The characteristic feature of the city is urban concentration, i.e. dense to excess concentration of extremely diverse objects and areas of application of activities in an extremely limited area (in the area of ​​​​half-hour accessibility for public transport). This dramatically increases the diversity of areas of application of labor, ways of spending leisure time. There is a lack of freedom in the countryside to choose a way of life and occupation. Urban concentration is a concentration of diversity and interaction; By the very course of urban life, activities concentrated in the city are encouraged to close interaction, and people - to constant communication and upholding common interests. Action gives rise to opposition, various forms of alienation of the people of the city crowd from each other are growing in the urban population in proportion to the population density in urban areas, the frequency of deviant forms of behavior (alcoholism, squatting) and street crime is increasing.

In close proximity are located separately gravitating to the city, but poorly compatible with each other objects, enterprises and industries. The growth of diversity in the urban area ensures the growth of the wealth of urban residents, and it determines the “production of risks” in the urban area, increasing the anisotropy of urban space on the gradient “center (diversity and wealth, the elements of which diffuse to the outskirts) - periphery” (area of ​​increased concentration of risk, extending to the city center, primarily along highways).

The city tends to concentric expansion, depressing its development, primarily the center. It causes the alternation of periods of stagnation and radical restructuring of the planning structure. “Waves” of transformation of the urban landscape run from the city center to the periphery every 20…40 years. This caused the emergence of a dynamic city concentration, dinapolis, capable of expanding without urban planning difficulties - thanks to growth in one direction, which does not interfere with the development of either the city itself or its center (K. Doxiadis). The idea is attractive, but unrealistic - a city is not an independent unit, but a node with a specific purpose and functions in the network of cities in a given territory, and the “linear growth” of cities means destabilization of the entire network (it is possible only with complete urbanization of the territory, at the stage of megalopolises).

A successfully developing city is characterized by proportionate growth(primarily its spatial parts), the appearance of disproportions and contradictions hinders development. Example: in the process of growth, the area of ​​the largest agglomerations of the RSFSR in the period from 1950 to 1995 each maintains a strictly defined relationship between the “core” (central city) and the periphery (rings of satellites) of each agglomeration.

The city is a combination of three main subsystems: population, economic base and life support sphere. The natural environment of the city included in the last one. It includes natural complex, the elements of which (the ecosystems of natural areas of the city) are directly involved in optimizing the living environment of citizens. Ecological situation in the city creates the interaction of the population, urban economy with the natural environment of the city and elements (heavily modified) of natural systems within it - natural and green areas (lawns, squares, parks, boulevards, front gardens, flower beds, etc.).

The growth of cities and the urbanization of the territory are so natural that they can be described mathematical models. So the density of the city network and the average distance between neighboring nodes of the network is directly proportional not so much to the density as to the economic activity of the population (intensity of trade, transport and other contacts). For example, the Upper Oka principalities were spared by the Tatar cavalry due to the rugged terrain and high forest cover, unlike their neighbors, they were not depopulated, but the economy was destroyed - and some of the cities ceased to exist. Disappearing cities have always been located between remaining, never next to each other, so that no area was left unserved, only the intensity of service was reduced.

The “rank-size” rule ” (F. Auerbach, 1930) shows what is the proportion of large, medium and small cities needed to serve a given territory. With continuous urbanization of the territory (region, region, country, entire planet - the pattern is universal and in different cases differs only in numerical coefficients) size and population cities i -th rank is proportional to the size of the largest city in the given territory U 0 , referred to the dimensional rank of the city U i with proportionality factor ln U 0 .

Rank - a serial number in the descending order of the population of the city. The steeper the hyperbole passes, given by the “rank-size” rule, the higher the degree of development of the city network in a given territory. The lack or excess of a certain category of cities compared to the “ideal norm” given by the “rank-size” rule means incompleteness of urbanization territories and accelerated growth(or, on the contrary, a halt in development) of cities of the missing (or “excessive”) category in the near future. In the “sample” of cities around the world, the proportion of megacities (cities with a population of more than 1 million people) is significantly lower than predicted; for all cities on the Earth, the “rank-size” rule determines a steeper hyperbole than that observed only in a sample of the 20 largest megacities of the planet - U (i )= U 0 * lnU 0 / i and U (i )= U 0 * lnU 0 /( i + lnU 0 ) respectively. In the near future, we should expect outpacing growth of megacities compared to smaller cities, especially in the “third world”. Extrapolation based on the “rank-size” rule allows you to get the figure of a stable population of the Earth after the end of growth and the completion of the demographic transition in all countries ( 13 billion) and the size of the world's largest city ( 42 million residents, S.P. Kapitsa).

Cristaller Rules (1933) describe the optimal placement structure cities - central places and the settlements they serve on the territory where, on the one hand, urbanization is completely completed, on the other hand, the location of cities is not complicated by agglomeration processes. The main function of cities of central places (CM) - service (administrative, market, provision of services, etc.) - settlements of the urban district included in the system of this city.

The main function of cities of the opposite category specialized centers - the production of strictly defined products that are in demand far beyond the boundaries of the corresponding system of cities, and not only on its territory. The more extensive the national network of cities, the higher the capacity of the internal market, the more levels in the hierarchy of CM cities and the more scattering of cities around them - specialized centers (SCs). Spatial distribution of SC does not obey According to the rules of Christaller, they form clusters outside the ordered network of central places, but usually near the centers of agglomerations, along economic and transport lines.

The "correct" system of city-central places and the settlements served by them takes on the form of a hexagonal grid. Center spots are in the center of the hexes, and serviced settlements are on the edges or in the corners. This achieves the maximum density of “packing” of all serviced settlements around the central places, minimizing the distances between them, and maximizing the availability of central places.

A specific option for placing settlements in a hexagonal “service field” of central places is determined by the dominant function of the latter and, accordingly, by which service option is optimized in space. If the market (commercial and industrial) structure of the system “the central place is the settlement of the urban district” is subject to optimization, then the served settlements are located at the corners of the hexagon ( BUT ). This maximizes the freedom of choice of the central place by each subordinate settlement - any of the 3 neighboring ones, and the number of settlements oriented to this market - 6.

When optimizing the transport structure of the territory ( B ) settlements are placed on the edges of the hex, so that the distance to the 2 nearest centers is minimized, but the freedom of choice is reduced. When optimizing the predominantly administrative structure ( AT ) the freedom to choose a central place for the inhabitants of the settlements disappears altogether, since they are all located inside the hexagon, but the differentiation of powers and division of space between neighboring centers reaches the greatest extent.

