day", can be assigned the value "True" up to a certain block of calculations, and during the further execution of the program this value can be saved or changed to "false" and the course of further execution depends on the value of this variable programs.

If a program uses several logical variables whose names have the form of propositions, and more complex propositions are built from them, then it is much easier to develop a program if, before developing it, all operations from propositions are written in the form of formulas used in propositional logic than we do in the course of this lesson and let's do it.

Logical operations on statements

For mathematical statements, one can always choose between two different alternatives "true" and "false", but for statements made in "verbal" language, the concepts of "true" and "false" are somewhat more vague. However, for example, such verbal forms as "Go home" and "Is it raining?" are not utterances. Therefore, it is clear that utterances are verbal forms in which something is stated . Interrogative or exclamatory sentences, appeals, as well as wishes or demands are not statements. They cannot be evaluated by the values ​​"true" and "false".

Propositions, on the other hand, can be viewed as a quantity that can take on two values: "true" and "false".

For example, judgments are given: "a dog is an animal", "Paris is the capital of Italy", "3

The first of these statements can be evaluated with the symbol "true", the second with "false", the third with "true" and the fourth with "false". Such an interpretation of propositions is the subject of propositional algebra. We will denote statements in capital Latin letters A, B, ..., and their values, that is, true and false, respectively And and L. In ordinary speech, connections are used between the statements "and", "or" and others.

These connections make it possible, by combining various statements, to form new statements - complex statements . For example, a bunch of "and". Let the statements be given: π greater than 3" and the statement " π less than 4. You can organize a new - complex statement " π more than 3 and π less than 4". The statement "if π irrational, then π ² is also irrational" is obtained by linking two statements with the link "if - then". Finally, we can get a new - complex statement - from any statement - negating the original statement.

Considering propositions as quantities taking on the values And and L, we define further logical operations on statements , which allow us to obtain new - complex statements from these statements.

Let two arbitrary statements be given A and B.

1 . The first logical operation on these statements - conjunction - is the formation of a new statement, which we will denote A ∧ B and which is true if and only if A and B true. In ordinary speech, this operation corresponds to the connection of statements with a bunch of "and".

Truth table for conjunction:

A	B	A ∧ B
And	And	And
And	L	L
L	And	L
L	L	L

2 . The second logical operation on statements A and B- disjunction expressed as A ∨ B, is defined as follows: it is true if and only if at least one of the original statements is true. In ordinary speech, this operation corresponds to the connection of statements with a bunch of "or". However, here we have a non-separative "or", which is understood in the sense of "either-or" when A and B both cannot be true. In the definition of propositional logic A ∨ B true if only one of the statements is true, and if both statements are true A and B.

Truth table for disjunction:

A	B	A ∨ B
And	And	And
And	L	And
L	And	And
L	L	L

3 . The third logical operation on statements A and B, expressed as A → B; the resulting statement is false if and only if A true, and B false. A called parcel , B - consequence , and the statement A → B - following , also called an implication. In ordinary speech, this operation corresponds to the link "if - then": "if A, then B". But in the definition of propositional logic, this proposition is always true, regardless of whether the proposition is true or false B. This circumstance can be briefly formulated as follows: "anything you like follows from the false." In turn, if A true, and B false, then the whole statement A → B false. It will be true if and only if A, and B true. Briefly, this can be formulated as follows: "false cannot follow from the true."

Truth table to follow (implication):

A	B	A → B
And	And	And
And	L	L
L	And	And
L	L	And

4 . The fourth logical operation on statements, more precisely on one statement, is called the negation of a statement. A and denoted by ~ A(you can also find the use of not the symbol ~, but the symbol ¬, as well as the overline over A). ~ A there is a statement that is false when A true, and true when A false.

Truth table for negation:

A	~ A
L	And
And	L

5 . And finally, the fifth logical operation on propositions is called equivalence and is denoted A ↔ B. The resulting statement A ↔ B is a true statement if and only if A and B both true or both false.

