At the beginning of the 16th century son of Ivan III ascended the Russian throne Vasily III(1505–1533). Under him, the unification of Russian lands into a single state continued. In 1510, Pskov was annexed to Moscow, in 1521 - Ryazan land. As a result of a series of wars with Lithuania, begun by Ivan III, the Chernigov-Seversk land and part of the Smolensk land with Smolensk went to Russia. Thus, the process of unification of Russian lands into a single state was completed. If at the time of Ivan III's accession to the throne, the territory of the Moscow state was 430 thousand square meters. km, then by the end of the reign of Vasily III, it increased 6 times. A powerful state appeared on the map of Europe, which had an increasing influence on international politics, and which had to be reckoned with.
After the death of Vasily III, his three-year-old son Ivan IV (1533–1584) became Grand Duke of Moscow. His mother, Elena Glinskaya, was declared regent for the young heir to the throne. There was also a regency council, which included the tsarina's uncle Mikhail Glinsky and representatives of the noblest boyar families. Soon Elena Glinskaya managed to crack down on the regency council and concentrated power in her hands. The queen's policy was aimed at further strengthening state power. Under Elena Glinskaya, the lip reform began, measures were taken to strengthen the army, and monetary reform. At that time, the main coin in Russia was money, which existed in two versions: Moscow and Novgorod. The monetary reform was aimed at creating a unified monetary system. In 1535, a new silver coin was minted - the "penny".
In 1538, Elena Glinskaya died unexpectedly, possibly from poison. After her death, the period of boyar rule begins in the country. It is characterized by fierce fighting between various factions of the nobility. At first, these were the Shuiskys and Belskys, then they were pushed aside by the Glinskys, but besides them, the Zakharyins begin to play a significant role. During the period of boyar rule, state power in the center and in the regions weakened, but corruption intensified. Discontent grew among the population of the country. There is a need for new reforms.
The beginning of the reign of Ivan IV. On January 16, 1547, seventeen-year-old Ivan IV was solemnly married to the kingdom. He became the first of the great Moscow princes who took the title of tsar. This act pursued far-reaching goals in the internal and foreign policy. The adoption of a title equal to the title of the Byzantine and German emperors, as well as the title of Khan of the Golden Horde, was intended to increase the authority of the ruler of the Muscovite state both within Russia and abroad, putting Ivan IV above all the rest of the Russian titled nobility and over the rulers of many states.
In the spring and summer of 1547, a series of fires broke out in Moscow. On June 21, fire destroyed almost the entire city. The disaster increased Muscovites' dissatisfaction with the authorities and served as a pretext for an uprising on June 26. Glinsky's opponents tried to take advantage of the situation, accusing them of arson. The rebels defeated the yards of the Glinskys, the boyar Yuri Glinsky was killed, others fled. Tsar Ivan left for a country residence - the village of Vorobyevo. On June 29, an armed crowd of Muscovites moved to Vorobyevo, demanding the extradition of the Glinskys. With great difficulty, the king managed to persuade the rebels to disperse. Approximately at the same time there were performances in a number of other cities. The main reason for discontent was the abuse of power. In the conditions that had arisen, it was necessary, first of all, to organize the normal work of the administration in the center and in the localities, and for this it was necessary to carry out reforms.
Reforms of the Chosen Rada. The reforms that began were associated with the activities of the Chosen Rada, a government circle that formed around 1549 around the young tsar. It included Metropolitan Macarius, priest of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral and confessor of the Tsar Sylvester, princes A. Kurbsky, D. Kurlyatiev, M. Vorotynsky, clerk of the Embassy Department I. Viskovaty. The Elected Rada was headed by a man of relatively humble origin - the Duma nobleman A.F. Adashev. The elected Rada has carried out a number of important events that contribute to the political centralization of the country.
Sudebnik 1550 The reforms required the development of a new set of laws. They became the Sudebnik of 1550, which received the name "Sudebnik of Ivan IV" or "Royal". The new set was compiled on the basis of the Sudebnik of Ivan III (1497), and it reflected changes in legislation over the period 1497–1550. The main attention was paid to the problems of administration and the court, the role of the central judicial bodies and the royal court was strengthened. For the first time, punishments were introduced for boyars and clerks-bribe-takers.
The Sudebnik of 1550 confirmed the right of the peasants to move only for two weeks (a week before and a week after St. George's Day), and increased the size of the "elderly", which made the peasant transition even more difficult and strengthened the power of the feudal lords over the peasants.
Reforms of central and local government. As a result of the reforms of central and local government in Russia, the process of forming a class-representative monarchy was completed - i.e. monarchy, in which elected representatives from various segments of the population are involved in the management of the state and the solution of the most important issues by the royal power. The most important bodies of the class-representative monarchy in Russia were:
Boyar Duma. The origins of the Boyar Duma date back to the times of Kievan Rus, when it was a council under the prince, consisting of senior combatants. During the period of fragmentation, the Duma turned into a council of noble vassals. From the end of the XV century. it became a permanent legislative advisory body under the Grand Duke of Moscow. It was believed that the tsar rules the country together with the Boyar Duma, which together with him decided the main issues of administration, foreign policy, and legislation. Under the Boyar Duma, a special office work, an office arose, and a certain bureaucratic apparatus was formed.
Initially, the Boyar Duma was an organ of the noble boyar aristocracy. From the first third of the XVI century. a system of duma ranks is taking shape - boyars and roundabouts (they were lower in their position than the boyars). The composition of the Boyar Duma was very small - 5-12 boyars and about the same number of devious ones. Then the composition began to expand, and already under Vasily III, the duma included representatives of the top of the state bureaucracy - duma clerks and representatives from the Moscow nobility - "duma nobles".
Zemsky Sobors – the highest class-representative bodies. They played an important role in the administration of the state, they discussed the most important issues of foreign and domestic policy. In the event of the termination of the royal dynasty, the elections of a new king took place at the Zemsky Sobors. Zemsky Sobors did not have legislative power, therefore, formally, their decisions were not binding on the monarch, but in practice he could not ignore these decisions, since they expressed the opinion of the most influential strata of society.
There was no clear procedure for convening Zemsky Sobors. They were convened when the need arose for the king himself, or when he was forced to do so at the request of the estates. In the absence of a ruler, the estates could assemble on their own. The holding of elections, the norms of representation from various estates were not regulated, the numerical strength of the cathedrals was not constant. The boyars, the clergy, the nobility, the merchants, and the state apparatus were represented at the meetings. Only at the Zemsky Sobor of 1613 were representatives of the Cossacks and black-sown peasants present. It should also be noted that some of the participants in the Zemsky Sobors were not elected - the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral (tops of the clergy) were present in full force. Representatives from each estate discussed all the issues raised separately, and then submitted their opinions to the king in the form of a petition. General decisions were formalized by the publication of a special document (“verdict”), adopted by the entire staff of the cathedral.
The first zemsky sobor was convened in February 1549. It was called the "Council of Reconciliation", since Ivan IV, who spoke at it, although he reproached the boyars for abuses during the period of "boyar rule", at the same time called on everyone to forget insults and act together for the good states. The last full-scale Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653.