Option BUT optimal for rapid economic development of the territory; B - for ease of management, AT - to preserve the original biodiversity of the region, since the settlements are concentrated around “their” central places, the periphery and the junction of different regions remain underdeveloped, creating a reserve of intact natural areas on the far periphery of the region.

Deviations from the ideal Christaller model are investigated by Lesh. They are associated with the incomplete completion of urbanization processes, the lack of uniform coverage by the network of cities, or (the opposite effect) the beginning of the agglomeration process. The latter is accompanied center shift and reorientation of settlements to the central place that leads among the neighbors in terms of development speed. It is transformed into the center of an agglomeration, orienting the territorial ties of its neighbors “on itself”.

In Lesch's model, the growth of the city-central place occurs in a stellate pattern, along the rays of the main highways and turns out to be sharply uneven - in some rays, the urbanized strips are more developed and stretch further than in others. Therefore, the placement of subordinate settlements in each hex is strictly sectorial, and not uniform, as in the Christaller model. Another option - as you move from the CM to the periphery of the serviced territory, there is a gradual transition from uniform to sectorial distribution of subordinate settlements).

Sectors are set along the lines of city development and differ sharply in the concentration of subordinate settlements, the development of the urbanized structure and, accordingly, the specialization of the economy.

For example, in the Moscow region, the eastern and northeastern sectors are characterized by strong urbanization and predominantly industrial development. Southwestern and Western are predominantly agricultural. In Lesch's model, the serviced settlements are unevenly distributed in the space around the central places, and in sectors, the more urbanized sectors alternate with the less urbanized ones.

When one of the central places in the neighboring regions is so leading in its development that it becomes the center of an agglomeration, in the neighboring regions the network of settlements and the CM experiences center shift effect. They seem to be attracted to the growing agglomeration (and become “closer” due to the development of transport routes in this direction), the subsequent growth of these cities also turns out to be oriented towards this agglomeration.

Territorial limits for the growth of cities and agglomerations

With an area larger than 500 km2, it is impossible to provide reasonable costs for labor travel using public transport. The Metropolitan raises this threshold to 800 km2. The area suitable for urban development - 70.6 million / km 2 (square with a side of 5300 km), suitable for life for climatic reasons - 146 million km 2 (square with a side of 8400 km), already built up by cities - 28, 1 million km 2 (a square with a side of 2000 km).

Therefore, urbanization takes place not so much in the form of growth, but in the form of city multiplication, connecting cities with agglomerations in more complex systems - supporting frame of settlement (OKR), metropolitan areas and urbanized stripes. ROC is formed at the moment when independently growing agglomerations come into contact, and their centers are connected by polyhighways so firmly that emplosion effect, that is, the “rapprochement” of interacting centers due to the reduction of the travel time between them.

As a result, the process of urbanization changes direction in all agglomerations that are part of the ROC - the growth of each in breadth is replaced by the predominant growth of agglomerations towards each other, along the highways connecting the centers. Backbone effect - accelerated development of mainline territories in the ROC while lagging behind the development of the rest).

Consecutive stages of ROC formation:

I.Center (“point concentration”) - an increase in the number and size of large cities.

II.Agglomeration : a large city becomes the core of an agglomeration and forms a galaxy of satellites around itself.

III.Regionalization + implosion : economic convergence of interacting centers based on the improvement of transport. “Larger cities benefit more from improvements in communications over time. As a result, the connection between them is carried out faster, and they seem to be approaching each other ”(P. Haggett. Geography: synthesis modern knowledge. M.: publishing house Mir, 1979).

Then comes the turn of regionalization - ? sustainable “division of labor” between agglomerations united in ROCs.

The opportunity to save on transportation between ROC centers (due to the emplosion effect) brings them even closer and forces them to expand towards each other (the effect of center shift is measured by the formula of O.D. Kudryavtsev K = l f / vSN , l f - the sum of the actual distances between the nodes in the ROC, S - total area of ​​agglomeration, N - the number of cities in its composition).

If the nodes of the ROC are so concentrated that the effect of the displacement of centers causes direct contact and connection of neighboring megacities, a megalopolis is formed if backbone effect- there is a continuous urbanized band (a chain of cities) between neighboring nodes of the OKD.

immediate cause environmental issues cities - the fact that “at any moment the diversity” of ways of applying labor and places of leisure outweighs the planning and environmental shortcomings of cities in the minds of citizens” (O.N. Yanitsky). They delegate this risk to the next generations, while anticipating this risk in advance is the task of the previous generation. It should be carried out at the design and planning stage).

One of the most important and global processes modern world - urbanization, those. the growth of cities and the increase in the proportion of the urban population, as well as the emergence of more complex networks and systems of cities. Most countries of the world, including Russia, are characterized by the following features of urbanization:

Rapid urban population growth;

The concentration of population and economy in big cities;

The transition from a compact (point) city to urban agglomerations - territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements.

Urbanization is a historical process of increasing the role of cities and urban lifestyle in the development of society, associated with the spatial concentration of activities in relatively few cities and areas of predominant socio-economic development (urbanized areas). It is caused by deep structural shifts in the economy and the social sphere and is usually associated with the concentration of the population in large cities. There is a binary understanding of the process of urbanization: 1) in the narrow sense - the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the share of the urban population; 2) in a broad sense, this is a historical process of increasing the role of cities and urban lifestyle in the development of society.

Urbanization is a complex, dynamic, multifaceted process and is the object of interdisciplinary research. Urbanization is a deeply spatial process, concentrated and clearly expressed in its projection onto the territory, mapping. In the process of evolution, the areas of the urbanized environment are expanding and their qualitative change is taking place.

Urbanization is a comprehensive process, it covers not only the urban area, but increasingly the countryside, largely determining its transformation - demographic, social, economic and spatial, etc. That is why many rural problems (mobility, change structure of the rural population, depopulation) are closely related to urbanization. Cities and agglomerations have a diverse impact on the surrounding rural area, gradually, as it were, “processing” it, reducing the size of the countryside. As a result, there is a rapid development of the suburbs of large cities - suburbanization (literally, "urbanization of the suburbs"). At the same time, there is an introduction of certain urban conditions and norms of life into rural settlements, i.e., urbanization (rural urbanization, the process of spreading urban forms and living conditions to the countryside). Urbanized territories occupy 0.8% of the land area, but concentrate more than 48% of the world's population, more than 80% of GDP and give more than 80% of emissions into the atmosphere.