Truth table for equivalence:

A	B	A → B	B → A	A ↔ B
And	And	And	And	And
And	L	L	And	L
L	And	And	L	L
L	L	And	And	And

Most programming languages ​​have special symbols for logical values ​​of statements, they are written in almost all languages ​​as true (true) and false (false).

Let's summarize the above. propositional logic studies connections that are completely determined by the way in which some statements are built from others, called elementary ones. Elementary statements are considered as whole, not decomposable into parts.

We systematize in the table below the names, designations and meaning of logical operations on statements (we will need them again soon to solve examples).

Bundle	Designation	Operation name
not		negation
and		conjunction
or		disjunction
if...then...		implication
then and only then		equivalence

For logical operations are true laws of the algebra of logic, which can be used to simplify boolean expressions. At the same time, it should be noted that in the logic of propositions they are abstracted from the semantic content of the proposition and are limited to considering it from the position that it is either true or false.

Example 1

1) (2 = 2) AND (7 = 7) ;

2) Not(15 ;

3) ("Pine" = "Oak") OR ("Cherry" = "Maple");

4) Not("Pine" = "Oak") ;

5) (Not(15 20) ;

6) ("Eyes are given to see") and ("Under the third floor is the second floor");

7) (6/2 = 3) OR (7*5 = 20) .

1) The value of the statement in the first brackets is "true", the value of the expression in the second brackets is also true. Both statements are connected by the logical operation "AND" (see the rules for this operation above), so the logical value of this entire statement is "true".

2) The meaning of the statement in brackets is "false". This proposition is preceded by a logical negation operation, so the logical value of this entire proposition is "true".

3) The meaning of the statement in the first brackets is "false", the meaning of the statement in the second brackets is also "false". The statements are connected by the logical operation "OR" and none of the statements has the value "true". Therefore, the logical meaning of this whole statement is "false".

4) The meaning of the statement in brackets is "false". This statement is preceded by a logical negation operation. Therefore, the logical meaning of the whole given statement is "true".

5) In the first brackets, the statement in the inner brackets is negated. This statement in parentheses evaluates to "false", so its negation will evaluate to the logical value "true". The statement in the second brackets has the value "false". These two statements are connected by the logical operation "AND", that is, "true AND false" is obtained. Therefore, the logical meaning of the whole given statement is "false".

6) The meaning of the statement in the first brackets is "true", the meaning of the statement in the second brackets is also "true". These two statements are connected by the logical operation "AND", that is, "true AND truth" is obtained. Therefore, the logical meaning of the whole given statement is "true".

7) The meaning of the statement in the first brackets is "true". The meaning of the statement in the second brackets is "false". These two statements are connected by the logical operation "OR", that is, "true OR false" is obtained. Therefore, the logical meaning of the whole given statement is "true".

Example 2 Write down the following complex statements using logical operations:

1) "User not registered";

2) "Today is Sunday and some employees are at work";

3) "The user is registered when and only when the data sent by the user is found to be valid."

1) p- single statement "User is registered", logical operation: ;

2) p- single statement "Today is Sunday", q- "Some employees are at work", logical operation: ;

3) p- single statement "User is registered", q- "Data sent by the user is valid", logical operation: .

Solve propositional logic examples on your own and then look at the solutions

Example 3 Calculate the boolean values ​​of the following statements:

1) ("There are 70 seconds in a minute") OR ("The running clock shows the time");

2) (28 > 7) AND (300/5 = 60) ;

3) ("TV - electrical appliance") and ("Glass - wood");

4) Not((300 > 100) OR ("Thirst can be quenched with water"));

5) (75 < 81) → (88 = 88) .

Example 4 Write down the following complex statements using logical operations and calculate their logical values:

1) "If the clock does not show the time correctly, then you can come to class at the wrong time";

2) "In the mirror you can see your reflection and Paris - the capital of the USA";

Example 5 Determine Boolean Expression

(p → q) ↔ (r → s) ,

p = "278 > 5" ,

q= "Apple = Orange",

p = "0 = 9" ,

s= "The hat covers the head".

Propositional logic formulas

The concept of the logical form of a complex statement is specified with the help of the concept propositional logic formulas .

