The universal meaning of any scientific method lies in the fact that it does not give an indication of the causes or other results of the study, but focuses on the search for causes or other data sought. Based on the philosophical categories of chance and necessity, quantity and quality, the relationship and development of phenomena, etc., as well as on mathematical theory statistics, legal statistics develops its own specific methods designed to study the quantitative side of crime, delinquency, civil torts and related social phenomena and processes. The specific content of these methods is significantly influenced by the general theory of law and its various branches, the theory of criminology, forensic medicine and other non-legal sciences. The theoretical provisions of the mentioned disciplines are also determined by special techniques based on statistical methods.

The specific methods by which legal statistics studies its subject include:

• 1) mass statistical observation;
• 2) summary and grouping of data obtained during observation, according to qualitatively defined features;
• 3) statistical quantitative analysis of summarized and ungrouped indicators;
• 4) comprehensive qualitative analysis of statistical materials.

The listed methods, forming an organically unified process of statistical research, are sometimes referred to as its stages or stages, since each subsequent method, as a rule, can be applied using the indicators of the previous one. Therefore, any statistical-legal, statistical-delictological or statistical-criminological survey will be considered complete and completed only when it is composed of the above main stages (stages, methods).

1. Method of mass statistical observation in relation to legal statistics means that only by studying a large number of crimes, offenses, torts, the subjects of these actions, etc., it is possible to establish objective patterns in crime, delinquency, in their causality, in the law enforcement activities of courts, prosecutors, police and others law enforcement. The study of single phenomena or in small quantities due to random deviations does not allow us to identify real patterns. During mass observation, random fluctuations are mutually canceled out and consequences due to common causes remain.

It has long been noted that crimes or other legally significant phenomena, taken on a large scale, reveal the same regularity in their number and classification as natural phenomena. Therefore, for a truly scientific foundation of statistical facts, it is necessary to take not individual facts, even very important ones, but the entire set of facts related to the issue under consideration, otherwise suspicion may arise about their biased selection.

To obtain objective results, statistical observation must cover either the entire (in statistics - general) set of phenomena studied, or such part of it that would be sufficiently representative (representative) and would allow us to say that the results identified on the basis of incomplete data have such then an error. The scientific basis in this case is the law big numbers, which allows you to calculate the possible error with an incomplete study of the facts.

• 2. Summary and grouping observation data on qualitatively determined features - the next specific method (stage) of legal statistics. The data obtained by statistical observation are of a general nature. In order to penetrate into the essence of the observed phenomena, they must be brought together and ungrouped according to the characteristics we need, so that each group represents a certain qualitative homogeneity. For example, the totality of the studied crimes is grouped according to the objects of encroachment (against the individual, the economy, the state, etc.), according to the content of motivation (mercenary, violent, etc.) or according to the subjects of crimes (gender, age, social status, previous conviction). Summary and grouping of data allows you to see the structure of the studied phenomena, their similarities and differences. This method allows you to see the unity of quantitative and qualitative in a given set.
• 3. Statistical quantitative analysis of rolled up and ungrouped indicators allows you to deepen the study, establish and measure the patterns and interdependence of mass legal, criminological and sociological phenomena. The results of a statistical study at this stage are expressed as percentages, coefficients, indices and other general indicators that do not include private, individual or random deviations. They reveal the main trends, typical features, correlations, characteristics.

If the number of recorded crimes in different countries ah in 1960 to take as 100% and correlate the data of 1990 with these indicators, then the main pattern in the development of crime will be revealed: over the 30th anniversary, registered crime in the United States increased by 7.2 times, in England and Wales - by 6.1 , in France - more than 5 times, in the USSR - 3.7 times, in Germany - 2.8 times, and in Japan - 1.5 times. In real life, the “curve” of the dynamics of crime was not strictly linear: crime in different countries in certain years grew, decreased, remained at the level of the previous year, grew again and decreased. But no matter how it fluctuated, the main trend - the growth of crime, overtaking the growth of population - clearly made its way through a lot of accidents.

