Short review history of the Urals from ancient times to the XX century.

Stone Age in the Urals

Paleolithic

The Paleolithic (or Old Stone Age) is the earliest and longest period in human history. It lasted from the beginning of the use of stone tools by man (on Earth this happened 2.5 million years ago) until the retreat of glaciers in the northern hemisphere (10 thousand years ago).

The settlement of the territory of the Urals by an ancient man began during the early Paleolithic - 300-100 thousand years ago. The climate at that time was milder and warmer, which contributed to the resettlement of people. There were two directions of resettlement: one - from Central Asia, the second - from the East European Plain, Crimea and Transcaucasia. Scientists determined this by the similarity of tools.

The earliest sites of ancient man in the Urals are Mysovaya (Republic of Bashkortostan) and Elniki II (Perm Territory). At the Elniki II site, bones of a trogontherian elephant were found, which made it possible to date the monument. Also, the Early Paleolithic sites include Ganichata I and II, Borisovo, Sludka, Tupitsa, the Bolshoy Glukhoy grotto on the Chusovaya River and others.

The Middle Paleolithic (200-40 thousand years ago) includes the archaeological sites of Bogdanovka (Chelyabinsk Region) and Cave Log (Perm Territory). In the Upper (Late) Paleolithic (40-10 thousand years ago), a person appeared even in the Subpolar Urals (Byzovaya site), the sites of the Bear Cave and Garchi I in the Northern Urals are also known, the site to them. Talitsky and Zaozerye in the Middle Urals and Gornovo V in the Southern Urals. Monuments of this period are more numerous. The end of the Upper Paleolithic includes unique monuments of cave painting in the Kapova and Ignatievskaya caves (14-13 thousand years ago). In total, 41 sites of the Paleolithic era are now known in the Urals.

Paleolithic sites were located in grottoes and in the entrance parts of the caves. People at that time made tools of labor from stone - quartzite, jasper, flint. By chipping pebbles, a tool called a chopper (chopping) or a chopper was obtained. Also, scrapers for processing skins, scrapers for processing wood were made from stone. Later, they began to make a core, from which thin plates were chipped off, which were used as a prefabricated cutting tool.

Ancient people survived by hunting. The obtained skins and bones were used for the construction of dwellings. They also collected berries and roots.

Mesolithic

In the Mesolithic era (9-7 millennium BC), mass settlement of the Urals began. By that time, the glacier had retreated, a modern river network had formed, the climate was changing, and new natural zones were being formed.

People settled along the banks of rivers and lakes. Numerous Mesolithic monuments have been found in the basins of the rivers Kama, Ufa, Belaya, Tura, Iset, in the upper reaches of the Urals. People invented insert tools, bows, arrows, skis, sledges, boats. They lived in semi-dugouts, huts or tents. In the Mesolithic era, the first domestic animal appeared - a dog (the bones of two individuals were found at the Koksharovsko-Yurinsky site). At the same time, many large animals died out: mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and others. In addition to hunting and gathering, ancient people mastered fishing.

The sanctuaries in the Dyrovaty stone on the Chusovaya River and on Mount Naked Stone belong to this period.

A rich collection of tools has been collected at the Shigir peat bog in the Sverdlovsk region. The most unique of those finds is the Shigir idol, the oldest wooden sculpture in the world.

Neolithic

This was the last stage of the Stone Age (6-4 millennium BC). At this time, the climate in the Urals (warm and humid) was the most favorable for flora and fauna, forests spread. In the Neolithic, man mastered the manufacture of pottery. Thanks to various ornaments on dishes, archaeologists distinguish between archaeological cultures and date monuments. New stone processing technologies have also appeared: sawing, drilling, grinding. Stone axes, adzes, chisels, chisels appeared. Large dwellings of logs began to be built.

Due to various natural conditions(taiga, forest-steppe, steppe) there was a difference in the development of the ancient cultures of the Southern, Middle and Northern Urals. In the Neolithic, the division of the Finno-Ugric language and the formation of the ethnic basis of the modern Ural peoples began. At that time, sanctuaries appeared in the northern Trans-Urals. These include bulk hills (Koksharovsky, Ust-Vagilsky), during excavations in which pottery was found, painted with ocher, sometimes with stucco animal heads. The burial of the shaman in the Dozhdev stone on Chusovaya is attributed to the same time.

Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age)

Transitional era from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC). The climate at this time became cooler. The heterogeneity of the development of the population of different regions of the Urals is increasing. Metallurgy has already begun to develop in the Southern Urals. The earliest metallurgical center is associated with the Kargaly copper mines (Orenburg region). Early metal tools were obtained by forging, although the main material for tools was still stone. By way of exchange, the first copper tools get into the Middle Trans-Urals.

The art of wood carving arose (examples were preserved in the Shigirsky and Gorbunovsky peat bogs). Cattle breeding appeared in the southern part of the Urals. Horses are being domesticated.

In the Neolithic-Eneolithic era, most of the inscriptions were made on the coastal rocks on the rivers Vishera, Tagil, Tura, Rezh, Neiva, Irbit, Iset, Serga, Ufa, Ai, Yuryuzan, Zilim, Belaya. They reflect the mythological worldviews of ancient people and reproduce ritual scenes. The unusual monument-sanctuary Savin in the Kurgan region also dates back to this time.

Bronze Age

In the II millennium BC. in the Urals, mass development of bronze metallurgy began, tools, weapons, and jewelry were made from it. The metal obtained as a result of melting was poured into casting molds or subjected to forging.