In examples 1 and 2, we learned how to write complex statements using logical operations. In fact, they are called propositional logic formulas.

To denote statements, as in the above example, we will continue to use the letters

p, q, r, ..., p 1 , q 1 , r 1 , ...

These letters will play the role of variables that take the truth values ​​"true" and "false" as values. These variables are also called propositional variables. We will henceforth call them elementary formulas or atoms .

To construct propositional logic formulas, in addition to the above letters, the signs of logical operations are used

~, ∧, ∨, →, ↔,

as well as symbols that provide the possibility of unambiguous reading of formulas - left and right brackets.

concept propositional logic formulas define as follows:

1) elementary formulas (atoms) are formulas of propositional logic;

2) if A and B- propositional logic formulas, then ~ A , (A ∧ B) , (A ∨ B) , (A → B) , (A ↔ B) are also formulas of propositional logic;

3) only those expressions are propositional logic formulas for which this follows from 1) and 2).

The definition of a propositional logic formula contains an enumeration of the rules for the formation of these formulas. According to the definition, every formula of propositional logic is either an atom or is formed from atoms as a result of the successive application of rule 2).

Example 6 Let p- single statement (atom) "All rational numbers are real", q- "Some real numbers are rational numbers", r- "some rational numbers are real". Translate into the form of verbal propositions the following formulas of propositional logic:

6) .

1) "there are no real numbers that are rational";

2) "if not all rational numbers are real, then no rational numbers, which are valid";

3) "if all rational numbers are real, then some real numbers are rational numbers and some rational numbers are real";

4) "all real numbers are rational numbers and some real numbers are rational numbers and some rational numbers are real numbers";

5) "all rational numbers are real if and only if it is not the case that not all rational numbers are real";

6) "it is not the case that it is not the case that not all rational numbers are real and there are no real numbers that are rational or no rational numbers that are real."

Example 7 Make a truth table for the propositional logic formula , which in the table can be denoted f .

Solution. We start compiling the truth table by recording the values ​​("true" or "false") for single statements (atoms) p , q and r. All possible values ​​are written in eight rows of the table. Further, when defining the values ​​of the implication operation, and moving to the right in the table, remember that the value is equal to "false" when "true" implies "false".

p	q	r					f
And	And	And	And	And	And	And	And
And	And	L	And	And	And	L	And
And	L	And	And	L	L	L	L
And	L	L	And	L	L	And	And
L	And	And	L	And	L	And	And
L	And	L	L	And	L	And	L
L	L	And	And	And	And	And	And
L	L	L	And	And	And	L	And

Note that no atom has the form ~ A , (A ∧ B) , (A ∨ B) , (A → B) , (A ↔ B) . These are complex formulas.

The number of brackets in propositional logic formulas can be reduced by assuming that

1) in a complex formula, we will omit the outer pair of brackets;

2) order the signs of logical operations "by seniority":

↔, →, ∨, ∧, ~ .

In this list, the ↔ sign has the largest scope, and the ~ sign has the smallest scope. The scope of an operation sign is understood as those parts of the propositional logic formula to which the considered occurrence of this sign is applied (acted). Thus, it is possible to omit in any formula those pairs of brackets that can be restored, taking into account the "order of precedence". And when restoring brackets, first all brackets are placed that refer to all occurrences of the ~ sign (in this case, we move from left to right), then to all occurrences of the ∧ sign, and so on.

Example 8 Restore parentheses in propositional logic formula B ↔ ~ C ∨ D ∧ A .

Solution. The brackets are restored step by step as follows:

B ↔ (~ C) ∨ D ∧ A

B ↔ (~ C) ∨ (D ∧ A)

B ↔ ((~ C) ∨ (D ∧ A))

(B ↔ ((~ C) ∨ (D ∧ A)))

Not every propositional logic formula can be written without brackets. For example, in formulas BUT → (B → C) and ~( A → B) no further deletion of brackets is possible.

Tautologies and contradictions

Logical tautologies (or simply tautologies) are such formulas of propositional logic that if letters are arbitrarily replaced by propositions (true or false), then the result will always be a true proposition.