Agglomeration - a compact territorial grouping of urban and rural settlements, united in a complex local system by diverse intensive ties - labor, industrial, household, recreational, as well as the joint use of this area and its resources; - a highly urbanized area with a dense network of settlements, as if united by a joint suburban area.

Urban settlements (cities, urban-type settlements) are settlements that have a certain population and perform specific, predominantly non-agricultural functions (industrial, transport, administrative, cultural, commercial). Large urban settlements are almost always multifunctional.

Criteria for classifying settlements as urban settlements in different countries differ considerably. The main criteria for classifying settlements as cities are: the number of inhabitants, historical conditionality, the development of administrative, commercial, financial, cultural, and other functions. (In the Russian Federation, these are settlements with a population of more than 12 thousand people, where at least 85% of the working population is not employed in agriculture). However, due to a number of historical and socio-economic reasons, cities in terms of population can be significantly less than 12 thousand people. For example, the smallest city in Russia in terms of population - Chekalin, Suvorovsky District, Tula Region, has 1.0 thousand inhabitants. At the same time, rural settlements, especially in the conditions of large settlements in the south of the European part of Russia (Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories, Astrakhan, Rostov Regions, the Republic of Adygea) can have more than 15-20 thousand inhabitants.

The share of the urban population in Russia is about 73.5% (2006).

The following characteristic features of the modern city are:

economic - employment of the population outside agriculture;

· ekistic - the concentration of a significant population in a relatively small area (and, consequently, a high population density);

· demographic - formation of specific urban characteristics of population reproduction and its structure;

architectural - the formation of a characteristic urban architectural and planning environment;

social - the formation of a specific urban lifestyle;

legal - cities are, as a rule, administrative centers of various hierarchical levels.

The last indicator is considered the most important, since it indicates a change in the ratio of the urban and rural population in the country or its individual parts. It is by this indicator that the level of development of urbanization in a particular country is usually judged. But extensive urbanization reaches its “ceiling” over time, after which the values ​​of the corresponding indicators may even decrease. In particular, for the share of the urban population, this maximum figure is usually 90%.

Intensive urbanization is manifested in the formation of ever new varieties of urban settlement. So, initially separate cities develop, but the largest of them reach an ever larger population, concentrate an increasingly significant part of the urban population. At the beginning of the XIX century. there was only one city on Earth with a population of more than 1 million inhabitants (a millionaire city). At the beginning of the XX century. there were already 10 such cities. And by the end of the century, there were about 400 millionaire cities on the planet and “cities of overmillionaires” (with a population of more than 10 million inhabitants) appeared. Accordingly, if at the beginning of the XX century. in millionaire cities, there were less than 10% of the urban inhabitants of the Earth, then at the end of the century - more than 20%. In the most backward developing states, at present there are only separate cities, although sometimes quite large ones. They tend to stand out sharply in economic structure and lifestyle from the surrounding countryside.

Derbent in the Republic of Dagestan, which was founded in the 5th century B.C., is the oldest city currently existing on the territory of the Russian Federation. n. e. on the northern border of the then Persian possessions. The most ancient Russian cities that appeared in the 9th century were located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” - these are Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk. In the XI-XII centuries. active construction of cities was carried out in the Volga-Oka interfluve - the north-eastern outskirts of the Russian state of that time, intensively populated by Slavs. Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Moscow and many other cities appeared. But during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, most of the ancient Russian cities were destroyed, and a significant part of them never revived. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state.

New intensive construction of cities began only in the 16th century. - after full release states from the Mongol-Tatar dependence and the accession of the Kazan, Astrakhan, and then the Siberian khanates. There was a settlement by Russians of the "wild field" (the territory of the modern Volga and Central Black Earth regions) and the construction of cities in this territory, primarily for defense purposes. Samara, Volgograd, Voronezh, and others appeared, as well as the first Siberian cities - Tyumen and Tobolsk. Arkhangelsk was founded in the north to develop trade relations with Europe. Throughout the 17th century Siberia was being developed, and new fort cities appeared on this territory - Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, etc. That is, most of the new cities of that time had mainly military functions. After the expansion of the territory of the state and the loss of military significance, only those of them that became trade and craft centers of the surrounding territories remained as cities.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. (during the reforms of Peter I) new cities appeared in the North-West (St. Petersburg, Petrozavodsk), as well as in the Urals, where the intensive development of metallurgy began (Yekaterinburg). During the reign of Catherine II, an administrative reform was carried out in the country, as a result of which small towns appeared - county centers, which were supposed to be relatively evenly distributed throughout the country. In the 19th century new cities were founded in the south of Russia - in the regions annexed to the country (Vladikavkaz, Vladivostok). At the very end of the century, during the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Novosibirsk arose - the youngest of the modern millionaire cities in Russia, today the largest city in the Asian part of the country.

Intensive formation of new urban settlements was observed on the territory of Russia in the 20th century. A large-scale administrative reform was carried out after the revolutions of 1917. At the same time, many cities that did not have industry were transformed into rural settlements. But at the same time, large industrial villages and factory settlements (Izhevsk, Orekhovo-Zuevo, etc.) became cities, and urban-type settlements appeared. In the 1930s, new cities appeared near large industrial new buildings of the first five-year plans (Magnitogorsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, etc.). In connection with the evacuation of industrial production to the east during the Great Patriotic War many new urban settlements arose in the Urals and Western Siberia (Severouralsk, Novoaltaisk, etc.).

In the second half of the XX century. new urban settlements on the territory of Russia arose mainly in three cases:

1) urban settlements in the areas of development natural resources mainly in the north and east of Russia: Nizhnevartovsk, Mirny, etc.;

2) urban settlements as part of agglomerations mainly in Central Russia: Protvino in the Moscow region, etc.;

3) overgrown and transformed village-district centers are, as a rule, small urban settlements throughout the country.