Having calculated another general indicator - the number of crimes per 100 thousand of the population (the crime rate), - we will find a different hierarchy of countries in terms of the level of crime: in England and Wales in 1990, 8996 crimes per 100 thousand inhabitants were committed, in Germany - 7108, in France - 6206, in the USA (only 8 species monitored on a federal scale) - 5820, in Japan - 1794, in the USSR - 1115. Comparing two series of statistical values ​​and analyzing them in conjunction with socio-economic, legal and political development, very important conclusions can be reached, which could not even be approached on the basis of abstract logical reasoning.

Other methods of quantitative statistical analysis are characterized by similar possibilities.

4. Comprehensive qualitative analysis of legal quantitative phenomena It is used at all stages of statistical research: both in observation, and in grouping, and in quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis is fundamental. Departing from it, the researcher falls into the thrall of mechanistic ideas and scholastic calculations. Let us turn to the example of a qualitative assessment of the activities of law enforcement agencies in recent years.

In difficult 1991-1992. in Russia there was a huge "shaft" of crime. In the first months of 1992, the growth rate of crime was 45%. It was unprecedented. The Russian authorities demanded a decisive fight against crime. The increase in crime in 1992 decreased and amounted to 27.3%. In 1993 it was already 1.6%. In 1994 crime not only did not increase, but even decreased by 6%. After some growth in 1995, crime in 1996 again began to decline from month to month as if on command: in January - by 0.8%, in February - by 1.8%, in March - by 3.1%, then - by 3.2; 4.1; 4.6; 4.8%, etc. Based on quantitative analysis, one could speak of serious successes of law enforcement agencies.

The fight against crime has really revived, but in the context of the deepening socio-economic crisis, the impoverishment of the people, rising unemployment, half-year delays in paying wages, the war in Chechnya, and the weakness of law enforcement agencies, the growth rate of crime would decrease by more than 50 times, this objectively could not be . Appeal to the practice of registering crimes, the actual activities of law enforcement agencies, latent (hidden) crime and other aspects of qualitative analysis showed that the quantitative reduction in recorded crimes is largely "paper" in nature. Law enforcement agencies, unable to curb crime, responded to the harsh demands of the authorities in the traditional way: they significantly expanded the “managed” registration of crimes.

Registered crime in 1998 increased by 7.7%, and in 1999 - by 16.3%. In 2000-2001 the level of crime was kept approximately at the level of 1999, and in 2002 the registered crime suddenly fell sharply by 15%, serious and especially serious - by 24%, causing large (significant) damage - also by 24%, fraud - by 12, 5%, illegal arms trafficking - by 14.7%, threats of murder - by 15.1%, theft - by 27%, etc. At the same time, intentional harm to health (+5%), robberies (+ 5%), robberies (+12.4%), car thefts (+43.2%), deliberate arson (+44.1%). And the last thing: the detection of all crimes with such a significant decrease in the load for some reason decreased by 26%, serious and especially serious - by 33%, and the number of identified persons - by 23.5%. It is known that structural relations are very inertial. Therefore, such serious changes can only be artificial. And they, most likely, were associated with the introduction of the new Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation in mid-2002, which significantly complicated the fight against crime. In the first half of 2003, these trends continued, but due to some positive changes in the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, their values ​​were much smaller. Thus, with the growth of actual crime, the reduction was selective: the registered crimes that are more difficult to hide increased, and those that were easier to manipulate decreased. These methods are old and well known. True, if earlier such positive developments were pure fraud of law enforcement agencies, now “the most democratic Code of Criminal Procedure in the world” has come to their aid. Against this background, impunity, as one of the serious causes of crime, has increased significantly. This impunity will have a negative impact on crime in the coming years.

A scientific approach to statistical data, the ability to analyze them on the basis of theory and combine them with a deep qualitative analysis of the facts being studied is a fundamental method that can extract an objective answer to the questions posed from quantitative indicators.

The use of a comprehensive qualitative analysis in specific statistical-legal and statistical-criminological studies involves a deep understanding of the essence of the analyzed processes based on the theoretical provisions of civil and criminal law, criminology, etc., and the subsequent deepening of the theory of these sciences or the improvement of legal practice based on the obtained results.