Since the truth or falsity of complex statements depends only on the meanings, and not on the content of statements, each of which corresponds to a certain letter, then the test of whether a given statement is a tautology can be substituted in the following way. In the expression under study, the values ​​1 and 0 (respectively, "true" and "false") are substituted for the letters in all possible ways, and using logical operations, the logical values ​​of the expressions are calculated. If all these values ​​are equal to 1, then the expression under study is a tautology, and if at least one substitution gives 0, then this is not a tautology.

Thus, a propositional logic formula that takes the value "true" for any distribution of the values ​​of the atoms included in this formula is called identically true formula or tautology .

The opposite meaning is a logical contradiction. If all proposition values ​​are 0, then the expression is a logical contradiction.

Thus, a propositional logic formula that takes the value "false" for any distribution of the values ​​of the atoms included in this formula is called identically false formula or contradiction .

In addition to tautologies and logical contradictions, there are formulas of propositional logic that are neither tautologies nor contradictions.

Example 9 Make a truth table for a propositional logic formula and determine whether it is a tautology, a contradiction, or neither.

Solution. We make a truth table:

And	And	And	And	And
And	L	L	L	And
L	And	L	And	And
L	L	L	L	And

In the meanings of the implication, we do not find a line in which "true" implies "false". All values ​​of the original statement are equal to "true". Therefore, this propositional logic formula is a tautology.

Human life is not conceivable without a constant exchange of information with other people. That is why in history there is a piggy bank of famous quotes and sayings. The human word is unusually strong - rhetoricians, generals, statesmen able to inspire entire nations with speech. Next, we will talk about, analyze what it is, find out what goals it serves, learn how to build sayings that are pleasant to everyone and everyone, and also recall some famous sayings.

scientific definition

From the point of view of science, a statement is a basic (undefined) term from the field of mathematical logic. More commonly, an utterance is any declarative sentence that states something about something. Moreover, from the point of view of specific circumstances and time frames, it is possible to state with accuracy whether it is true or false under existing conditions. Each such logical statement can thus be attributed to one of 2 groups:

1. True.
2. Lie.

True statements, for example, include the following:

• If a girl has graduated from high school, she receives a certificate of secondary education.
• London - Capital of the UK.
• Carp is a fish.

False statements such as:

• A dog is not an animal.
• St. Petersburg is built on the Moscow River.
• The number 15 is divisible by 3 and 6.

What does not apply to statements?

It is necessary to make a reservation that in the field of exact sciences, not all sentences fall into the category of statements. It becomes obvious that a phrase that does not carry either truth or falsity falls out of the group of statements, for example:

• Long live world peace!
• Welcome to the new educational institution!
• You must bring boots and an umbrella for walking.

Classification of statements

So, if what an utterance is is clarified, then the classification of this category is still undetermined. Meanwhile, it really exists. Statements are divided into two groups:

1. A simple, or elementary, statement is a sentence that is a single statement.
2. A complex, or compound, statement, that is, one that is formed from elementary ones, thanks to the use of grammatical connectives “or”, “and”, “neither”, “not”, “if ... then ...”, “then and only then” and etc. An example is a true sentence: “ If a child is motivated, then he does well at school.", which is formed from 2 elementary statements:" The child is motivated" and " He does well at school» with the help of the linking element «if...then...». All such structures are constructed in a similar way.

So, with the statement specifically in relation to the field of exact sciences, now everything is clear. For example, in algebra, any statement is considered only in terms of its logical meaning, without taking into account any worldly content. Here the statement can be either exclusively true or exclusively false - the third is not given. In this, the logical statement is qualitatively different from which will be discussed below.

In school mathematics (and sometimes also computer science), elementary statements are denoted by Latin letters: a, b, c, ... x, y, z. The true value of a proposition is traditionally marked with the number "1" and the false value with the number "0".