In the Southern Urals, copper was mined mainly at the deposits of Tash-Kazgan, Nikolskoye, Kargaly. Bronze products are widely distributed, trade relations are being strengthened. In the same place in the Southern Urals, the so-called "Country of Cities" arose, the most famous of the settlements of which are Arkaim and Sintashta. It is believed that they invented war chariots and developed the tactics of chariot combat.

The Bronze Age in the Urals contains many archaeological cultures. Movements of the population led to the mixing, and even to the disappearance of a number of groups. At the same time, in the Bronze Age, the uneven development of the population of different archaeological cultures increased. In the steppe and forest-steppe zone, pastoral cattle breeding, and possibly agriculture, developed. In the north of the forest-steppe and in the south of the forest zone, the inhabitants combined hunting, fishing, cattle breeding, and agriculture. Hunting and fishing developed in the taiga and tundra areas.

In the forest Trans-Urals at the beginning of the Bronze Age, the population of the Tashkov culture lived. The first copper tools, crucibles, drops of copper, and ore were found at the settlement of Tashkovo II. In the mountain-forest Trans-Urals, the Koptyakov culture, the Cherkaskul culture, the Mezhov culture replaced each other, and the Velvet culture came from the middle reaches of the Tobol River. Has begun early stage the formation and interaction between the peoples of the Finno-Ugric (forest zone) and Indo-Iranian (steppe and forest-steppe zone) language families.

The population of the Bronze Age developed a cult of the dead. Burial mounds began to appear in the steppe zone, and earth burials in the forest zone. By the things that were placed next to the deceased, one can understand what he did and what position he occupied in society.

The Seima-Turbino transcultural phenomenon dates back to the Bronze Age - random finds in the forest Trans-Urals and monuments with these finds cast using a new technology of thin-walled casting using a core. The trace of this phenomenon stretches from Altai, through the Urals, the Volga region, Karelia.

In the transitional period to the Early Iron Age, a population of the Gamayun culture came from the northeast of Western Siberia to the Trans-Urals. They began to build the first fortified settlements in the forest zone. Historians associate them with the ancient proto-Samoyeds.

iron age

Gradually, people mastered the manufacture of tools and weapons from iron. Such products were much stronger than bronze, they could be sharpened. There was a decomposition of the primitive communal system and a transition to a class society.

Historians divide the Iron Age into two stages: early iron age(VIII century BC - III century AD) and late iron age(from the 4th century AD to the middle of the 2nd millennium AD).

Due to the cooling in the era of the early Iron Age and as a result of the reduction of food resources in the steppe part of the Southern Urals, semi-nomadic and nomadic cattle breeding arises. In the second half of the 1st millennium BC. warming begins and the establishment of a drier climate, as a result of which the nomads move north, into the Ural forest-steppes. In the Southern Urals, an original Savromatian culture was formed, which was then replaced by the Sarmatian culture. The mounds became the main source for their study.

In the Middle Trans-Urals, the copper foundry flourished. At the beginning of the era, iron products appeared only in the Ural steppes among the nomadic tribes of the Sauromatian culture. In the forest-steppe and in the south of the taiga zone, iron products appeared no earlier than the 5th-4th centuries BC. and were associated with the Itkul and Ananyino centers of non-ferrous metallurgy and metalworking.

In the early Iron Age, the population of the Itkul culture (VII-III centuries BC) lived on the territory of the mountain-forest Trans-Urals. The Itkul casters smelted copper, made tools and weapons, exchanged copper items for the Ananyino culture that lived in the Kama region, and weapons for the Sauromat and Sarmat tribes in the Southern Urals. A fur trade route is being formed, linking the south and north. Treasures of cult castings with images of birds, animals, and people that come across in the Urals belong to this time. At this time, the Permian animal style appeared (cast copper images of animals, birds, people), sanctuaries-bones appeared. Because of the threat of military attacks from the south, fortified settlements are being built.

In the late Iron Age, the Great Migration of Peoples happened - the movement of tribes in the II-VI centuries AD. It all started with the advancement of nomadic steppe tribes, which prompted the movements of the forest-steppe and even forest tribes of the Trans-Urals and the Urals.

In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. Nomadic Ugrians-horse breeders passed through the territory of the forest and mountain-forest belt of the eastern slope of the Urals, which had an impact on the economy and life of the local population. In the VI-IX centuries, three archaeological cultures developed in the forest Trans-Urals - Petrogromskaya, Molchanovskaya and Tynskaya, which became the basis of the Yudin culture (X-XIII centuries), these are the ancestors of the Mansi.

At this time, the Bashkir people arose, the formation of the modern peoples of the Urals took place, the fore-foundation of the proto-Mansi ethnos was formed. In the 7th-10th centuries, the stabilization of the Ural societies and the formation of tribal unions took place, which led to the flourishing of cultures and the restoration of ancient trade relations with Central Asia, Prikamye and Veliky Novgorod. From the middle of the 2nd millennium, "arable Tatars" (Turks) began to come to the eastern slope of the Urals, who settled along the Nice River and peacefully coexisted with the Mansi for a long time.

Middle Ages (X-XVII centuries)

Novgorod merchants and free ushkuiniki were the first of the Russian people to penetrate the Urals. They exchanged their goods for furs from the "Ugra" (ancestors of the Khanty and Mansi), and also levied tribute. Since the XII century, such trips to the Urals and the Northern Trans-Urals have become regular.

However, the Russian colonization of the Urals during this period was held back by the opposition of the Volga Bulgaria. The decisive factor was Mongol invasion, which conquered the tribes of the Ob and Irtysh basins, the Bashkirs, the southern Udmurts, and defeated Bulgaria. At the end of the 13th - 14th centuries, part of the Bulgars and nomadic Polovtsy moved to the territory of the Urals.