Orders- Central administration. Already from the end of the XV century. the sovereign "ordered" (entrusted) the conduct of a certain range of issues to some boyar, who created for this a staff of clerks and clerks. Gradually, these temporary orders turned into permanent ones, and orders-assignments became orders-departments. By the middle of the XVI century. The country has developed a fairly extensive system of orders. A feature of the order system was that almost every order performed not only managerial functions, but also judicial ones. All orders can be divided into national, territorial and palace.
National orders were in charge of certain issues throughout the state. So, the Discharge Order was in charge of the personnel of the boyar and noble cavalry. Streltsy - by the affairs of the Streltsy army. Pushkarsky - artillery. The local order dealt with the land affairs of service people, monitored the distribution of estates. The embassy order was in charge of foreign affairs. The robbery order was the prototype of the central police authority.
Territorial orders (Siberian, Kazan, Vladimir, etc.) were in charge of the affairs of individual territories.
Palace orders dealt only with the affairs of the royal palace and the economy. The order of the Grand Palace was in charge of the palace lands, the Huntsman and Falconer - hunting, the Bedding - the royal bedroom, etc. All these palace orders clearly bore the features of the old palace and patrimonial management system.
The order system was very confusing, often different orders duplicated each other's activities. The number of orders was indefinite, some orders were created, others were abolished. By the end of the XVI century. there were about 20 of them.
Local government. Until the middle of the XVI century. There was no unified local government system. The country was divided into counties, and the counties were divided into camps and volosts. Counties were ruled by boyars-governors, camps and volosts were ruled by volosts. For the performance of administrative and judicial functions, governors and volostels received at their disposal court fees and part of taxes from the population, i.e. as if "fed" at the expense of the population of the controlled territories. This service was called "feeding". Governors and volostels were appointed from Moscow. Feedings were essentially rewards for past military service. Therefore, the feeders tried to get as much income from the population as possible, and arbitrariness on their part was quite common.
The state sought to limit the abuses of feeders, weaken their power, putting their activities under control both "from below" - by elected representatives of the local population, and "from above" - by central state bodies. The Sudebnik of 1550 established the obligatory presence of feeders of local elders and kissers at the court. In 1549, a decree was issued on the removal from court of the governors of service landowners - from now on they were sued in Moscow orders. Finally, in 1555, the king issued a decree on the abolition of feeding. Local power completely passed into the hands of city clerks, labial and zemstvo elders.
City clerks. The institute of city clerks appeared in Russia at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. They were appointed by the central government, but from among the local service people. Initially, they were in charge of only city fortresses and, in fact, were military commandants. However, gradually their functions began to expand, and they were in charge of building roads, bridges, and mobilizing the local population.
Lip elders. Lip reform began under Elena Glinskaya. The term "lip" does not have an unambiguous explanation. Guba was the name of the district, on the territory of which the power of the lip hut extended. At first, this district roughly coincided with the parish, and from the middle of the 16th century. - with the county. At the head of the labial hut was the labial headman, who was elected from among the local nobles and boyar children by local landowners, clergy, black-haired and palace peasants. The labial elder was assisted by lip kissers (i.e. jurors who kissed the cross under the oath), who were chosen by the peasants. In the labial hut there was the office of the labial headman, the office work was carried out by an elected clerk. The post of labial headman was not paid, so the labial headmen had to be selected from among wealthy people. Another condition was the literacy of the candidate. Lip huts were initially created as punitive organs: the elders maintained order, caught robbers, tried and executed the guilty. Gradually, however, management functions began to be assigned to them.
Zemstvo elders. Zemstvo reform was carried out in the middle of the 16th century, as a result of which self-government bodies were created - zemstvo huts. At the head of the hut was a zemstvo headman, who was chosen by the hard-won population - townspeople and black-haired peasants. Under the zemstvo elder there were elected tselovalniks, as well as an elected zemstvo clerk. Only the taxable population could judge the zemstvo bodies, since the service landowners were sued in Moscow orders, and the feudally dependent peasants were subject to the court of the feudal lord. Zemstvo authorities were responsible for the layout and collection of taxes, as well as for the performance of natural duties. In their activities, the zemstvo authorities relied on the Sotsky, Pyatidesyatsky, and Tenth peasants, who were elected by the black-haired peasants.
military reforms. Among the reforms of the Chosen Rada, a prominent place was occupied by military reforms. The basis of the armed forces of Russia was the feudal cavalry militia, so the Elected Rada took a number of measures to strengthen it. In 1550, the so-called "chosen thousand" - 1070 nobles - were stationed in the districts adjacent to Moscow. They had to be always ready to leave for the state service.
Great importance had undertaken in 1550, the restriction of parochialism in the appointment of command posts. Localism was a system of occupying positions depending on the nobility and service merit of the clan. Local disputes between service people greatly interfered with the formation and activities of the army.
In the 1550s the state is taking steps to provide service people with land and provide them with tax benefits. In 1551, Ivan IV raised the question of allocating service people with the necessary amount of land so that they could secure their access to the royal service. During the subsequent redistribution of land, a general census of land was carried out. The system of taxation was also changed - land tax was introduced instead of household tax.
In 1555, the Code of Service was published. According to the code, the owner of the estate was obliged to serve on a par with the landowner. The owners of estates and estates had to appear in the army "horse, crowded and armed", i.e. on horseback, armed and with their men. The service of the feudal lord could start from the age of 15, it was for life, and was inherited.
In addition to the horse feudal militia, which consisted of service people "in the fatherland", i.e. by origin, military service was carried out by service people "according to the instrument", i.e. by set. These included gunners, city guards. They were close to the Cossacks, who were mainly involved in the protection of the borders. In 1550, a streltsy army was created in Russia. Sagittarius also belonged to the service people "according to the instrument." For their service, they received monetary and grain salaries, as well as land for collective use.
The Russian army also included the so-called "staff" - a militia recruited from among the black-haired monastic and townspeople. "Staff" carried out auxiliary service - in the wagon train, during road and fortification works.
Stoglav Cathedral. Implementation government reforms demanded certain transformations of the church. In 1551, the Stoglavy Church Council was convened. He received this name because his decisions were summarized in a collection of one hundred chapters. The Stoglavy Cathedral made a number of important decisions, the purpose of which was the unification of the cult. The all-Russian pantheon of saints was confirmed, the uniformity of church rituals was established, and general canons (rules) for icon painting were approved. Much attention was paid to the struggle of the church against various heresies and manifestations of paganism. The council also took action against the obscene behavior of monks and priests.
At the Stoglavy Council, the question of church land ownership was also raised, which continued to increase. Churches in the 16th century belonged to 1/3 of all feudal estates. The state needed lands to distribute them to service people. The tsar attempted to seize part of the land from the church, but the clergy, headed by Metropolitan Macarius, strongly opposed it. As a result, a kind of compromise was reached - church land ownership was preserved, but all the lands of the boyars that had gone to the church during the childhood of Ivan IV were returned to the state, and later the acquisition of new lands by the clergy without the knowledge of the tsar was prohibited.
The fall of the elected Rada. The reforms of the Elected Rada contributed to the strengthening of state power in the center and in the regions, but they were designed for a long period and could not give an immediate result. In addition, the reforms, while strengthening the power of the tsar as a whole, nevertheless put it within certain limits - the tsar was forced to reckon with the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. This did not suit Ivan IV, who sought to strengthen his personal power.