City-forming functions can be divided into two groups - central and special. The central functions are to provide a variety of services to the population and economy of the adjacent territories. Urban settlements - central places form a fairly strict hierarchy within the country. At the top of this hierarchy is the capital Moscow, serving the entire territory of the country. The next level is formed by cities - the largest centers of economic regions (Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, etc.). Maintenance of territories of subjects Russian Federation carried out by regional Centers (Pskov, Orel, Astrakhan, etc.). Within each region, one can usually distinguish the level of inter-district centers serving several lower administrative districts (for example, Orsk and Buzuluk in the Orenburg region). The next level is formed by settlements - regional centers (for example, Vyborg, Priozersk and others in Leningrad region). The lowest level of the hierarchy is formed by settlements - intra-district centers that serve part of the administrative region (Aprelevka and Vereya in the Naro-Fominsk district of the Moscow region).

Special functions, often on a national scale, are performed by industry centers. Russia has the largest number of urban settlements - industrial centers (Magnitogorsk, Novokuznetsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, etc.). The most prominent representatives of transport centers are large seaports (Novorossiysk, Nakhodka). Relatively rare in our country are scientific centers (Obninsk in the Kaluga region, Dubna in the Moscow region, etc.), tourist centers (Suzdal in the Vladimir region) and resort centers (Sochi in Krasnodar Territory, Pyatigorsk in the Stavropol Territory, etc.).

Among urban-type settlements there are also several special functional types. Firstly, these are construction centers associated with the construction of large industrial facilities, as a rule, nuclear and hydraulic power plants (Shilovo in the Ryazan region, Chistye Bory in the Kostroma region, etc.). Secondly, these are suburban (dacha) settlements that have exclusively residential functions (Firsanovka, Semkhoz, Rodniki in the Moscow Region, etc.). Thirdly, these are urban-type settlements that have already lost any urban functions, since all large non-agricultural enterprises in them have been closed, and they have no labor relations with other urban settlements. Such settlements are quite common in the northern and eastern regions of the country near mined-out mineral deposits or logging operations closed due to the exhaustion of logging resources, but for some time (sometimes for decades) they still continued to be listed as urban settlements. And some of them completely lost their population. The combination of various functions in one settlement leads, as a rule, to its rapid development. Because big cities are multifunctional. Conversely, small towns and urban settlements tend to be monofunctional.

In terms of size, urban settlements are divided as follows: the smallest (up to 10 thousand inhabitants); small (from 10 to 50 thousand inhabitants); medium (from 50 to 100 thousand inhabitants); large (from 100 to 500 thousand inhabitants); the largest (from 500 thousand to 1 million inhabitants); millionaire cities (over 1 million inhabitants).

The most important and interesting cities are millionaires, of which there are only 13, about 25% of the entire urban population of the country is concentrated in them. In addition, more than 1 million inhabitants are urban agglomerations - Voronezh, Saratov, Krasnoyarsk. Since there are no strict statistical criteria for identifying agglomerations in Russia, it is impossible to give an exact number of their population.

The vast majority of urban agglomerations in Russia are monocentric, i.e. around one big city relatively small suburban settlements are grouped. Polycentric agglomerations, when a common suburban area is formed around several approximately equal cities, are almost never found. Thus, among 16 agglomerations with a population of more than 1 million people, only Samara can be considered polycentric with a high degree of conditionality, where the second largest city of Togliatti is inferior to the main center of Samara by less than 2 times.

Most of the cities - and agglomerations with millionaires in the Urals and in the Volga region (four each), together these two areas concentrate half of the cities - and agglomerations of millionaires in the country. At the same time, there are no such cities and agglomerations in the least populated Northern and Far Eastern regions. The population of Murmansk, the largest city in the northern region, does not even reach 350,000 people.

The group of the largest cities in Russia includes: Krasnoyarsk (911 thousand inhabitants), Saratov and Voronezh (from 800 thousand to 900 thousand), Togliatti (720 thousand), Izhevsk, Krasnodar, Yaroslavl, Ulyanovsk, Barnaul (from 600 thousand to 900 thousand). up to 700 thousand), Irkutsk, Novokuznetsk, Astrakhan, Penza, Ryazan, Orenburg, Lipetsk, Naberezhnye Chelny, Tyumen, Khabarovsk and Vladivostok (from 500 thousand to 600 thousand inhabitants).

Only 3 out of 33 millionaire cities and largest cities in Russia are not regional centers. This indicates a strong influence of high-ranking Central Functions on the growth and development of cities in the country.

This is also manifested in the fact that in the vast majority of subjects of the Russian Federation, the largest cities are regional centers. Of the 89 constituent entities of the Federation, only Kemerovo and Vologda region, where the largest cities are the industrial centers of Novokuznetsk and Cherepovets, as well as autonomous regions- Khanty-Mansiysk and Yamalo-Nenets, where the largest oil production centers are Surgut and Noyabrsk.

A specific group of urban settlements in Russia is "closed" cities and urban-type settlements (closed administrative-territorial entities - ZATO). They are associated, as a rule, with the production of nuclear weapons, military bases and weapons testing grounds. A distinctive feature of such settlements is that in the Soviet period they were not recorded in open statistics and were not plotted on geographical maps. Even their very existence was secret. The name of such settlements was formed from the name of the nearest large city and the number: Arzamas-16, Krasnoyarsk-45, etc. In the 90s, "closed" urban settlements received their own names, publications appeared about them in the press, open statistical information. The largest of the ZATOs is the city of Seversk in the Tomsk Region (more than 100,000 inhabitants). In total, about 1.2 million inhabitants of Russia live in such settlements.

The Kazakh traditional society knew various forms of trade and commercial transactions. Cattle breeders, firstly, sold their livestock and raw materials to “alypsatars” (buyers), secondly, they bought goods on usurious credit, and thirdly, they constantly practiced barter of factory products for livestock and raw materials. The main feature of trade during this period in the Kazakh

aul was its pronounced non-equivalent character. Trade was a free form of expropriation of small proprietors.

By the beginning of the 20th century, there were 3 forms of trade in Kazakhstan, which basically corresponded to three types of economy, i.e. nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary. These were: traveling-exchange, fair-periodic (fairs - periodically organized in a specified place auctions, markets) and stationary. An important feature of traveling-exchange

trade was usurious (a usurer is a person who uses the sums of money accumulated by him to provide them in the form of loans at a certain percentage) in nature - the goods were distributed on credit. Barter trade was widely developed. The main trade points of Kazakhstan with Russia were Orenburg, Troitsk, Petropavlovsk, Omsk, Semipalatinsk and Uralsk. In trade

with Russia, imports prevailed over exports. The common equivalent was a three-year-old ram. Barter trade also developed between the Kazakhs of individual clans. The objects of exchange were cattle, salt, wood products, etc.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the acceleration of the formation of the Kazakh trading bourgeoisie. These were small merchants, brokers, alypsatars; saudagers were independent merchants, they were engaged in various trading operations: usurious capital,

opening of buying points, etc. Kazakh merchant capital was subordinate to Russian and Central Asian merchants. Some Kazakh merchants expanded their trade

operations. So, the turnover of the Verny merchant Kaldybaev was at least 80 thousand rubles. However, the Kazakh bourgeoisie grew slowly, being associated with cattle breeding and acting as an intermediary between Russian capital and the local market. AT Russian Empire fair trade played an important role. The most famous all-imperial fairs were Nizhny Novgorod with a turnover of 200 million rubles a year and Irbitskaya - 20-30 million rubles a year.