Over time, Great Perm passed into the hands of the Moscow princes and became part of the Russian state. During this period, Orthodox missionaries launched activities to strengthen Moscow's position in the Kama region. They destroyed pagan sanctuaries and converted local peoples to Orthodoxy.

The process of resettlement of the Mansi from the western slope of the Urals to the eastern began. This process intensified when the mass resettlement of peasants from Pomorye to the Urals began. By the 15th century, the Mansi, who lived on the rivers Konda, Pelym and the lower reaches of the Sosva River, united into the Pelym principality, the center of which was in the Pelym town near the confluence of the Pelym and Tavda.

From time to time, raids were made on Russian lands. During one of them, in 1481, Prince Mikhail of Great Perm died, and a number of settlements were destroyed. Moscow also organized military campaigns in the Trans-Urals (in particular, in 1465, 1483, 1499). Yugra joined Moscow, but the citizenship was not strong.

In the XIV century, the Siberian Tatars had their own statehood. The Tyumen Khanate arose with its center in the town of Chimgi-Tura (later Tyumen arose on this site). Later it expanded and became the Siberian Khanate with its capital in the town of Siberia, or Kashlyk (near modern Tobolsk). The Tatars set up the Mansi against the Russians, and they themselves staged raids.

The defeat of the Kazan Khanate by Ivan the Terrible in 1552 led to the voluntary entry into Russia of the main part of Bashkiria.

In the development of the Middle Urals, the Stroganov family was of great importance. The founder of the family, Anika Fedorovich Stroganov, in 1558 asked for permission to engage in salt production on the Kama River, pledging in return to defend the land from raids and founding fortified towns. The royal charter granted the Stroganovs vast lands from the mouth of the Lysva to the mouth of the Chusovaya. Later, Stroganov's possessions became even larger. The population of the Kama region began to increase rapidly, new settlements arose.

Of the indigenous peoples of the Urals, by the 16th century, the peoples of the Urals - Bashkirs, Komi-Permyaks, Udmurts, had the largest number, there were fewer representatives of the peoples of the Trans-Urals - Mansi, Khanty, Siberian Tatars.

In the 1570s, the Siberian Khanate, led by Khan Kuchum, raided the Stroganov towns. To fight them, the Stroganovs hired Volga Cossacks, led by Ataman Yermak. Thus began the famous campaign of Yermak, who “took Siberia”. The Siberian Khanate finally fell in 1598. The conquest of Siberia opened the way for Russia to the east.

Yermak's campaign. Painting by P. Shardakov. Ethnopark of the History of the Chusovaya River

On the rivers of the Urals and Trans-Urals, Russian cities and prisons began to appear, the Urals were more and more actively mastered by the Russians. At first, they got beyond the Urals by river. In 1597, construction began on the first land road across the Urals, explored by the peasant Artemy Babinov. The road was named Babinovskaya. In 1598, the city of Verkhoturye arose.

The development of the Urals gradually proceeded mainly from north to south. In the 17th century, Russian colonization of the Urals became widespread. Basically, peasants and townspeople of the Russian North moved to the Urals along good will, but there were also those who were sent by royal decree.

In the 1730-50s, the Zakamskaya and Orenburg fortified lines were built, which created the conditions for even more active settlement, including the Southern Urals.

The majority of the population of the Urals belonged to the peasantry. For example, in the last quarter of the 17th century there were about 80% of such people. Approximately 60% of them had to pay cash or grain dues to the treasury (black-eared peasants). Serfs lived in the Stroganov estates, who carried out both quitrent and labor duties.

In the XVII century, the main occupation of the population of the Urals was agriculture. The main crops were rye and oats, although barley, wheat, spelt, buckwheat, peas, and millet were also sown.

Then, in the 17th century, the first small factories began to appear in the Urals. In 1631, the first state-owned iron-working plant (Nitsinsky) appeared on the Nitsa River (the territory of the Sverdlovsk Region). Iron was obtained by raw-blowing method in four small blast furnaces. Peasants who worked out the factory duty were obliged to work at the factory. The factory closed half a century later.

Finds from the Nitsa plant. Museum of History and Archeology of the Middle Urals

In 1634, the Pyskorsky state-owned copper smelter (Perm Territory) began operating until the end of the 1940s. In 1640, a state-owned iron-working plant (Krasnoborsky) also arose on the Vishera River in the Cherdyn district, but due to the depletion of ores, it did not work for long.

In 1669, a private iron-working plant of the Tumashev brothers appeared on the Neiva River (closed in 1680). There was also a small factory in the possession of the Dalmatovsky Monastery, on the Zheleznyanka River at its confluence with the Iset.

However, salt production was the best developed at that time. The largest salt-producing center of the country was Sol Kamskaya (Solikamsk).

New time (XVIII - XIX centuries)

The first quarter of the 18th century was marked by administrative reforms Peter I. At the same time, factories began to appear in the Urals. The first, almost simultaneously, in 1701, the Nevyansk and Kamensky factories were launched, soon the Alapaevsky and Uktus state-owned factories were founded. Then the number of factories increased rapidly. Private entrepreneurs participated in the construction of factories. In 1702, the Nevyansk plant was transferred to Nikita Demidov, from whom a large dynasty of Ural industrialists began. The Stroganovs and Yakovlevs also became the largest plant owners. The population of the Urals grew, new settlements arose abundantly. There were many Old Believers in the Urals who moved here from the central part of the country, hiding from persecution. The construction of the Yekaterinburg plant in 1723 was of great importance.

In the 18th century, the Urals became a major mining and metallurgical center. Craftsmen worked at the factories (they performed all production and technical work at the factories) and working people (together with assigned peasants, they were involved in auxiliary work, they included miners, coal burners, carpenters, lumberjacks, carters, masons, etc.) . They were obliged to work in factories "forever", released from work only due to old age or serious illness.