In fact, in the late 50's - early 60's. 16th century in Russia, the question of choosing a further path of development was being decided. The first path is the continuation of reforms, the strengthening and improvement of the institutions of the estate-representative monarchy and, on this basis, the centralization of the country, the elimination of vestiges of specific time. The second way is forced centralization and the immediate strengthening of the personal, unlimited power of the king. Since the apparatus of state power was not yet developed, it was possible to carry out this path of development only with the help of terror.
Ivan IV chose the second path of development. The choice was influenced by a number of reasons related to the personality of the king himself - an extremely unbalanced, painfully suspicious and despotic person. Having learned the taste of power, Ivan IV began to be weary of the influence of Sylvester and A. Adashev. After the death of Tsarina Anastasia Romanovna in August 1560, the influence of her relatives, who were hostile to members of the Chosen Rada, increased on the Tsar. The king even blamed Adashev and Sylvester for the death of the queen. Finally, disagreements arose between the tsar and Adashev on foreign policy issues - the head of the Elected Rada was against the war in Livonia. As a result, in 1560 the Chosen Rada ceased to exist.
Oprichnina (1565–1572). The fall of the Chosen Rada was a kind of prologue to a new domestic policy, called the oprichnina. The king received unlimited rights to disgrace and execute any person who, from the point of view of the monarch, was disobedient to him. Oprichnina (from the word "oprich" - except) in Russia was called the inheritance that, after the death of the prince, his widow received. Ivan IV demanded a similar personal inheritance for himself. In fact, it was about creating a special education on the territory of the country with its own laws and subordinated exclusively to the king himself.
All lands were divided into oprichnina and zemshchina. The oprichnina included the territories around Moscow, part of the capital itself, the lands of the central regions of the country, on the borders with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Pomorie, and others. The Alexandrovskaya Sloboda became the center of the oprichnina. All the boyars and nobles enrolled in the oprichnina (initially 1000 people, then 6000) were supposed to have estates and estates in the oprichnina districts. Those who were not enrolled in the oprichnina were evicted from these counties to the zemshchina. In the oprichnina, their own, special, “oprichny” orders were introduced, their own Boyar Duma and their own army were created. The zemshchina was made up of lands that were not included in the oprichnina, and the old orders were preserved on them. The zemshchina was ruled by the Boyar Duma, but the tsar constantly intervened in the affairs of the zemshchina and controlled it. In addition, the zemshchina actually had to contain the oprichnina.
Oprichnina left a very deep mark in the history of the country and had a significant impact on its further development. The oprichnina policy was aimed at strengthening the personal power of the tsar and was accompanied by the forced centralization of the country in the absence of the necessary economic and social prerequisites for this. Terror became the method of implementing this policy. The tsar created an apparatus of repression designed to create an atmosphere of general fear. In fact, this was the first attempt to create a totalitarian regime in Russia.
Oprichnina policy could give quick, spectacular results, but its implementation was accompanied by the ruin of the country, the death of a large number of people, the undermining of the moral foundations of society and the aggravation of all social contradictions. Oprichny terror was by no means anti-boyar in nature. Innocent people, including members of the clergy, became its victims. Church hierarchs reacted negatively to the oprichnina. Metropolitan Philip Kolychev began to denounce the tsarist policy. For this, he was deposed and imprisoned in a monastery, and then strangled by one of the guardsmen close to the tsar, Malyuta Skuratov.
The apotheosis of the oprichnina terror was the campaign of the oprichnina troops led by Ivan the Terrible against Novgorod. The reason for it was a denunciation that the Novgorodians allegedly planned to go under the authority of the Polish king. The campaign began in December 1569. Along the way, the guardsmen defeated Klin, Tver, Torzhok, and many villages. In Novgorod itself, where the oprichnina army entered in January 1570, the pogrom lasted six weeks. After the Novgorod campaign, many leaders of the oprichnina, who stood at its origins, were accused of treason. After brutal torture in the summer of 1570, they were publicly executed on Red Square in Moscow.
The oprichnina army, being the personal guard of the king and a punitive force, had to participate in military campaigns against foreigners. However, the guardsmen were more willing to kill and rob than to fight. This was clearly shown by the events of 1571, when the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray made another raid on Russian lands. The oprichnina army, which was supposed to defend the banks of the Oka, did not cope with its task. Devlet Giray approached Moscow and set fire to the city. The capital burned down completely, many people died. Ivan IV was very scared, negotiations began with the Crimean Khan. In an effort to finally break the will of the Russian Tsar, the Khan decided to repeat the raid on Russia. However, Ivan IV also began to act decisively. He united the oprichnina and zemstvo troops under the command of an experienced governor, the disgraced prince Mikhail Vorotynsky. In the fiercest battle near the village of Molodi, the united Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Crimean Tatars, after which their raids stopped for a while. In the same year, 1572, the oprichnina was abolished, and the very mention of it was forbidden.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVI century. The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the XVI century. were: in the south - protection from the raids of the Crimean Tatars, in the southeast and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and advance to Siberia, in the west - the desire to reach the shores of the Baltic Sea.
The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates bordered on Russian lands and constantly bothered them with frequent raids. In addition, these khanates controlled the Volga trade route, interfering with trade, and the territories of the khanates were fertile lands that Russian nobles dreamed of.
Especially dangerous were the raids of the Tatars of Kazan, located closer than others to Russia. The fight against the Kazanians became the priority direction of Russian policy in the first half of the 16th century. In Kazan itself at that time there was no unity in the ruling circles - one party was guided by Moscow, the other - by the Crimea and Turkey. By the middle of the XVI century. in Kazan, the Crimean party strengthened, a representative of the Crimean dynasty was established on the Kazan throne. All this led to a decisive clash with Russia. The first trips to Kazan ended in failure. However, in August 1552, a large Russian army led by Ivan IV himself laid siege to the Khan's capital. The Kazan garrison offered fierce resistance, the siege dragged on. Finally, on October 2, 1552, Kazan was taken by storm. The Kazan Khanate ceased to exist, and the peoples of the Middle Volga region - Tatars, Mari, Chuvashs and Udmurts were annexed to Russia.
After Kazan, it was Astrakhan's turn. In 1556, the Russian army was sent there, the khan fled, and Astrakhan was annexed to the Muscovite state without a fight. Following the vassal dependence on Moscow recognized the Nogai Horde, nomadic in the Northern Caspian and Urals. In 1557, the incorporation of Bashkiria into Russia was basically completed.
The conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates noticeably secured the Russian borders, but another fragment of the Golden Horde - the Crimean Khanate, behind which stood the Ottoman Empire, still threatened the Russian lands. Many figures of the Elected Rada, primarily A. Adashev, advocated active actions against the Krymchaks. In 1556–1559 reconnaissance of routes to the Crimea was carried out and several trips there were carried out. However, Ivan IV was against the war with the Crimea, wanting to intensify foreign policy in the west, so in the south Russia's actions were limited to defense.