In Kazakhstan, the first fair opened in 1832 at the Khan's headquarters,

that in the Bukey Horde, but it began to play a big role in the life of the region after the reforms of the 60s. The fair network was especially developed in the Akmola region - there were three large fairs - Tayichinskaya, Akmola, Atbasarskaya, there were 50 in total - small and medium. In one Kokchetav district in 1900, 33 autumn and winter fairs were held with a total turnover of 3.2 million rubles. Since 1848, the famous Koyandinskaya (Botovskaya) fair has been operating in the Semipalatinsk region. Merchants from the most remote territories of Central Asia, China, East Turkestan came here. In 1870, the turnover of the fair was 525 thousand, and in 1899

exceeded 1 million 700 thousand rubles. Since the beginning of the 20th century, turnover has increased to 4 million rubles; 62% of the cattle sold at this fair were imported from Semirechie, 7% from China. According to the testimony of the merchants, 200,000 poods of manufactory, 50,000 poods of sugar, and so on were annually sold at the fair. The largest trade centers included Charskaya in the Semipalatinsk region, Karkaralinskaya in Semirechye, Atbasar fair in Central Kazakhstan. The turnover of each of them exceeded millions of rubles annually. Fairs contributed to the development of commodity-money relations, created an incentive to increase the marketability of livestock and contributed to the growth of the Kazakh trading bourgeoisie, which specialized in the resale of livestock and raw materials.

From the very beginning, trade in Kazakhstan was combined with usury.

Trade in the steppe often acted in the form of distribution of goods on credit. In case of non-payment on time, the amount increased. By decree of May 24, 1893, the local population was not prosecuted for usurious activities, and Russian merchants acted through figureheads-Kazakhs.

In the second half of the 19th century, urban public banks opened in large cities: in Petropavlovsk (1871), Omsk (1875), Uralsk (1876), Semipalatinsk (1887) and other cities. The turnover of the Semipalatinsk Bank in 1887 was 10.3, and in 1895 - 22.3 million rubles, which

testifies to the rapid growth of the commercial bourgeoisie, the main clients of the bank. Joint-stock banks appear. The Siberian Trade Bank opened its branches in Kazakhstan. Loan operations covered many regions of Kazakhstan. All this strengthened economic ties with Central Asia, Siberia, Central Russia.

The development of capitalist industry in Kazakhstan, the railway network accelerated the growth of cities and their population. The population of regional and county cities grew rapidly, becoming not only administrative and commercial, but also industrial and cultural centers. The population of Pavlodar since 1889 has increased 1.5 times over 10 years and reached 7620 people.

The development of the city was largely facilitated by the fact that it served as a transit point for trade on the Irtysh. In 1900, 31 thousand people lived in Semipalatinsk. In the north of Kazakhstan, Petropavlovsk grew rapidly, in which in 1900 22 thousand people lived, 66 different enterprises for processing raw materials with a capital of more than 1 million rubles operated. The population of Kustanay, founded in 1879, increased 2.5 times over 18 years and reached 14.3 thousand people.

Akmolinsk became the center of lively trade. In the west of Kazakhstan, Uralsk was a commercial and industrial city. In 1900, 39 thousand people lived in it. The growth of the city was facilitated by the holding of the Ural-Pokrovskaya railway. Flour-grinding was developed in Aralsk, there were 93 small enterprises. Up to 10 thousand people lived in the county town of Guryev in the late 90s. The main part of the population was engaged in fishing and trade with the Kazakh nomadic population. The annual turnover of the autumn Guryev fair averaged 160 thousand rubles. Cities in South Kazakhstan began to grow rapidly. In Chimkent, according to the 1897 census, there were 11,194 inhabitants. There was a santorini plant in the city, the products of which were exported to Russia and even abroad, as well as a cotton gin. In the center of the Semirechensk region, the city of Verny (modern Almaty), in 1900, already 37 thousand people lived. The population of other cities of Kazakhstan also grew. So, by the end of the 19th century, up to 10 thousand people lived in Ust-Kamenogorsk. Aktobe was founded in 1869, and by 1900 its population was 4,311. Zaisan arose in 1868, and by the end of the 19th century it had about 4 thousand inhabitants.

The Kazakh population grew noticeably in the cities. The stratification of the aul forced part of the ruined population to go to work in the city.

At the same time, large Kazakh bais, merchants, dealers also lived in the cities of Kazakhstan. In cities such as Irgiz, Kazakhs made up a third of the population, in Karkaralinsk - more than half.

Most of the population of the cities were artisans, industrial workers and petty employees.

Many of them were also engaged in agriculture. The growing needs of the urban population for household items, as well as clothing and footwear, contributed to the development of handicrafts. Urban

craftsmen-tailors, furriers, shoemakers, weavers, carpenters, coopers, tanners - produced all this, as well as agricultural implements. In 1920, there were 12 thousand artisans in the cities of the Akmola region. Thus, a characteristic feature of economic development

Kazakhstan in the XVIII - early XX centuries was the formation of commodity-money relations. The increased role of commodity production contributed to the formation of the Kazakh bourgeoisie. The capitalist relations that were introduced here had an ever greater influence on the development of the region's economy,

which led to the beginning of the breakdown of the Kazakh corporate society.

The progressive development of the industrial industry in Kazakhstan manifested itself in the form of colonial economic expansion of Russian and foreign capital.

The growth of cities removes man more and more from nature. The inhabitants of medieval cities were closer to natural nature, despite the fact that these cities were a solid mass of stone and, due to the density of buildings, there was no place for gardens and parks in them. But they were small, and fields, meadows, forests began immediately behind the fortress walls.[ ...]