Important Concepts for Determining the Truth or Falsehood of a Statement

The main terms that in one way or another come into contact with the area of ​​logical statements include:

• "judgment" - some statement that is potentially true or false;
• "statement" - a judgment that requires proof or refutation;
• "reasoning" - a set of logical and interrelated judgments, facts, conclusions and provisions that can be obtained through other judgments according to certain rules for making a conclusion;
• "induction" - a way of reasoning from the particular (smaller) to the general (more global);
• "deduction" - on the contrary, a method of reasoning from the general to the particular (it was the deductive method that was used in its advantage famous hero stories by Arthur Conan Doyle Sherlock Holmes, who, coupled with the knowledge base, observation and attentiveness, allowed him to find the truth, clothe it in the form of logical statements, build the correct chains of reasoning and, as a result, identify the criminal).

What is a statement in psychology: "You" is a statement

The science of human consciousness also assigns a huge role to the categories of statements. It is with the help of it that an individual can make a positive impression on others and create a non-conflict microclimate in relationships. Therefore, today psychologists are trying to popularize the topic of the existence of two types of statements: these are “I” statements and “You” statements. Anyone who wants to improve in communication should forget about the last type forever!

Typical examples of "You" statements are:

• - You're always wrong!
• - Again you climb with your recommendations!
• - Can you not be so clumsy?

They immediately feel open dissatisfaction with the interlocutor, accusation, the creation of an uncomfortable situation for a person in which he is forced to defend himself. In this case, he cannot hear, understand and accept the point of view of the "accuser" because he is initially placed in the position of an adversary and an enemy.

"I" statements

If the purpose of the statement is the expression of one's opinion, feelings, emotions, then one should never forget about finding an approach to the interlocutor. Throwing a short accusation at “you” is much easier, but in this case you can not count on a positive reaction from the interlocutor, because the cocoon of reciprocal emotional protection will not allow him to get through. Therefore, it will be more effective to try the technique of "I" statements, which rests on certain principles.

The first step is not to blame the interlocutor, but to express your own emotional reaction about what happened. Although the other person does not know what will be discussed next, intuitively he will be predisposed to the problems of a friend and will be ready to show participation and care.

For example, you can say:

• I'm sad.
• I am indignant.
• I'm lost.
• I'm ready to burst.

• I was late for work and my boss reprimanded me.
• I was waiting for you and could not call, because the network did not catch well.
• I sat out in the rain whole hour and all wet.

Finally, an explanation should be given of why a certain action caused a certain reaction:

• For me, this event was extremely important.
• I am too tired and unable to cope with the piled-up responsibilities.
• I put a lot of effort into this case and got nothing as a result!

At the penultimate or final (depending on the situation) stage, you need to express a wish or request. The person to whom the interlocutor will turn after such detailed description feelings, should receive certain recommendations and advice for further behavior. Whether he takes them into account or not is his personal choice, which will demonstrate a real attitude:

• I would like you to leave the house earlier.
• I propose to agree: we will deal with household duties every other day.

An optional, but in some cases necessary, item is a warning about your intentions, namely:

• I'm afraid I can no longer lend you a car for the weekend.
• I will remind you of homework if you forget.

Errors in following the concept of "I"-statements

To build a successful dialogue and prevent scandals, you should exclude such mistakes from your own communication practice:

1. Making accusations. It is not enough to use only one point of technique, and then launch into denunciation and commenting on the interlocutor and his actions in the form: “You are late!”, “You broke!”, “You scattered things!”. In this case, the idea completely loses its meaning.
2. Generalizations. Labels and stamps should be disposed of as soon as possible. We are talking about unflattering stereotypical driving, blondes, male bachelors, etc.
3. Insults.
4. Expressing one's own emotions in a rude way ("I'm ready to kill you!", "I'm just furious!").

Thus, "I"-statements involve the rejection of humiliation and reproaches in order not to turn communication into a dangerous invisible weapon.

Famous sayings of philosophers

The completion of the article will be connected with statements that, in contrast to logical judgments and universal psychological tricks, are perceived by each person purely individually:

• What you should not do, do not do even in your thoughts (Epictetus).
• To give out someone else's secret is a betrayal, to give out one's own is stupidity (Voltaire).
• If 50 million people say nonsense, it is still nonsense (Anatole France).

Help people to better understand themselves and others, support in the most different areas life.