The accession of the Volga region to Russia created an opportunity for further advancement to the east - to Western Siberia, which was part of the Siberian Khanate. It was a vast, but very fragile multinational state. The Siberian Khan, after the capture of Kazan, considered it good in 1555 to recognize himself as a vassal of Moscow. In 1558, wealthy merchants and industrialists, the Stroganovs, received from Ivan IV a letter of commendation for vast territories along the Kama and Tobol rivers, the right to build fortified towns-fortresses, and to have artillery. Using fortresses as strongholds, industrialists began to expand their holdings in the Urals and explore routes to Siberia. Meanwhile, serious changes took place in the Siberian Khanate - Khan Kuchum came to power, breaking off relations with Moscow and even starting a fight against it.
In 1581, the Stroganovs equipped an expedition of Cossacks beyond the Urals under the command of ataman Ermak Timofeevich (600-800 people) at their own expense. The Cossacks managed to penetrate deep into the Siberian Khanate. The decisive battle took place near the khan's capital, the city of Kashlyk. Kuchum's army was defeated. Yermak occupied Kashlyk and began to collect tribute (yasak) from the local population with furs.
However, this did not last long: in 1585, Yermak was ambushed and died. The remnants of his troops returned to their homeland, and Kashlyk was again captured by the Tatars. Thus, Yermak's campaign did not lead to the annexation of Siberia, but rather paved the way for it. Since the 80s the systematic conquest of the Siberian lands begins. Fortresses and cities are founded: Tyumen, Surgut, Narym, Verkhoturye. The main administrative center of Russian Siberia was Tobolsk, where the governor appointed by Moscow was located. Following the service people, the colonization flows of the Russian peasantry moved to Siberia, and the development of new fertile lands began. Thus, Western Siberia in the 80–90s. 16th century became part of Russia. In the late 90s. Kuchum, who did not stop resisting, was dealt a crushing defeat. After that he fled to Central Asia where he died.
Livonian war. In the second half of the 50s. 16th century Western direction became the main direction of Russia's foreign policy. Its main goal was to annex the Baltic States and obtain a convenient outlet to the Baltic Sea, without which it was difficult to establish ties with the countries of Western Europe. In this, Russia was hindered by the Livonian Order, which controlled the Baltic coast. Both Russian merchants, who hoped to expand trade relations through convenient ports of the Baltic, and Russian feudal lords, who expected to receive new developed lands with peasants, were interested in the war with the Livonian Order.
The reason for the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute." Under the terms of the agreement of 1503, the Livonian knights had to pay tribute to Russia for the possession of the city of Yuryev, but they did not fulfill the agreement. In addition, in September 1557, the Order entered into a military alliance with the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August, directed against Russia. Therefore, in January 1558, the Russians invaded Livonia. In just six months, Narva, Dorpat and other areas in eastern Livonia were captured. Russian troops approached Riga, and then moved to Courland and reached the borders of Lithuania. After such defeats, the Order was forced to ask for a truce, which was concluded in May 1559. The Order used this respite to conclude a new agreement with Sigismund II Augustus.
In 1560 hostilities resumed. The Order again suffered defeat after defeat and was actually defeated. As a result, the master of the Order, Ketler, in 1561 transferred the lands of Livonia to Sigismund II Augustus and recognized himself as his vassal, having received the Duchy of Courland in his possession. The Bishop of Ezel sold his possessions to Denmark, and the island of Esel passed to the Danish prince Magnus. Northern Estonia with Revel went to Sweden. The Livonian Order ceased to exist, but the intervention of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden in the Livonian events greatly complicated the situation. Now Russia had to deal with a number of strong European states. The war began with Lithuania, and somewhat later with Sweden. Russia's position was made easier by the fact that Denmark and Sweden were at war with each other.
In 1562, Ivan IV concluded a truce with the Swedes, which made it possible to concentrate all efforts on the war with Sigismund II. In February 1563, Russian troops under the command of the tsar managed to capture a strong fortress in Belarus - Polotsk. However, two serious defeats followed the following year: on the Ula River and near Orsha. The internal political situation in Russia also became more complicated. Many figures of the Chosen Rada were persecuted. Repressions began in the country, which also affected many well-known military leaders. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky fled to Lithuania to escape from the tsar. In 1565, the oprichnina began, which negatively affected the military power of Russia. In the 60s. The Crimean Khan resumed systematic raids on Russian lands. The local population of Livonia also ceased to support the Russians, since the tsarist government began distributing land to Russian landowners there, arranged requisitions and camps for the troops.
The war in Livonia began to take on a protracted character and went on with varying success. In 1569, a state union was concluded in Lublin between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Both states united into a single Rzeczpospolita. The unification strengthened the main enemy of Russia, but this did not immediately affect. In 1572, the childless Sigismund II Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, died. In the country began "royallessness", accompanied by unrest. Taking advantage of the "kinglessness", Ivan IV made a number of new conquests in Livonia. In 1575, the talented military leader Stefan Batory was elected the new king of the Commonwealth. In 1578, he began active military operations against Russia. In 1579, Sweden again came out against the king. In the same year, Stefan Batory captured Polotsk, and the next - Velikiye Luki. In August 1581, his troops laid siege to Pskov. After five months of unsuccessful siege, the Polish king was forced to stop trying to capture the city. This eased the position of Russia, but at the same time, the Swedes captured Narva and began to advance in Karelia.
In January 1582, a truce was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky with the Commonwealth for a period of 10 years. Under the terms of the armistice, Russia renounced its acquisitions in Livonia and Belarus, and Stefan Batory returned Velikie Luki and other Russian cities. Russia also lost the city of Velizh on the border of Smolensk land. In May 1583, the Truce of Plus was concluded with Sweden for three years. Russia was forced to give Sweden the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and the territory adjacent to them on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Thus, Russia not only did not acquire new ports in the Baltic, but also lost access to the sea through the coast of the Gulf of Finland.
The reign of Fyodor Ioannovich (1584–1598). March 18, 1584 Ivan the Terrible died. After himself, the king left a terrible legacy: the country was literally devastated by the Oprichnina and the Livonian War. The population was worried and fled from ruinous taxes. The authorities, seeking to prevent the flight of the population, intensified the enslavement of the peasants. In 1581, "reserved years" were first introduced - years in which the transition of peasants was forbidden even on St. George's Day (from the word "commandment" - a ban). In 1597, a decree was adopted on the search for runaway peasants. The so-called "lesson years" were introduced - the period during which the state assumed the functions of searching for fugitives (initially, the search period was determined at five years).
Ivan IV did not leave behind a worthy successor. In the heat of anger, the tsar killed his heir, the eldest son Ivan (1581). There were two more sons left: the feeble-minded 27-year-old Fedor and the one and a half year old Tsarevich Dmitry - the son of the last, seventh, wife of the Tsar, Maria Nagoy. Summing up the reign of Ivan the Terrible, we can say that it was it that caused such a difficult period in the history of Russia as the Time of Troubles.
Ivan IV's successor on the Russian throne was his weak-minded son Fyodor (1584-1598). The father was well aware that Fedor was not able to govern the state himself, so a regency council was created, which included five boyars. One of the guardians was the boyar Boris Godunov, the brother-in-law (brother of the wife) of the new tsar, who had a huge influence on Fyodor Ioannovich. Tsarevich Dmitry with his mother and uncles was sent to Uglich, given to him as an inheritance, but in fact it was an honorary exile.