The growth of cities, the rapid development of industry and transport, chemicalization and melioration of agriculture cause intense pollution. environment.[ ...]

The growth of cities is stimulated by the development and concentration of industrial production. In the USSR, the multiplicity of industrial production in 1975 in relation to previous periods was 131 by 1913, 17 by 1940, and 2.15 by 1965.[ ...]

With the growth of cities and the development of production, the technogenic transformation of the environment has acquired a global character, being currently one of the reasons for the reduction and extinction of many species of animals, including birds. The diversity of technogenic impact on natural ecosystems leads to the formation of many specific forms of technogenic biocenoses (Motorina, 1979), which have not only a negative, but also a positive impact on the avifauna. With a significant reduction in natural wetland habitats, anthropogenic water bodies (settlement tanks, bioponds, irrigation and filtration fields, sludge collectors, cooling ponds, fire-fighting ponds, ash dumps, etc.) have a special positive effect on birds, which often act as the most important habitats for birds. (Mishchenko and Sukhanova, 1991; Spiridonov, 2002). It should be noted that technogenic reservoirs are an integral and important part of any city, many industrial enterprises, with the increase of which the number of these peculiar biotopes will grow. So, in Mordovia in 1997 there were 46 units of treatment facilities, and in 1999 already 56.[ ...]

With the growth of cities, less employment of the population in production, easy accessibility of auto and air vehicles, the areas and importance in human life of recreational landscapes used by humans for recreation are increasing.[ ...]

With the growth of cities, the average travel distance and transport mobility of the population increase, the volume of freight traffic increases sharply, therefore, the number of vehicles and traffic flows significantly increase.[ ...]

With the growth of cities and the creation of new ones, the need for urban areas is constantly increasing, approximately every five years the size of residential land in cities increases by an average of 20%.[ ...]

With the growth of cities in the era of capitalism, garbage began to be first buried in the courtyard, then periodically taken out of the cesspools. By the beginning of the 19th century, special brick cesspools were built in large cities to collect garbage and sewage. Wastewater and, accordingly, the problem of their removal and purification did not exist at all. In 1810, sanitary engineering was enriched by the invention of the water closet. Initially, it was used on a very limited scale, but then it began to be increasingly used in the most comfortable houses of European capitals. In the middle of the 19th century, a decree was issued in London on the mandatory installation of water closets in all houses (Dunbar, 1910). At the same time, it was assumed that the effluents from them would drain into underground cellars, the contents of which would continue to be periodically cleaned and taken to landfills. No one imagined what actually happened. After putting this into effect, the cesspool ordinances quickly filled with faecal water, which began to flow out of them, spreading a disgusting stench around them. I had to urgently lay pipes through which fecal effluents flowed into the Thames. From that moment on, the problem of pollution of water bodies with sewage was born.[ ...]

As the city and its population grow in urban ecosystems, the number of waste-eating species increases: necrophages, coprophages, saprophages.[ ...]

Along with the growth of the world population, urbanization was the dominant trend in the development of mankind in the 20th century. In the 50s, the population of cities was 600 million people, in the late 80s - more than 2 billion people (43-45% of the world's population). Mass urbanization is a phenomenon of the 20th century: before 1900, only about 14% of the population lived in cities. At the same time, three demographic processes play a significant role: migration from rural areas to the city, natural growth of the urban population and the transformation of rural areas into cities. If these demographic trends continue, the number of city dwellers will double in 20-30 years. At the same time, to a large extent, the growth of cities (Fig. 2.1) is typical for third world countries (three out of five cities with a population of about 15 million people are located in developing countries).[ ...]

In the 19th century, due to the growth of cities and the pollution of rivers from the discharge of sewage into them, irrigation fields began to be arranged again in the industrial centers of Europe.[ ...]

Rapid urbanization and the growth of cities over the past 50 years have changed the face of the Earth more than any other human activity in history. Cities are characterized by a high population density (up to 20-30 people per 1 km compared to rural areas - 0.5-1). Even in developing countries, cities are growing much faster than the total population. The land area occupied by cities varies according to various estimates from 1 to 5%, this relatively small value, affecting its vast environments at the input and output, changes the nature waterways, forests, fields, oceans, atmosphere. Moreover, the influence can be both direct and indirect. The heat, dust and other air pollutants generated as a result of the functioning of cities significantly change the climate of cities in comparison with the climate of the surrounding area. In the city, as a rule, it is warmer, there is increased cloudiness, less sunlight than in the surrounding countryside. The construction of cities is a leading factor in soil erosion.[ ...]

Rapid urbanization and the growth of cities in the past half century have changed the face of the Earth, perhaps more than any other human activity in history. Two maps (Figure 2.22) show the extent of urbanization and urban influence in the United States. On map A (p. 92), areas with a population density of 50 or more people per square mile are shaded at different frequencies. Rice. 2.22, B is a photographic map composed of negatives received at night from a satellite; dark areas are cities, suburbs and densely populated rural areas lit by electric light. In essence, this map shows the density of energy distribution (electricity use). Areas of urban energy density now stretch from Boston to Washington, from Pittsburgh to Cleveland and Detroit, along the western and southern shores of Lake Michigan, east coast Florida and sections of the California coast.[ ...]

Thus, the rapid growth of cities and the rapid development of the construction industry further alienated man from nature. This process has gained such powerful momentum that it is unlikely to be stopped.[ ...]

With modern urban growth rates, the ratio of solving these problems is basically about 1:100:1000, and the first task is solved for 5 or more years in advance, the third - daily.[ ...]

In the conditions of constant growth of cities and industrial centers, when a person is surrounded by glass, reinforced concrete and synthetic materials for many hours, the role of living plants in the interior is especially important. Plants create the illusion of contact with nature; beauty of forms, a pleasant smell and a calm green color have a beneficial effect on the central nervous system helping to cope with a bad mood or a stressful condition. But the most important are the sanitary and hygienic functions of plants. It has been proven that plants absorb dust, purify indoor air from carbon dioxide, where it is almost 20 times more than in the open air, promote humidification and ionization of air, reducing its temperature, but what is especially valuable - they suppress and destroy many harmful microorganisms due to the release of special volatile substances - phytoncides.[ ...]

The development of production, the growth of cities and the human impact on the natural environment require increased attention to the protection of atmospheric air. The objectives of the legislation of the Russian Federation are to regulate public relations in this area in order to keep clean and improve the condition of the atmospheric air, prevent and reduce harmful chemical, physical, biological and other effects on the atmosphere that cause adverse consequences for the population, flora and fauna, as well as strengthen legality in the field of atmospheric air protection.[ ...]