With the advent of factories, the importance of waterways increased. Along the rivers Chusovaya, Belaya, Ufa, Ai and others, factory products were rafted. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Urals produced 4/5 of Russian pig iron and iron, and Russia was in first place in the world in the production of ferrous metals.

In the 1730s, a network of fortified lines - fortresses (old and new Zakamsky, Orenburg (Yaitskaya), Sakmarskaya, Isetskaya) was created in the Southern Urals. Cossacks also served here. The Orenburg expedition arose with the aim of developing the southern part of the Urals. This contributed to the shift of the Russian population from north to south.

In 1704-11, 1735-37, 1738-39, 1740, large Bashkir riots broke out in the Urals. The Bashkirs attacked villages and settlements, burned houses, smashed factories. In 1773-74, the Peasant War broke out under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, posing as Peter III.

In the 18th century, the first educational institutions began to appear, but education began to receive real development only towards the end of the 19th century. However, most of the children did not attend school.

When the industrial revolution began in the West in the 19th century, Russian industry began to lag far behind.

The adoption of the decree of 1812 on the permission of gold mining to private individuals led to the discovery of numerous mines in the Urals, and soon a gold rush broke out. The gold mining control center was located in Yekaterinburg. The Ryazanovs, Kazantsevs, Balandins, and Zotovs were major gold miners. By 1845, Russia's share in world gold production was 47%. Before the discovery of Californian and Australian deposits, it overtook all countries of the world. Rich deposits of platinum (95% of world production) were also discovered in the Urals.

Trade flourished in the 19th century. The annual turnover of the Ural fairs on a national scale exceeded 20%, of which 80% of the fair turnover in the Urals was provided by the Irbit Fair - the second in Russia after the Nizhny Novgorod Fair.

At the same time, uprisings often broke out in the 19th century, the Ural peasants fought for their rights. The Urals and Trans-Urals became a place of exile for the Decembrists.

An important stage in the development of the country was the abolition of serfdom on February 19, 1861. Legally, the peasants gained freedom, but in reality everything turned out to be more complicated. According to the law, the artisans were provided only with a homestead and mowing, but no allotments. By this they were attached to the factories. For the use of artisans mowing, pasture, forest, the possibility of working out at factories was provided. Breeders continued to be masters of considerable farmland and vast territories.

Thanks to the reforms of Alexander II, people began to get involved in active public life intelligentsia played a significant role.

By the end of the 19th century, the Urals began to lose competition to the new large metallurgical center in the Donbass. The enterprises were technically backward, poorly reconstructed, the ore and fuel base was depleted. As a result, an industrial crisis broke out in the Urals. To find ways out of the crisis in 1899, on the instructions of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte, an expedition of a group of scientists and engineers headed by D.I. Mendeleev.

Soon an era of upheavals began: the first world war, revolution, civil war ...

References:
Panina S.N. Ancient history peoples of the Urals. - Yekaterinburg, publishing house "Kvadrat", 2017.
History of the Urals from ancient times to the end of the XIX century. - Yekaterinburg, 2002.
Materials of the Museum of History and Archeology of the Middle Urals

Started back in late XVI in. Russia's development of Siberia and the Urals continued actively in the 17th century. The Siberian Khanate, which owned Western Siberia, was a vast state, which, in addition to the Siberian Tatars, included Khanty, Mansi, Trans-Ural Bashkirs and other peoples. The Russian government set the task of their accession to Russia. It attracted to the solution of this problem the actual owners of the Middle Urals - the Stroganovs salt producers, who owned vast lands and had their own armed units. According to the charter of Ivan IV, the Stroganovs began the construction of fortresses in Western Siberia. In late 1581 - early 1582, the Cossack ataman Yermak, who was in the service of the Stroganovs, set off on a campaign with his detachment (numbering about 600 people). He managed to defeat Kuchum's troops and capture his capital, Kashlyk. As a result of this operation, the population of Siberia agreed to pay tribute not to Kuchum, but to Yermak. In 1584, Yermak died in battle.

So, the beginning of the annexation of Siberia to Russia was laid.

Large masses of the Russian peasantry moved to the expanses of Siberia, mastering its fertile lands. In the 80-90s. 16th century Western Siberia became part of Russia.

During the 17th century Russians advanced from Western Siberia to the coast Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. The rapid movement to the east was stimulated by the search for new lands and minerals, primarily gold and silver.

Historically, low population density and harsh climatic conditions have not favored the social development of this region.

The advance of the Russians in Siberia was carried out in two directions.

According to one of them, lying along northern seas, sailors and explorers moved to the northeastern tip of the mainland. In 1648, the Cossack Semyon Dezhnev, on small ships with a handful of people, discovered the strait separating Asia from North America.

Another route to the east ran along the southern borders of Siberia. Here, the explorers also reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean in a short time. Vasily Poyarsky in 1645 went along the Amur to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, sailed along its coast and returned to Yakutsk the following year. In the middle of the XVII century. the campaign of Yerofey Khabarov to Dauria and along the Amur falls.

The local population of Siberia experienced in these years different stages of the patriarchal-clan system.

The most numerous ethnic groups in Siberia were the Yakuts and Buryats. Both peoples were at the stage of developed patriarchal-tribal relations and were on the verge of entering the feudal formation. The basin of the Amur was occupied by sedentary peoples (Daurs, Duchers, etc.), who were familiar with agriculture.

As they moved east, Russian explorers built fortresses that served as their strongholds. This is how the Yenisei prison (1619), the Krasnoyarsk prison (1628) and others arose.