Almost immediately after the accession of Fyodor Ivanovich, a fierce struggle for power unfolded between the members of the regency council. The victory in it went to Boris Godunov, who gradually managed to eliminate all rivals. Godunov actually became the ruler of the country - in the late 80s. 16th century he received the right on his own behalf to conduct relations with foreign states, and from the 90s. he was already officially called "ruler".
Boris Godunov was undoubtedly a talented politician. Realizing the need for further rapprochement with the countries of Western Europe, he hired foreigners, and sent young Russian nobles to study abroad. During the reign of Godunov, Russia achieved notable successes in foreign policy. Managed to extend the truce with the Commonwealth. As a result of the victorious war with Sweden (1590-1593) in 1595, the Tyavzinsky peace was concluded, according to which Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela returned to Russia. The defense system was improved on the southern borders, so the repulsion of the Crimean Tatars' raids became more successful. There was also a fairly intensive development of the Volga region and Siberia. The establishment in 1589 of the Moscow Patriarchate was of great importance for the country. The first Russian patriarch was the protege of Boris Godunov, Job. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church finally turned into an independent and equal in relation to other Orthodox churches.
In 1591, under mysterious circumstances, before he was 9 years old, Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich. Tsarina Maria Nagaya and the townspeople blamed the Moscow administrators for the death of Dmitry and dealt with them. A commission headed by Prince Vasily Shuisky arrived from Moscow to investigate. The commission announced that Tsarevich Dmitry, who suffered from epilepsy, fell into a fit during a game of knife and stabbed himself to death. But rumors stubbornly circulated among the people about Godunov's involvement in the death of the prince.
In the XVI century. the desire to reach the shores of the Baltic Sea forced Ivan IV to begin LEVONIAN war.
The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of the Russian artist of the XIV-XV centuries, the author of the famous "Trinity" ... Andrey Rublev
The government formed in 1610 after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky is called by historians ... Seven Boyars
The consequence of the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in the XVII century. in Russia became church schism
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established in 1949 G.
To the foreign policy events of the 1930s. applies... Admission to the League of Nations
The approach, according to which history is viewed as the process of the ascent of society to an ever higher level of development, is called ... evolutionary
"The Past and Thoughts" A.I. Herzen can be attributed to historical sources ... personal background
Educational
The circle of Westerners included ... Granovsky, Kavelin
The provincial reform was carried out by Catherine II in 1775 G.
For the Russian economy in the 1890s. growth has been high... industry
One of the causes of the first Russian revolution was... unresolved agrarian question
peacemaker
The concept of ... is connected with the judicial reform of 1864. jurors
The decree on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army was issued January 1918
The first Soviet constitution was adopted in July 1918 G.
The offensive operation of the Southwestern Front of the Russian army under the command of General A.A. Brusilov began in May 1916 G.
The most numerous political party in Russia in the autumn of 1917 was ... SRs
According to the chronicle, Prince Igor of Kyiv was killed in 945 in the lands of … drevlyans
One of the compilers of The Tale of Bygone Years is considered ... Nestor
The tribute that the Russian lands paid to the Mongol-Tatar khans was called ... Horde exit
union of salvation
The charter to the cities was issued by Catherine II in 1785 G.
In 1957, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR ... Gromyko
The head of the Soviet government after the death of I.V. Stalin became... Malenkov
E.T. Gaidar as head of the Russian government in December 1992 was replaced Chernomyrdin
During the NEP period, the country was abolished ... universal labor service
To the events of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s. applies... signing of the Rapallo Treaty
At the Yalta Conference, it was decided to (on) ... Soviet entry into the war against Japan
One of the functions of historical knowledge is... cognitive
One of the methods of historical knowledge is ... problem-chronological
The events of the first Russian revolution include ... All-Russian October political strike
The political views of Nicholas II were formed under the influence of ... Pobedonostsev
Emperor Alexander III reigned in 1881-1894
Basques
The beginning of the rise in North-Eastern Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Danilovich Kalita MOSCOW principalities.
The first written set of laws of Kievan Rus is ... Russian Truth
An image or pattern made of pieces of stone, marble, ceramics, smalt, attached to a layer of cement or mastic, is called ... mosaic
In 1598, the royal dynasty of Rurikovich ended with the death of ... Fedor Ivanovich
The order of distribution of official places depending on the origin and official position of the ancestors was called ... localism
The service people who made up the standing army in the 16th century were called ... archers
Nicholas II signed the Manifesto on abdication in March 1917 G.
First cavalry army civil war commanded ... Budyonny
The post of People's Commissar of Education in the first Soviet government was taken by ... Lunacharsky
One of the most successful steps of the government of Nicholas I was the monetary reform carried out by the Minister of Finance ... Kankrin
After the signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, Russia took under its protection ... Eastern Georgia
In 1708 Russia was divided into 8 provinces.
From July to October 1917, the Provisional Government was headed by ... Kerensky
The reason for the announcement of the policy of "red terror" was (o) ... assassination attempt on Lenin
The reign of Alexander III includes the appearance of ... factory law
By the beginning of the XX century. refers to the concept... "ZUBATOVSHINA"
Expression " bloody sunday» refers to events January 1905 G.
The scientific discipline that studies the history of historical science is called ... historiography
The determining factor in the development of society in accordance with Marxist theory is ... way of producing wealth
In ancient Russian literature, the description of the life and deeds of Christian saints was called ... life
A poetic work of ancient Russian literature of the late XIV - early XV centuries, dedicated to the Battle of Kulikovo, is called ... " Zadoshchina"
Cathedral of the Kiev Metropolitan in the XI-XIII centuries. was SOFIAN the cathedral.
Russia entered a period of political fragmentation in XII in.
The measures of the new economic policy include the introduction of ... wages in cash
The Soviet delegation at the Genoa Conference was headed by ... Chicherin
The development of the fourth five-year plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the USSR was led by ... Voznesensky
During the Battle of Kursk, ... the final transfer of the military initiative into the hands of the Soviet command
The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia marked (a) ... standing on the Ugra
The Russian-Polish war (1654-1667) ended ... accession to Russia of the left-bank Ukraine
One of the organizers of the second people's militia in 1611 was ... Kuzma Minin
Constitution USSR was admitted to 1977 G.
One of political implications"Thaw" has become (-o) ... mass rehabilitation of victims of repression
IN 1996 Russia became part of ... Council of Europe
Battle on the river Kalka took place in 1223 year.
The victory of the Russian army under the leadership of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich in 1380 on the Kulikovo field led to ... growth of national consciousness
For two years (1764–1765), Catherine II worked on compiling NAKAZA for deputies of the Legislative Commission.
In 1707, an uprising began on the Don led by ... Kondratiy Bulavina
Holy Alliance consisting of Russia, Austria and Prussia was formed in 1815 G.
The industrial revolution in Russia began in 1930-1940 gg.
The decision to move to NEP was made at X Congress of the RCP(b).
Counteroffensive plan Soviet troops near Stalingrad had a code name ... "Uranus"
Armed clash between the armies of the USSR and Japan near the river. Khalkhin Gol happened in 1939 G.
FROM advice E economic IN Mutual Aid was established in 1949 G.
Decree on the establishment of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army was issued in January 1918 G.