Types of statements

Logical statements are usually divided into two types: elementary logical statements and compound logical statements.

Compound logical statement is a statement formed from other statements with the help of logical connectives.

logical link is any logical operation on a statement. For example, words and phrases used in ordinary speech "not", "and", "or", "if ... then", "then and only then" are logical links.

Elementary logical statements These are non-compound statements.

Examples: "Petrov is a doctor", "Petrov is a chess player" - elementary logical statements. “Petrov is a doctor and a chess player” is a compound logical statement, consisting of two elementary statements connected to each other by means of a bunch of “and”.

Relationship with mathematical logic

Ordinary logic is two-valued, that is, it assigns only two possible values ​​to propositions: it is true or false.

Let be a statement. If it is true, then write , if false, then .

Basic operations on logical statements

Negation logical statement - a logical statement that takes the value "true" if the original statement is false, and vice versa.

Conjunction two logical propositions - a logical proposition that is true only if they are both true at the same time.

Disjunction two logical statements - a logical statement that is true only if at least one of them is true.

implication two logical statements A and B - a logical statement that is false only if B is false and A is true.

equivalence(equivalence) of two logical statements - a logical statement that is true only if they are both true or false.

quantifier universality() is a logical proposition that is true only if for each object x from the given set the proposition A(x) is true.

quantifier logical statement with quantifier existence() is a logical proposition that is true only if there is an object x in the given collection such that the proposition A(x) is true.

see also

• Statement

Notes

Literature

• Karpenko, A. S. Modern research in philosophical logic // Logical research. Issue. 10. - M.: Nauka, 2003. ISBN 5-02-006257-X - S. 61-93.
• Kripke, S. A. Wittgenstein on rules and individual language / Per. V. A. Ladova, V. A. Surovtseva. Under total ed. V. A. Surovtseva. - Tomsk: Publishing House Vol. un-ta, 2005. - 152 p. - (Library of analytical philosophy). ISBN 5-7511-1906-1
• Kurbatov, V. I. Logics. Systematic course. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2001. - 512 p. ISBN 5-222-01850-4
• Shuman, A. N. Modern logic: theory and practice. - Minsk: Ekonompress, 2004. - 416 p. ISBN 985-6479-35-5
• Makarova, N. V. Informatics and ICT. - St. Petersburg: Peter Press, 2007 ISBN 978-5-91180-198-4 - S. 343-345.
• Kondakov N.I. Logical dictionary / Gorsky D.P.. - M .: Nauka, 1971. - 656 p.

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Proposition (logic)" is in other dictionaries:

Proposition: A proposition (logic) is a sentence that can be true or false. An utterance (linguistics) is a sentence in a specific speech situation. See also Judgment ... Wikipedia

- (from the Greek logos word, concept, reasoning, mind), or formal logic, the science of the laws and operations of correct thinking. According to the basic principle of L., the correctness of reasoning (conclusion) is determined only by its logical form, or… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

A branch of logic that studies the truth relationships between propositions. Within the framework of this section, statements (propositions, sentences) are considered only from the point of view. their truth or falsity, irrespective of their inner subjectivity... Philosophical Encyclopedia

propositional logic- STATEMENT LOGIC, propositional logic is a branch of symbolic logic that studies complex statements formed from simple ones and their relationships. In contrast to the logic of predicates, simple statements in this case act as ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

A grammatically correct declarative sentence, taken together with the meaning it expresses. In logic, several concepts of logic are used, which differ significantly from each other. First of all, this is the concept of descriptive, or descriptive, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Burrows Abadi Needham logic or BAN logic is a formal logical model for the analysis of knowledge and trust, widely used in the analysis of protocols ... ... Wikipedia

The central section of logic, which studies the subjective predicate structure of the statement and the truth relationships between them. L.p. is a meaningful extension of propositional logic. Within this section, any statement ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Or the Logic of Science, the application of ideas, methods and apparatus of logic in the analysis of scientific knowledge. The development of logic has always been closely connected with the practice of theoretical thinking and, above all, with the development of science. Concrete reasoning gives material to logic... Philosophical Encyclopedia