The main form of exploitation of the local population of Siberia was the collection of tribute (yasak). Sable skins were especially valued. In addition to yasak, governors and service people levied fees for their own benefit.

By the end of the XVII century. the Russian population of Siberia reached 150 thousand people. The agricultural population of Siberia was recruited partly from the peasants forcibly resettled by the government, partly as a result of popular colonization, mainly from the environment of fugitive peasants and townspeople.

Peasants settled in areas suitable for agriculture, i.e. in the south of Siberia. By the end of the century, Siberian agriculture fully met the needs of the region in bread. The peasants brought with them agricultural culture, in particular, more modern handicraft tools (chisel, chisel, etc.).

By the end of the 17th century. Russia included the Left-bank Ukraine, the territories of the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia. The entry of Ukraine into Russia saved the Ukrainian people from the devastating Turkish-Tatar invasions and national and religious oppression by the gentry of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church. Peasants and Cossacks, developing the lands in the Volga region, in the Urals and in Siberia, brought with them centuries-old experience in farming and crafts, new tools; the economic and social development of some regions of Siberia, which were at a lower level at the time of joining Russia, noticeably accelerated. Another positive result of the entry of the peoples of Siberia into the Russian state was that strife and armed struggle both within ethnic groups and between individual peoples, which depleted the economic resources of each of them, ceased.

The development of the Urals began as early as the 16th century, when the Stroganov salt producers organized salt mining in the Cis-Urals (Perm Region). To protect their possessions from the raids of the natives, the Stroganovs hired a Cossack squad under the command of Yermak. For two years, Yermak's squad defended the Stroganov estate. In the spring of 1582, the Stroganovs supplied Yermak's detachment with all the necessary supplies, including weapons, for a campaign in Siberia through the Urals. Having fought along the Tura, Tavda and Tobol, Yermak's detachment took in October 1582 the capital of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, the city of Kashlyk. After the defeat of the Siberian khanate, the Muscovite state began active economic development of both the Urals and the main territory of the Urals and beyond - the Trans-Urals.

The rapid settlement of the Urals in the second half of the XVII century. the church reform contributed: hiding from the authorities, the persecuted adherents of the "old faith" settled in hard-to-reach places, and such was then the Urals with its dense forests, mountains and numerous rivers and lakes. There at the end of the 17th century. rebels were exiled by Peter I. This is how settlements in the Urals arose and developed. Ermakovo settlement is the place where the largest city of the Urals, Nizhny Tagil, is now located.

Initially, the development of the Urals was of an agricultural nature, mainly livestock breeding, hunting and fishing. On the basis of this, the creation of the mining industry began, with the discovery of iron ore deposits. In 1697, the head of the Siberian department, A. Vinius, pleased Peter I with the news of the discovery of "very good iron ore" in the Ural Ridge. Almost simultaneously, the construction of two factories, Nevyansk and Kamensky, began, which produced the first cast iron in 1701. In 1702-1704. Two more state-owned factories were put into operation: Utussky and Alapaevsky. For the construction and equipment of the Ural enterprises, Tula, Kashira and foreign craftsmen were involved. In 1702, Peter I granted the Tula gunsmith Demidov the Nevyansk foundry, with all the tax benefits. Then Peter I was in dire need of weapons for the war with the Swedes. Demidov regularly supplied this weapon to the Russian army. Using the benefits provided by the sovereign, the Demidovs, expanding their metallurgical production, built several dozen more factories and soon became large industrialists.

The development of the mining complex in the Urals would not have been possible without the formation of a business center. In 1723, the city of Yekaterinburg was founded. Founders of the city - two prominent figures Russia - Tatishchev V.N. and a native of Holland V.I. Gennin. The governing bodies of the mining industry were transferred to Yekaterinburg from the city of Tobolsk. Metallurgical production in the new city did not develop. The Mint, lapidary and mechanical factories worked successfully in Yekaterinburg.

By the middle of the XVI century. the mining industry of the Urals flourished, second only to Sweden in metal smelting. High-quality Ural iron was widely sold abroad, even in England. Foreign buyers especially appreciated the iron of the Demidov brand "Old Sable". But in the second half of the XVIII century. the construction of state-owned (i.e. state) factories almost ceased, previously built, together with the workers assigned to them, were bought up for nothing by the high-society nobility. However, the titled owners ruined the factories by exorbitant money extortion, and they were again returned to state control. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the development of the mining industry has slowed down. The impoverishment of the fuel and raw materials base, the damage caused by the Pugachev uprising, and competition in the foreign market from the cheaper English metal smelted on coke also had an effect. Due to the depletion of nearby ore deposits and deforestation, many factories have closed or reduced production.

The Russian government, concerned about the economic downturn in the mining industry in the Urals, has taken all measures to improve the situation. To this end, auditors were sent to the Urals to study the situation, as well as two scientific expeditions of the Academy of Sciences. The expeditions included geologists, naturalists, ethnographers. In addition, dozens of specially hired by the state Russian engineers from Sweden, England, France, Germany, Belgium were sent to the mining and metallurgical enterprises of the Urals, who helped introduce modern technologies, trained workers in new professions. The same goal - acquaintance with foreign equipment and the work of specialists on it - was pursued by the authorities by sending Russian engineers and technicians abroad.

The metallurgical industry of the Urals, for reasons of defense capability, belonged to the state. And the gold industry in the first half of the XIX century. became private - most of the gold-platinum mines were distributed to private tenants. Thanks to such a policy of the Russian state, the Ural gold miners were actively engaged in the construction of buildings and various kinds of architectural structures- from residential to administrative.