The consequence of the defeat of the Kornilov rebellion was (o) ... growing influence of the Bolsheviks
Final design Entente happened in 1907 G.
The end of the first Russian revolution is connected with the events June 1907
The conspiratorial trend in the revolutionary populism of the 1870s. imagined... Tkachev
For the Russian economy in the 1890s. were characterized by high growth rates industry
"The Honest Mirror of Youth" is a valuable source on the history of Russia XVIIIin.
In 1670, the largest popular uprising began under the leadership of ... C.Razin
The group of advisers to Ivan IV, an informal circle of reformers in the initial period of his reign, was called ... CHOSEN RADA
Alexander III went down in history as... PEACEKEEPER
The revolutionary organization "Narodnaya Volya" was formed in 1879
The heyday of Kievan Rus occurred during the reign of ... Yaroslav the Wise
form state structure during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich was estate-representative monarchy monarchy.
In the 17th century first appears in the Russian economy manufacturing production.
In February 1816, a secret society of future Decembrists arose in St. Petersburg ... Union of Salvation
The construction of the city of St. Petersburg was started in May 1703
The culmination of the process of "détente of international tension" in the 1970s. became ... conference on security and cooperation in Europe
The main indicator of the work of industrial enterprises in accordance with the reform of 1965 was sales volume
First Soviet constitution was accepted in July 1918 G.
During the First World War, the slogan "turning the imperialist war into a civil one" was advocated by ... Bolsheviks
After returning from exile in 1917, in his "April Theses" he set the task of carrying out the socialist revolution ... Lenin
One of the functions of historical knowledge is... practical-political
The scientific discipline that studies the theory of historical knowledge is called ... methodology
The card system was abolished after the war 1947 G.
The report "On the cult of personality and its consequences" at the XX Congress of the CPSU was made by ... Khrushchev
Representatives of the khans of the Golden Horde in Russia were called ... Basques
In February 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected the new Russian Tsar ... Mikhail Romanov
First Zemsky Sobo r in the Russian state was convened in 1549 G.
By the beginning of the XX century. Russia ranks first in the world in... industrial growth
Created in 1826, the III Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was headed by ... Benkendorf
One of the most important works of Russian historiography of the second quarter of the 18th century. became "History of Russia", written Tatishchev
The main changes in the economic life of Europe at the end of the XV - XVI centuries.
1) population growth;
2) the beginning of the introduction of scientific achievements into production;
3) the formation of book printing;
4) the formation of metallurgy;
5) changes in agriculture.
6) erosion of the traditional estate system.
Philosophers, writers and artists of the Renaissance
The highest flowering of Renaissance art came in the first quarter of the 16th century, which was called the "High Renaissance". The works of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Giorgione (1476-1510), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Correggio (1489-1534) make up the golden fund European art.
The most significant artists of this period include Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), Lucas Cranach (1472-1553), Albrecht Altdorfer (1480-1538), Matthias Grunewald (1470-1528).
The first advances in mathematics and astronomy date back to the middle of the 15th century. and are connected in many respects with the names of G. Peyerbach (Purbach) and J. Müller (Regiomontan). Müller created new, more advanced astronomical tables (to replace the Alfonsian tables of the 13th century) - the Ephemerides (published in 1492), which were used in their travels by Columbus, Vasco da Gama and other navigators. L. Pacioli, an Italian mathematician of the turn of the century, made a significant contribution to the development of algebra and geometry. In the 16th century The Italians N. Tartaglia and J. Cardano discovered new ways to solve equations of the third and fourth degree.
The most important scientific event of the 16th century. was the Copernican revolution in astronomy. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in his treatise On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres (1543) rejected the prevailing geocentric Ptolemaic-Aristotelian picture of the world and not only postulated the rotation of celestial bodies around the Sun, and the Earth still around its axis, but also for the first time showed in detail (geocentrism as a conjecture was born back in Ancient Greece) how, based on such a system, one can explain - much better than before - all the data of astronomical observations. In the 16th century the new system of the world, in general, did not receive support in the scientific community. Convincing evidence of the truth of the theory of Copernicus was given only by Galileo.
The main socio-political aspects of the teachings of Martin Luther
Martin Luther shared many of the religious beliefs and superstitions of his day. For him, for example, the omnipotence of the devil and the need to commit witches to the fire were obvious. He also recognized the religious value of alchemy. Like many theologians and lay contemplatives, Martin Luther drew his "mystical" inspiration from the Theologia deutsch, a book which he considered second only to the Bible and St. Augustine. Having studied many theological writings, Luther at a young age was influenced by the views of William of Ockham. However, Luther's contemporary religious ideas are powerless to explain the rise of his creative genius. On the contrary, the personal spiritual experience of the reformer was the main reason why they were overturned. As in the case of Mahomet, Luther's biography will help us understand the origins of his religious work.
Characteristic features of European absolutism as a political regime
Enlightened absolutism is a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries in Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.
Theory " enlightened absolutism”, whose founder is considered to be Thomas Hobbes, is completely imbued with the rationalist philosophy of the age of “enlightenment”. Its essence lies in the idea of a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to put the central power above all else. Until the 18th century, the state idea, which was expressed by absolutism, was understood in a narrow practical sense: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views worked out by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes obligations on state power, which enjoys rights. The consequence of this view, which was formed under the influence of the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was that theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a whole series of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for the "state benefit", concerns for the general welfare were put forward. The "enlightenment" literature of the 18th century, which set itself the task of a complete criticism of the old order, found ardent support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that the reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wished to subordinate the state to pure reason.
RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY
Feudal ownership of land has changed. Princely landownership approached the patrimony. This process ended in the middle of the 16th century.
The patrimonial economy expanded due to the newly attached sections - the old feudal patrimonies became smaller. The fund of patrimonial lands also decreased due to the growth of church land ownership. Such shallowing and dispossession of part of the estates was contrary to state interests.
The creation of a unified state created opportunities for an active foreign policy, and it required an increase in the armed forces.
Each warrior was to have landed property.
In this situation, land distributions were necessary. Noble estate and their difference from the old estates. The feudal lords, resettled to new places, “placed” there, were called landlords, and their possessions were called estates. The original estate differed little from the estates: they were inherited, and the estates also had to serve. The main thing is that the estates were forbidden to be sold and donated. The first landowners also had to serve.
The first landowners- petty servants of the great princes (keykeepers, psari, etc.). Soon the landlords began to distribute the land of the Black Hundred peasants, who formally did not change their supreme owner - the Grand Duke. The development of the local system, which by the first half of the third of the 16th century. was already in all counties, led to a sharp reduction in the number of black-skinned peasants in the center of Russia, to a large nationalization of the personal life of the country and its peasants.
As a result of the creation of a single state, the position of the peasants improved somewhat, as feudal strife ceased.
STRENGTHENING STATE POWER
The struggle of the feudal nobility for power. 1533 - Vasily III died, leaving his three-year-old son Ivan IV as heir. The actual ruler was the young widow Elena Glinskaya. 1538 - Elena Glinskaya died.
Popular uprisings. 1547 - the reason for the uprising was a fire that left homeless and ruined most of the inhabitants of Moscow. Following Moscow, Pskov began to seethe, with a complaint about the actions of the governor, a delegation of Pskov arrived to Ivan IV.