The book states that the growth of the city is accompanied by the development and concentration of industrial production, which are combined with the continuous development and introduction of new substances, preparations, materials and products from them into all areas of the economy and everyday life of the population. Along with this, freight and passenger traffic is significantly increasing. All this leads to the fact that a large amount of chemicals harmful to human health is emitted into the atmosphere of cities, and the soil and water of open reservoirs are polluted. The influence of air, water and soil pollution on the living conditions and health of people is shown. A system of measures is given to protect the air basin of the city, to protect water bodies from pollution by urban runoff, and soil from clogging with waste. The issues of combating urban noise and measures to protect the residential area from intense noise impacts are also considered. The instrumental and calculation methods of sanitary research in the field of sanitary protection of the environment of a modern city are indicated.[ ...]

The development of industry, the growth of cities and towns, the creation of new industrial and agricultural regions lead to a significant expansion of water consumption in our country. Of increasing practical importance are open sources of water supply, the water quality of which does not always meet the standards of the state standard. In this regard, most water pipelines are equipped with treatment facilities that improve the quality of natural waters.[ ...]

The albedo values ​​of some building materials are of some interest for the ecology of the city: sandstone - 18%, gray granite - 35-40, slate - 8, gravel - 13, asphalt - 10-20%, etc. This concept plays an important role when considering the series environmental problems (global warming, desertification), since catastrophic deforestation, an increase in the area of ​​anthropogenic deserts, the growth of cities and industrial zones lead to a change in the albedo of the earth's surface.[ ...]

The problem of wastewater treatment has been around for a long time. The growth of cities, the concentration and growth of the number of industrial enterprises forced many European countries as early as in the 18th-19th centuries, to adopt some special laws and rules for the protection of waters, sometimes very strict. For example, in Russia, it was required that fish live in the outlet ponds of sewage treatment plants of textile factories. In the absence of accurate and sensitive methods chemical analysis such a natural biological indicator of water purity was quite reliable. In the Fraction, an industrial enterprise has the right to take water from the river only downstream from the place of discharge of its own effluents, which, of course, forces companies to take care of their high-quality treatment.[ ...]

The Soviet Union also has large associations of cities and industrial centers, such as Donbass, Dnepropetrovsk-Dneprodzerzhinsk, the Moscow agglomeration; in recent times the rapid growth of cities and industry is characteristic of the Middle Volga region from Saratov to Kazan.[ ...]

In the era of feudalism and the period of development of capitalism, with the growth of cities and industry, due to the increased consumption of water and the lack of sewerage, the sanitary condition of cities deteriorated sharply. This caused epidemics in the cities.[ ...]

The development of industrial production led to the rapid growth of cities and the urban population. There was a need to arrange recreation places, i.e. parks, city gardens, squares and other green areas.[ ...]

AT modern conditions rapid development industry, urban growth and development of new areas, the impact on the environment is increasing. OIO, in particular, manifests itself in a sharp increase in harmful emissions entering the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources. The atmosphere is one of the main environmental systems; its cleanliness is a necessary condition for maintaining the health of people. The Soviet state is constantly concerned about preventing air pollution. This is reflected in the Constitution of the USSR, in the Law of the USSR on the Protection of Atmospheric Air.[ ...]

The amount of household waste is constantly increasing due to the growth of cities. For example, Polish specialists conducted two-year studies (1965-1966) to determine the accumulation of garbage in different cities, depending on the size of the city. The results obtained are presented in table. 10. For comparison, data are given for the cities of Germany.[ ...]

The proportion of forests of the first group with the development of industry, the growth of cities gradually increases, and the third - decreases. Part of the forests was transferred to the use of collective farms and state farms. They make up approximately 4% of the total area of ​​the forest fund.[ ...]

After the Great October socialist revolution along with the growth of cities, more rapid construction of sewers began. At present, the throughput capacity of wastewater treatment plants in Moscow exceeds 4 million m3/day and continues to increase.[ ...]

After the Great October Socialist Revolution, along with the growth of cities, more rapid construction of sewers began. If in 1917 there were 18 cities with sewerage systems with a total length of networks of about 1500 km and a sewage flow of 150 thousand m3 / day, then in 1963 there were already more than 1000 cities and workers' settlements with sewage systems with a network length of about 20,000 km and daily throughput of sewage about 15 million m3; the amount of industrial wastewater discharged amounted to about 20 million m3! Day.[ ...]

One of the most important global problems is urbanization, or the rapid growth of cities and urban populations. This process belongs to the category of major global changes. In 1996 urban population world was 2.64 billion people, or 46% of the total population. Against the backdrop of a general increase in the world population, the urban population for 1990-1995. increased at a rate of 2.5% per year, while agriculture - only 0.8%. Every day, about 150 thousand people are added to the urban population of the developing countries of the world.[ ...]

In the second half of the 19th century, the rapid development of industry, together with the growth of cities, led to severe pollution of rivers with sewage. This caused great damage to both water supply and fisheries. In addition, trawling organized on a massive scale has led to a sharp decrease in the catch of fish in the seas. Since that time, the study of the vital activity of small plants and animals, spending their entire lives in water, begins.[ ...]

Influence of human economic activity on the karst process. The growth of the city and the development of territories previously considered unsuitable for urban planning are inevitably accompanied by a serious human impact on the geological environment. This leads to a significant change in the relief, the destruction of surface microforms, the soil cover, the disturbance of the clay-loamy cover of the overburden, to a change in the physical and mechanical properties of soils and the hydrogeological situation. Ultimately, all this often causes the activation of dangerous geological processes, and especially karst and suffusion [Abdrakhmanov, Martin, 1993; Karst..., 2002].[ ...]

The scientific and technological revolution, high rates of development of production and the growth of cities determine the increasing scale of human impact on the natural environment. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR, in the interests of present and future generations, the necessary measures are being taken in our country to preserve the purity of the air and improve the environment. The Soviet state is implementing a set of scientific, technical, economic, social and other measures aimed at preventing and eliminating air pollution.[ ...]

Environmental pollution is increasing due to the increase in the volume of household waste, the growth of cities as the most powerful sources of pollution, and the intensification of agricultural production. Pollution provokes an increase in morbidity, triggering the mechanism natural selection leading to a change (deterioration) of the gene pool. The fight against pollution, in turn, is associated with a significant increase in unproductive costs.[ ...]