By the end of the XIX century. in the Urals, industrial metallurgical production was already developed, albeit on a small scale. Because the further development of metallurgy and the entire mining complex of the Urals was held back by the lack of a reliable year-round transport connection both within this region and with other regions of Russia. Until the end of the 1870s. The Urals had only horse-drawn and water transport. Freight caravans along the Chusovaya River set off only during a short period of high water. At the same time, many barges with cargo crashed on the winding fairway of the river against the coastal rocks, and the entire duration of the rafting lasted from one and a half to three months. Therefore, local authorities and entrepreneurs persistently sought the construction of railways in the Urals.
In 1878, the first railroad, the Uralskaya Gornozavodskaya, went into operation from Perm to Yekaterinburg via Nizhny Tagil. In 1885, the railway was laid further east, to Tyumen. The connection of the Urals with the all-Russian network occurred at the end of the 19th century. - a branch line Yekaterinburg - Chelyabinsk was laid. And in 1909, the Yekaterinburg-Kungur-Perm railway provided direct access to the central regions of the country. Railways of the meridional direction were laid: Bogoslovskaya, Tavdinskaya and Zapadno-Uralskaya, put into operation in 1906 and 1917.
The development of the railway network in the Urals significantly stimulated the further development of the entire economic complex of this region, medium and small industries began to develop, in particular, woodworking, chemical, food, and textile industries. Machine-building enterprises for the production of locomobiles, machine tools, and mining equipment appeared. Began to develop actively throughout the Urals and handicrafts that filled the market: agricultural implements, furniture, dishes, clothes and shoes. Handicrafts provided a livelihood for those who were not employed in mines and factories, and for those who were driven out of the countryside by the Stolypin agrarian reform.

The general rapid construction in the Urals led to the development of art crafts; the interiors of buildings were decorated with sculpture and fireplaces, vases and lamps. Stone carvers at the Yekaterinburg Lapidary Factory were fully loaded with orders. The products of the Ural stone-cutters were in great demand both in Russia and abroad, especially the products made of malachite and lapis lazuli, the so-called "Russian mosaic".

"Russian Mosaic" is a technology for facing large items with thin plates, matched to the pattern, pasted with special mastic on matrices made of metal or other material. Many works made in this technique by the Ural masters are in the Hermitage, in other museums of our country and abroad. All this was done using malachite, a valuable ornamental stone-mineral of the carbonate class, which has a very beautiful, bizarre pattern with various color shades from bright green, bluish-green to dark, sometimes brown-green on cuts and polished planes. Ural craftsmen used malachite for jewelry and decorative art products - beads, vases, inserts - for facing columns, countertops, wall panels, etc.

The Urals were also famous for their masters of artistic iron casting. Starting from the XVIII century. many Ural factories created artistic products from cast iron: lattices, plates, dishes, figurines, etc. The most successful development of iron casting was at the Kasli plant, where the art of molding and filigree finishing reached its maximum perfection. To household items, fences, crypts, busts, openwork grates of fireplaces, candlesticks, candelabra, caskets and much more were added. As a recognized leader in artistic casting, in 1860 the Kasli plant was awarded a small gold medal at the exhibition of the Free Economic Society.
art casting High Quality was also produced at the factories of the Nizhny Tagil district, where in the 30-60s. 19th century The serf sculptor and foundry worker F. F. Zvezdin became especially famous for his bronze statues and cast-iron monuments. In the Perm region of the Urals, where woodworking production prevailed, the art of wood carving was widely developed in those years. Perm craftsmen decorated with wood carving not only objects of peasant life, the facades of huts, but also iconostases in churches and chapels. The original character of Permian wooden sculpture makes it possible to understand how, instead of pagan idols, the local population created figures of Christ in the form of a simple peasant, Komi-Permyak, Tatar, Russian.

In the Southern Urals, in the city of Zlatoust, metallurgists-armourers worked, whose damask and high-quality tool steel enjoyed great success not only in Russia, but also abroad. The Urals has always been considered a forge of Russian weapons, its tools were supplied to the armies of Peter I, Suvorov, Kutuzov. The Ural gunsmiths made a great contribution to the victories of the Russian armies.

With the development of the railway network in the Urals, population growth began, both urban and rural, although this growth was uneven. By the end of the XIX century. in the Perm province, the population growth was 42%, in the Orenburg province - 23.2%. The increase in the population of cities, especially those that were near railways, was significantly higher than in rural areas: in Perm - 3.7 times, in Yekaterinburg - 2.6 times. With the construction of the Ural railways, trade in the cities significantly revived, and by the end of the century there were already more than 850 trading establishments. There were also changes in the social composition. The number of merchants, philistines, workers of large factories, as well as artisans engaged in crafts, small handicraft and handicraft workshops increased significantly. To serve the needs of the Ural railways, railway workshops were created, where mainly qualified workers and specialists were accepted.

At the same time, the local bourgeoisie was also gaining strength, and the majority of it was the owners of the Ural mining, metallurgical plants, mines and mines. The peculiarity of the Ural bourgeoisie was that it owned not only factories, mines and mines, but also the land surrounding them, that is, the industrialists were at the same time landowners. According to statistics from the 1990s 19th century Ural miners were large landowners. For example, if all 262 metallurgical plants in Russia had 11.4 million acres of land, then 10.2 million acres of them belonged to 111 Ural plants.
Another feature is that most of the largest Ural landlords lived in the capital of Russia, they played an important role in the government and court circles, exerting a significant influence on the adoption of the necessary laws, decrees, etc. The Belgian, French , English and German firms. This contributed to the involvement of the Ural industry in the system of international monopolies.