The results of public performances.
In order to curb popular uprisings and restore the correct functioning of the disordered apparatus, it was necessary to go for reforms.
Reforms of the 50s of the XVI century
January 1547 - Ivan IV shortly before the Moscow uprising, takes the title of king.
1549 - the folding of the Chosen Rada, a government circle under the tsar, headed by Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. Participated in the government and the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester. Metropolitan Macarius enjoyed influence on government policy.
The basis of the new legal document of the Adashev government was the Sudebnik of 1497, but the new Sudebnik was expanded and systematized.
The transition of the peasants on St. George's Day was confirmed, but the "elderly" (payment to the feudal lord during the transition) was increased.
The power of the feudal lords increased. The legal position of the peasants approached the status of a serf. Punishments got tougher. For the first time in this Sudebnik, punishments were introduced for boyars and clerks - bribe-takers, the rights of governors and volosts were limited.
The emergence of new forms of management. Creation of the first functional governing bodies - orders (for example: Discharge, Local, Ambassadorial).
Cancellation of feedings.
1556 - after the abolition of feeding, the population switched from paying "feeding income" to governors and volosts to paying a nationwide tax "feeding payback".
New local Russian administration.
The cancellation of feedings is the final act of a long process of transformation of local government. During Glinskaya, the lip reform began and then continued. Its essence: the nobles, where lip administration was introduced, elected labial elders from their midst, who were supposed to fight "robbery" against the feudal state. After the cancellation of feeding, they, together with city clerks (chosen from local nobles), headed the county administration. This reform is a step forward towards centralization.
The state apparatus was not sufficiently developed for the government to do without the participation of representatives of the estates in government. Thus, Russia developed in the direction of a class-representative monarchy.
The results of the reforms of the 50s. meant a step forward in the direction of centralization and overcoming the remnants of feudal fragmentation.
Accession of the Kazan Khanate
Mid 14th century - the main direction of foreign policy is eastern, since Russian feudal lords sought to get new lands there, and merchants - a trade route along the Volga.
The tsar also counted on income from tribute from the peoples of the Volga region. 1551 - preparation for the campaign. May - June 1551 - for 4 weeks at the river. Svayaga on the Volga (30 km from Kazan) a wooden fortress was built - Sviyazhsk.
Island-town Sviyazhsk — Kazan The construction manager is the fortifier clerk Ivan Grigorievich Vyrodkov. August 1552 - the beginning of the Kazan siege. The number of Russian troops is 150 thousand people, 150 guns. September 1552 - part of the city wall was destroyed by an underground explosion and on September 2, 1552 Kazan was taken.
Accession of the Astrakhan Khanate.
1556 - Astrakhan surrendered without a fight. After that, the Nogai Horde (Northern Caspian and Urals) recognized vassal dependence on Russia.
The results of the annexation of the khanates.
After the annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan, the possibilities for the aggression of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire standing behind it were limited. The question of Russia's prestige in the Caucasus.
The accession of the Volga region contributed not only to the development of the region by Russian peasants, but also to the development of crafts, agriculture and trade in this territory. At the same time, tsarism distributed the lands of the indigenous population to the feudal lords of Russia, and the peasants fell into dependence.
The pressure of the Orthodox Church intensified (over time), with the aim of converting residents to Orthodoxy.
Religious and national strife was kindled between peoples. The working people experienced the double oppression of their masters and Russian feudal lords.
Annexation of Western Siberia.
In the 60s. 16th century Khan of the Siberian Khanate (Western Siberia) Edigey recognized himself as a vassal of Russia, but Khan Kuchum, who then came to power, entered into a fight with her. The task of joining Siberia arose. 1581 - 1582 - The Cossack chieftain Yermak, who was in the service of the Solvychegodsk salt industrialists Stroganovs, with a detachment of 600 people, went on a campaign against Kumach, defeated him and took the capital Kashlyk. Siberia became part of Russia.
Livonian War 1558 - 1588
Background of the war. II half of 50 years. 16th century - Western direction became the main one in Russian foreign policy.
Russia sought to join the Baltic States, to obtain access to the Baltic Sea.
January 1558 - the beginning of the war. Livonia suffered defeat after defeat: the Russians took Narva, Derpt (Tartu), the fortresses of Fedlin and Marchenburg. Almost all of Livonia was occupied. The Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was captured.
The results of the hostilities of 1558 - 1580.
The Livonian Order was destroyed. The new master Ketler recognized himself as a vassal of the Lithuanian and Polish king Sigismund II Augustus, giving him Livonia, leaving Courland for himself. Northern Estonia was captured by the Swedes. Now Sweden, Denmark (which ceded the island of Ezel (Saarema) and the Polish-Lithuanian state (1569 - the conclusion of the Union of Lublin and the formation of the Commonwealth) were interested in Livonia not becoming Russian. This circumstance determined the course of the war.
The final stage of the war.
The Russians gave Reval (Tallinn), a truce was concluded with Sweden. 1575 - Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory became king of Poland. 1578 - Batory went on the offensive in Livonia. 1579 - the resumption of hostilities by Sweden. Magius (Denmark) went over to the side of Poland.
1581 - Bathory laid siege to Pskov. The Swedes captured Narva. The heroic defense of Pskov thwarted plans for a further campaign against Russia.
Results of the war.
1582 - a truce with Poland in Yama-Zapolsky: Russia lost Polotsk, Velizh. 1583 - truce with Sweden in Pluss. Under its terms, Russia lost all its acquisitions in Livonia and Belarus. Most of the coast of the Gulf of Finland passed to Sweden: Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivan-gorod.
Russia did not receive access to the Baltic Sea, but the Livonian Order was defeated.
Oprichnina (1565 - 1572) - the fall of the government of the Chosen Rada.
Differences of Ivan IV with his entourage. The elected Rada carried out serious reforms designed for a long period. The king, on the other hand, sought immediate results. With the underdevelopment of the apparatus of state power, the incompleteness of its formation, a rapid movement towards centralization was possible only with the help of terror. The elected Rada was against this.
Oprichnina. Russian culture of the 16th century
January 1565 - the tsar's messenger announced on Red Square a message that the tsar "placed anger and disgrace on the higher clergy and all feudal lords, for their unwillingness to fight against enemies." A few days later, the tsar agreed to return to the throne, but with the condition that he execute the "traitors" at his own discretion and establish an oprichnina.
Oprichnina was the name of the inheritance that was allocated to the widowed princesses, "oprich" (except for the entire Russian land).
The purpose of the oprichnina is to undermine the economic power of the feudal aristocracy by eliminating its extensive patrimonial land ownership at the expense of the lands of the nobility.
The whole country was divided into 2 parts And: oprichnina(Pomorian appanages, commercially important lands of the Strogonovskys in the Urals; some settlements and streets of Moscow, central districts where the estates of the boyars were located) and borrowing (land not allocated to the oprichnina). Feudal lords who were not included in the oprichina were deprived of their land holdings. Their lands were distributed to guardsmen.
Cancellation of the oprichnina.