The vast majority of citizens prefer to relax, spend their holidays outside the city, in the bosom of nature - in a more natural ecological environment. But staying in it is short, there are fewer and fewer truly clean places, and the desire to combine pastoral with comfort makes such a vacation more and more expensive. In addition, in popular recreation areas, the permissible recreational load is rapidly growing and they easily turn into an extension of the city. In developed countries in the last third of the XX century. Along with the slowdown in urbanization, there is a process of territorial deconcentration of the population: not only the movement from megacities to suburban areas, but the growth of cities in peripheral areas.[ ...]

The chemical composition of natural waters is also influenced by human activities. The rapid growth of cities, industrial facilities, the construction of canals, reservoirs, etc. violate the natural hydrochemical regime and change the composition of natural waters.[ ...]

characteristic features modern stage social development are the rapid growth of cities and the increase in the number of people living in them. In urban settlements, a special environment for human life is being formed - an urban (urbanized) environment.[ ...]

One of the main processes characterizing urbanization is the emergence and growth of cities, the increase in the number of urban residents mainly due to the migration of the population from rural areas.[ ...]

The modern rapid development of industry, agriculture, transport, as well as the growth of cities, are accompanied by huge discharges of polluted waters. In the absence of appropriate measures to reduce pollutants in wastewater, their dilution in natural water bodies becomes insufficient. Large concentrations of harmful impurities prevent self-purification of water, and its pollution progresses rapidly.[ ...]

Nevertheless, ever-increasing population, the development of the factory industry and the growth of cities make it necessary to bring nutritious products from less populated to more populated countries. On the other hand, the further development of the one-sided productivity of domestic animals entails the impossibility of crossing the known boundaries of equilibrium, the consequence of which are diseases that pose an enormous danger to both animals and humans.[ ...]

Since then, the garbage has been deposited in various storage facilities in the countryside. As a result of the growth of cities, free areas in their vicinity decreased, and the unsanitary state of landfill masses became dangerous. Free-standing landfills have been replaced with waste storage pits. About 90% of waste in the US is still buried.[ ...]

In urban conditions, the car is a source of warming the surrounding air. If 100,000 cars move simultaneously in a city, this is equal to the effect produced by 1 million liters of hot water. Exhaust gases from vehicles containing warm water vapor contribute to climate change in the city. Higher steam temperatures increase heat transfer by the moving medium (thermal convection), resulting in more precipitation over the city. The influence of the city on the amount of precipitation is especially clearly seen in their regular increase, which occurs in parallel with the growth of the city. For a ten-year observation period in Moscow, for example, 668 mm of precipitation fell per year, in its vicinity - 572 mm, in Chicago - 841 and 500 mm, respectively.[ ...]

Improving the forms and improving the quality of medical care is a very significant aspect of urban growth. Of particular note is the proximity of outpatient care to the place of residence of a person and the high qualification of specialized pre-medical and medical intervention. Large medical complexes of cities provide unlimited possibilities for laboratory diagnostics and application modern methods treatment. In the conditions of the city, the activities of sanitary and epidemiological institutions are being improved, ensuring constant monitoring of the implementation of sanitary norms and rules.[ ...]

Water resources. The development of industry, the transfer of agriculture to an industrial basis, the growth of cities contribute to constant water consumption. Every day, humanity consumes up to 7 billion tons of water, which corresponds in weight to total minerals mined per year. The main consumers of water are the chemical, petrochemical, pulp and paper industries, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, energy, melioration. In 1985, 282 km3 of water was used in our country for various needs, including more than 80 km3 for industry. The classification of water according to its intended purpose is shown in fig. 4.5.[ ...]

The combined sewerage system is a combination of common and separate systems. This is explained by the fact that with the growth of the city, household and industrial waters from new districts of the city / rida are discharged into the general alloy system, and storm water is sent through an independent drainage network to the nearest reservoirs. With such a system, part of the districts of the city has a general alloy system, and the other part (new districts) has a separate one.[ ...]

During the period of feudalism, drainage facilities were practically not built. Sewage was either collected in special containers - cesspools, or poured into the streets. It is known that the cities of Europe "drowned in the mud." Industrial development and urban growth in Europe in the 19th century. led to the extensive construction of drainage channels. In Paris, their length was: in 1806 - 23.5 km, in 1858 - 170 km. FROM early XIX in. in England, measures are being taken to improve the sanitary improvement of cities.[ ...]

Experts believe that the upcoming changes in society will manifest themselves primarily in the following: spending on military purposes will decrease; there will be shifts in the structure of employment: the trend of urban growth and an increase in the share of the urban population will be reversed; with the deepening of the process of transition to an environmentally oriented economy, the principle of sustainable development will gradually overshadow economic growth as a focus of economic policy; the criteria for evaluating progress will change; there will be a transformation of personal priorities and values; intensify the international cooperation. These are General characteristics the future of a sustainable society, which are given by the employees of the Worldwatch Institute.[ ...]

After the Great October Socialist Revolution, extensive construction of municipal and industrial water pipelines began in the country. The water supply of cities and industrial centers developed especially intensively after 1928 in connection with the rapid development of large-scale industry, accompanied by the growth of cities and workers' settlements. Large filter stations were built in Moscow, Leningrad, Rostov-on-Don, Sverdlovsk, Novosibirsk, Gorky, Kyiv and many other cities.[ ...]

turning point in the development of the territory of the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia, construction began at the end of the 19th century. railroad. The road, which accelerated the agricultural development of Siberia, as well as the formation of settlements along it, mostly later transformed into cities, passed through the forest-steppe zone. The table, which shows the growth of the urban population in the cities of Western Siberia in the 19th - early 20th centuries, shows the growth trend of cities located along the railway.[ ...]

Purposeful use of territories, their rational distribution for various economic functions in accordance with natural features have always been the essence of urban planning, the subject of management and optimization of the territorial organization of production, resettlement and recreation areas. As cities grow and negative changes in the state of the environment, the content that was invested in the concept of "rational use of territories" changes. According to the traditional view, it meant, first of all, a fairly intense functional load on urban areas in order to save land resources. However, this or that territory can not withstand anthropogenic pressures to the same extent and not equally experience these loads. In this regard, the environmental aspect, when considering the problem of rational use of the territory, is of great importance.