A significant part of the large industrial and commercial Urals bourgeoisie were merchants and village rich people who had amassed huge capital, but did not have the position in society that was enjoyed by the monopolists who often bullied them. Despite all the differences and disagreements, the local bourgeoisie was forced to follow the path of uniting forces in the face of the problems and difficulties that confronted them. The Russian government encouraged such actions and in some cases took the initiative. As a result, in November 1880, a congress of Ural miners was convened in Yekaterinburg.

The Ural miners actively contributed to the creation of educational institutions in the Urals. Gymnasiums for men were opened in Perm, Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Orenburg, and Troitsk. Also open, on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial circles of the Urals and with the support of zemstvos and other authorities, real schools in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Krasnoufimsk, Sarapul. In addition, the Ural Mining School was opened, which gave secondary technical education. At the end of the XIX century. Several private mining schools and a foreman school were opened. The Ural miners understood that without educated people-workers, the further development of their enterprises is impossible. Patrons, or, as they say now, sponsors of the above events were Ural industrialists and merchants A. A. Zheleznov, G. G. Kazantsev, P. F. Davydov, Zotovs, Nurovs, Balandins, Tarasovs and others.

1) Determine the features from the atlas maps geographical location Ural.

The Urals stretch meridionally from the coast of the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the boundary between Europe and Asia.

2) What subjects of the Federation are included in this natural region.

Arkhangelsk Region, Komi Republic, Tyumen Region, Perm Territory, Sverdlovsk region, Republic of Bashkortostan, Orenburg region.

Questions in a paragraph

* Recall from the initial course of physical geography to which group the Ural Mountains can be attributed in terms of height.

The Ural Mountains are medium-altitude mountains.

Questions at the end of the paragraph

1. Independently characterize the specifics of the geographical location of the Urals.

The Urals is a mountainous country stretching from the coast of the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the boundary between Europe and Asia. It crosses five natural zones of Northern Eurasia - tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, forest-steppe and steppe. The Urals has long been considered the border between two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. The border is drawn along the axial part of the mountains, and in the southeast along the Ural River.

3. Tell us about the history of the development and study of the Urals

The ancient inhabitants of the Urals were Bashkirs, Udmurts, Komi-Permyaks, Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (formerly Voguls), local Tatars. Their main occupations were agriculture, hunting, fishing, cattle breeding and beekeeping. Communication between indigenous peoples and Russians goes back centuries. Even in the XI century. Novgorodians laid waterway to the Urals and Siberia. They founded their first settlements in the Urals in the upper reaches of the Kama; fur riches attracted them here.

In 1430, the first industrial enterprise was created in the Urals: townspeople, merchants Kalinnikovs, founded the village of Sol-Kamskaya (modern Solikamsk) and laid the foundation for the salt industry. In 1471, the Novgorod lands were annexed to the Muscovite state. Great Perm with the main city of Cherdyn also passed under his authority.

After the conquest of the Kazan Khanate (1552), the number of Russian settlers in the Urals increased greatly. In the second half of the XVI century. the vast land areas of the Kama region were captured by the Stroganovs of Solvychegodsk industrialists. They were engaged in salt production and various crafts, later - in mining.

With the development and settlement of the territory of the region by Russians, information about its riches gradually accumulated. The first "geologists" of the Urals were natives of the people - miners. The first information about finds of valuable ores and minerals dates back to the 17th century. At the same time they began to mine iron ore and smelt iron.

Samples of iron ore from the Neiva River sent to Moscow in 1696 by the Verkhoturye voivode were tested by the Tula gunsmith Nikita Demidovich Antufiev, and they showed that the Ural ore "is melted with profit and the iron obtained from it in the weapons business is no worse than the Svei one." After that, in 1699. construction of the state-owned Nevyansk iron-smelting and iron-working plant began. From the very first iron received, Nikita Antufiev made several excellent guns, presented them to Peter I and asked that the Nevyansk plant be transferred to his jurisdiction. The certificate for the ownership of the plant was issued by the tsar in the name of Nikita Demidov. From that time on, he and his descendants bore this surname. So the era of the Demidovs began in the Urals.

The 18th century is the century of the development of the mining industry in the Urals. The geographer V. N. Tatishchev was engaged in the study of the natural resources of the Ural Mountains and their description at that time. He justified the need to build a large industrial center Ural and chose a place for it. So Yekaterinburg was founded.

Geological research of the Urals was actively carried out in the 19th century. A. P. Karpinsky, I. V. Mushketov, E. S. Fedorov. The mining industry of the Urals was studied and improved by the famous scientist D. I. Mendeleev. Why has the Urals been assigned (and is assigned) such a big role in the life of the country? Why exactly this region, and no other, received such a high title: "The stronghold of the state, its miner and blacksmith"? The answers to these questions go back a long way.

Introduction

The history of human exploration of the Urals is centuries-old. Since ancient times, a few human tribes, settled mainly along the banks of the rivers, began to develop the foot of the Ural Mountains. The main stage in the development of the Urals can be called the time of the industrial boom in Russia. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Tsar Peter, caring for the glory and greatness of Russia, presciently determined the direction of Russia's development, then the Ural storerooms shone before the eyes of new Russian industrialists with unprecedented strength.

The Strogonov industrialists are considered one of the first developers of the Ural wealth in history. In addition to factories and workshops, they left household buildings (a house, a chapel, the Transfiguration Cathedral) on their ordinary estate Usolye-on-Kama, which today are considered the cultural heritage of the industrial past of the Ural Territory.

The next stage in the development of the Urals also belongs to the ancient dynasty of industrialists Demidovs. Among the remaining industrial monuments built on the territory of the Demidovs' patrimony are the remains of blast furnaces of the famous Nevyanovsky plant, dams, the famous Nevyanovskaya leaning tower, the master's house, the "Tsar-blast furnace", the building of which has survived to this day.