1571 - the campaign of Khan Devlet - weight to Moscow. Oprichniki, who were supposed to keep a barrier on the Oka, did not come to the service. A year later, the Khan repeated the raid. Near the village of Molodi (50 km from Moscow), the khan's army defeated the zemstvo and oprichnina regiments, led by Prince. Vorotynsky. This victory showed the harmfulness of dividing the country and the troops into two parts. In the autumn of 1572 - the abolition of the reason.
The results of the reign of Ivan IV.
As a result of the oprichnina, there were no changes in the structure of social relations, and the situation of the masses deteriorated sharply. The result of the reason is an economic crisis. The government was looking for a way out of the crisis in administrative measures. The response to the flight of the peasants was serfdom legislation. 1581 - 1582 - for the first time St. George's Day was declared "reserved" (the passage of peasants was forbidden). The remaining years were also "reserved".
The deterioration of the economic situation of the masses put Russia on the threshold of the first peasant war in its history.
Russian culture of the 16th century
Typography . Around 1553 - the first printing house in Russia, but the names of the printers are not known. 1563 - 1564 — the clerk of one of the Kremlin churches Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets printed the first book with imprint (“The Apostle”) at the Printing Yard. By the end of the XVI century. Printing houses worked not only on Nikolskaya Street (now October 25), but also in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. But the printed book did not supplant the handwritten one, since it was mainly liturgical books that were printed.
"The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir"- a work in which the idea of the succession of the power of Moscow sovereigns from the Byzantine emperors was emphasized.
Correspondence of Prince A.M. Kurbsky with Ivan the Terrible. Talented and political opponents, Kurbsky and Ivan IV, fought furiously about the ways and methods of centralization, about the relationship between the monarch and subjects. 1564 - Ivan IV received a message from Prince Kurbsky from abroad (Lithuania), accusing him of tyranny.
"Domstroy" priest Sylvester (closer to Ivan IV), which in translation into modern Russian means "housekeeping". This book contains both instructions of a church nature and advice on raising children and a wife.
16th century architecture
Throughout the century, the construction of Moscow fortifications continued. Under Glinskaya, the walls of Kitay-gorod were built in Moscow, protecting the central part of the settlement.
End of the 16th century — Fedor Savelievich Horse/ "sovereign master" during the reign of Boris Godunov, one of the few ancient Russian architects whose name is recorded by sources, erected a ring of fortifications of the "White City" about 9.5 km long with 27 towers (passed along the line of the current boulevard ring). The horse also built the Kremlin in Smolensk, he is credited with the walls of the Simonov Monastery in Moscow and the Pafnutiev (in Borovsk) Monastery.
The last years of the 16th century- creation of the last outer line of fortifications of Moscow - "Skorodom" (a wooden wall along an earthen rampart). "Skorodom" passed along the line of the current Garden Ring.
Second third of the 16th century- in stone architecture penetrates from the wooden spherical style. The masterpiece of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (within Moscow). 1554 - 1561 - the architect Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built the Cathedral of the Intercession on Red Square, which is on the moat, in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Church of the Ascension of the Lord, ensemble of the Kolomenskoye estate Painting.
At this time, the tradition of Andrei Rublev continued in painting. The frescoes of Dionysius stood out in particular. His best paintings have been preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersk Territory.
Second half of the 16th century - the emergence of portraiture and images with a feature of real resemblance.
XVI - XVII centuries. form a special era in the history of Europe - the end of the Middle Ages and the onset of the New Age. The conditional term "modern time" appears simultaneously with the emergence of a tripartite periodization of world history (the ancient world, the Middle Ages, new story). This model originated in the writings of the Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries. and received its final design in the work of the German historian of the 17th century. K. Köhler "A Three-Part History". Contemporaries of the events under consideration, thus, called their own era the new time, realizing its qualitative difference from previous centuries.
The chronological framework of the new time is not defined by modern historical science. Various events are considered as a time boundary between the Middle Ages and modern times: the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), the discovery of America by Columbus (1492), the English bourgeois revolution (1640-1660), the end of the first all-European - Thirty Years - War (1648). A number of authors prolong the dominance of the feudal system until the 18th century, right up to the French Revolution (1789-1799). However, the most commonly used concept refers to the beginning new era to the turn of the XV - XVI centuries.
The new time is characterized by the emergence of capitalist relations in the depths of the feudal society: the formation of national markets, the emergence of manufactories (industrial enterprises based on the division of labor) and freelance labor, and the creation of conditions for free enterprise. The guild system and serfdom are becoming a thing of the past. The economic importance of cities is growing, along with the noble class - the nobility - the aristocracy of wealth - the bourgeoisie - is gaining more weight in society.
Of great importance for the genesis of capitalism were the great geographical discoveries, primarily the development of the American continent by Europeans. International trade routes are shifting westward, from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic region. The material resources of the New World flow to Europe, giving impetus to the development of production, contributing to the accumulation of capital.
In the political sphere, the era of modern times was marked by the formation of nations and national states in Europe (Spain, Portugal, France, England). Concepts appear state sovereignty- the supremacy and independence of state power both within the country and in the international arena. These theories were directed against the political pretensions of the Catholic Church and the big feudal lords. The political unification of the country led to the strengthening of royal power, the formation of absolutism. Balancing between the feudal lords and the third estate, Western European monarchs achieved considerable independence from these two proprietary classes. The bureaucracy begins to form the backbone of royal power, and the feudal militia and mercenary units are replaced by a regular army.
Changes also affected the spiritual sphere: the expansion of the horizons of Europeans after the Great geographical discoveries, the spread of literature due to the invention of printing (1445), the development of humanistic culture (the Renaissance). An important phenomenon in the public life of Europe in the XVI century. was the Reformation, which ended the spiritual hegemony of the Roman Catholic Church. Starting from the 17th century. more and more significant positions are occupied by science - experimental knowledge and rationalistic philosophy (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, I. Newton, G. Galileo).
At the same time, the European continent of the XVI-XVII centuries. generally continued to be feudal. The political unification of a number of countries (Italy, Germany) was not completed. The ruling class was still the landowning nobility, deriving income from the exploitation of dependent peasants. In the 17th century there is a conservation of old structures (in Spain, Italy, South-West Germany), the victory of the counter-reformation. The economic crisis, the aggravation of military-political conflicts, mass popular movements give rise to historians to speak of crisis of the 17th century.
Nevertheless, the main line of development of Western European societies was aimed at the formation of bourgeois relations. Their victory was secured by a series of national revolutions: in the Netherlands, England, France. These bourgeois revolutions was the establishment of public control over the state apparatus (republic or constitutional monarchy) and the subordination of the state to the interests of the bourgeoisie.
Eastern European societies developed in the opposite direction. In countries east of the Elbe in the XVI - XVII centuries. there is a strengthening of the nobility and serfdom is being formed, which did not previously exist there ( second edition of serfdom). This process was closely connected with the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe. Eastern European countries are drawn into commodity-money relations with this region, becoming its agricultural periphery. Noble estates acquire the character of large-scale market-oriented farms. The need for cheap labor leads to the enslavement of the peasantry and the spread of corvee.
For Russia XVI - XVII centuries. were the time of the final formation of those state and public structures that ensured the originality national history. Despite the chronological proximity of a number of processes (the unification of the country, the strengthening of royal power, the creation of a class-representative monarchy), the paths of development of Russia and European countries begin to diverge.