In place of industrial developments, cities began to appear in the Urals. One of the first built in the 18th century were the so-called "cities - factories": Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil, Barancha, Kushva, Zlatoust, Alapaevsk and others. These cities, according to the description of Russian writers of that time, were buried in countless branches of the Ural Mountains among dense forests. High mountains, clear water, impenetrable forest surround these human settlements, creating an atmosphere of freshness and solemnity, despite the constantly smoking chimneys of factory workers.

Interestingly, being one of the oldest regions of metallurgical production on the planet, the Urals supply non-ferrous and ferrous metals not only to Russia, but also to Western Asia, and later contributed to the development of machine production in a number of European countries and even America. The Urals played an important role in the domestic wars of the 18th-20th centuries. During the First World War and especially the Second, the Urals became the forge of Russia's military power, the main arsenal of the Red Army. In the Urals, during the Second World War, the Soviet nuclear and rocket industry began to be created. The first hail installations under the affectionate name "Katyusha" also come from the Urals. In the Urals, there was also a network scientific laboratories for the development of new types of weapons.

This paper describes the features of the history of the development of the Urals by Russian people.

The history of the development of the Urals

The intensive development of the Urals began in the turning point in the historical era of the 17th-18th centuries, which opened the beginning of the "imperial civilization" (A. Flier), or a new time in history Russian state. The special place of the Urals in this period is determined by the fact that this frontier region has become the historical zone of the first Russian experience in the formation of a new "Russianness" (P.N. Savitsky's term), as a synthesis of the efforts of two cultures: the new - state-Western and the old - "soil" and "frontier" at the same time.

The 17th century in the history of the development of the Urals can be considered as a period of mass "free" peasant colonization, associated mainly with the agrarian development of the region. Over the course of a century, an old-timer Russian population formed here, reproducing the features of traditional culture in a variant of the Russian North in a new habitat. During this period, the "grassroots" element was the leader of the colonization movement. The state barely had time to make its own administrative adjustments to this fleeting process.

In the XVIII century. The Urals, like no other region of the country, experienced all the innovations and costs of "Europeanization", as a result of which the type of specific "Ural" subculture was determined. The mining industry has become its basic element. The construction of more than 170 plants in a century, the production of pig iron from 0.6 million poods at the beginning of the century to 7.8 million poods by its end, the conquest of the international metal market - all this was the undoubted result of industrial progress. But the industrial phenomenon of Russian Europeanization became possible not only as a result of the active borrowing of Western technologies, but also the creation of a specific system for organizing the mining industry based on feudal local principles and coercion. The free people's colonization is being replaced by the forced resettlement of tens of hundreds of serfs to the Urals, as well as the transformation of the descendants of free settlers from state peasants into "affiliated" ones, who were forced to perform "factory" duties. By the end of the XVIII century. there were more than 200 thousand people. In the Perm province, the most "mining" in nature, "assigned" at that time accounted for over 70% of the state peasants.

By the middle of the XIX century. out of a heterogeneous mass of dependent people, a specific class group is formed - the “mining population”. It was the social substratum that determined the cultural image of the mining Urals with its professional and everyday traditions.

The nature of this young Russian class can be considered intermediate in relation to the classical social patterns - peasants and workers. The forcible detachment of a mass of artisans from their usual peasant habitat determined their marginal condition and created a long-term explosive social atmosphere in the Ural region. The permanent manifestation of various forms of social protest has become feature"Ural" culture.

The economic and economic base of the Ural phenomenon was formed by the mining and district system of industry. The main element of this system - the mining district - represented a diversified economy that functioned on the principle of self-sufficiency. The mining complex provided itself with raw materials, fuel, energy resources and all the necessary infrastructure, creating an uninterrupted closed production cycle. The "natural" nature of the mining industry was based on the monopoly right of the factory owners for everything. Natural resources district, eliminating competition for their production. “Naturality”, “isolation”, “local structure of industry” (V.D. Belov, V.V. Adamov), orientation of production to the state order, weak market ties were the natural features of this phenomenon. Organizational and administrative transformations of the first half of the 19th century. “improved” this system, turning the mining Urals into a “state within a state” (V.D. Belov). From the modern point of view, the “original structure” of the Ural industry must be associated with the transitional nature of the Russian economy in the Modern Age. Such an approach (for example, by T.K. Guskova) seems to be fruitful, since it interprets this system as an evolutionary stage from traditional society to industrial.

Established in the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the Ural mining culture retained its features even by the beginning of the 20th century. The Ural mining settlement preserved the atmosphere of a peasant, by nature, social and family life, which was facilitated by the fact that the artisans had their own houses, gardens, land allotments, and livestock farming. The craftsmen preserved the historical memory of the paternalistic foundations of the mining system, which was expressed in the vitality of "obligatory relations". Their social requirements are characterized by an orientation towards patronage from factories and the state. They were distinguished from other groups of Russian workers by low professionalism and low wages. According to I.Kh. Ozerova, Ural worker of the early 20th century. psychologically was aimed at the equalizing principle of wages. Having got used to the current level of factory earnings, if it increased, he irrationally spent money, embarking on a spree. He was not inclined to change his usual working specialty to another, even if it was financially profitable. Cultural influences on the life of the mining environment were extremely scarce, due to the peculiarities social structure mining Urals, remoteness of industrial settlements from cultural centers. Irrational Traits social psychology Ural craftsman and other characteristics of his social appearance confirm the version of his belonging to a transitional type of culture.

Thus, the "Ural mining" subculture typologically adjoins transitional intercivilizational phenomena. The Urals most expressively demonstrated their features, which allows us to consider this region as a kind of "classic" of transitional states of modernizing societies.