The basis of any statistical study is a qualitative analysis of the phenomena under study in order to establish trends and patterns of their development under specific conditions of place and time.

When conducting specific statistical, legal and other legal statistical studies, the specific methods considered are organically included in the methodology of those sciences and their sociological sections that legal statistics serves, being modified with the specific tasks of each legal science.

• See: V. V. Luneev, Crime Control: Are Indicators Reliable? //State and law. 1995. No. 7. S. 89-102.
• See: Luneev V.V. Trends in modern crime and the fight against it in Russia // State and Law. 2004. No. 1. S. 5-20.

Legal statistics is a social, socio-economic science.

The subject of legal statistics is mass legal and social phenomena.

The theoretical basis of statistics is the law of large numbers. Research stages:

Observation;

Summary and processing;

Statistics is a diversified science.

Tasks of legal statistics on present stage economic development. Guidelines

Statistics arose from practical needs public life. The word "statistics" comes from Latin word status (status)

state or position. From this word, the Italian word "stalo" (stato) was formed, which meant the state or a controlled area, as well as knowledge about the state of affairs in them.

The first attempts to establish certain patterns of social life on the basis of statistical data were made in the 18th century. in England by John Graunt and William Petty. V. Petty (1626-1697) in his works substantiated the application of the numerical method to the study of social phenomena. He called his research "political arithmetic". This was the original form of statistics.

At present, statistics is considered as an independent science that studies the quantitative aspect of mass socio-economic phenomena inextricably linked with their qualitative side.

Statistics studies the quantitative side of phenomena with the help of statistical indicators. Statistical indicators characterize the levels, sizes, volumes of mass phenomena under certain conditions. You can, for example, talk about the number of murders, theft, hooliganism, all kinds of crimes; about the growth rates of these indicators, that is, about their change in time - during the year, quarter, month.

The peculiarity of statistics is that in all cases its data refer to the population. So, statistics, for example, are not interested in a crime committed by a specific criminal, but are interested in the number of crimes by a group of people, by reasons, by social class, by gender, age, etc., as well as by the number of offenses by region, the country as a whole.

The study of mass phenomena is based on a certain general principle - the law of large numbers. The essence of the law of large numbers is that general pattern mass phenomena is manifested under the influence of various causes only in a large set of cases, with mutual cancellation of deviations from the regularity that are formed under the influence of random causes that occur in individual single phenomena that make up a multitude. The manifestation of the operation of the law of large numbers can be seen in many areas of the phenomena of social life studied by statistics. The average number of offenses per inhabitant, average age offenders, etc. - all these are statistical characteristics that express patterns common to a given mass phenomenon. Thus, the law of large numbers contributes to the disclosure of the patterns of mass phenomena as an objective necessity for their development.

Statistics as a diversified science consists of a general theory of statistics, mathematical statistics, economic statistics (statistics of the national economy) and sectoral statistics.

The general theory of statistics, as a methodological science, develops a system of statistical indicators for measuring and analyzing the studied socio-economic phenomena and has a network of statistical methods for conducting research.

The general theory of statistics integrates each branch of statistics with the help of research methods. Such methods include, in particular, the method of statistical groupings, tabular and graphical methods, methods for calculating average and relative values, indicators of variation, indicators of dynamics, index and correlation methods of research.

Any completed statistical work in general and in the judicial authorities in particular consists of three main stages:

1) statistical observation;

2) summaries and groupings of the collected material;

3) analysis of statistical indicators.

These three stages of statistical work are inextricably linked with each other and require the preparation of a preliminary plan for the entire statistical study, covering its most important sections.

Statistical observation - the first stage of statistical research - is a mass digital registration of certain individual phenomena according to certain signs of interest to us. The task of the first stage is to collect complete, objectively reliable information. Suppose we need to find out the volume of crimes committed over a certain period and its changes, establish their causes and outline specific measures to prevent them. Before answering the questions posed, it is necessary, obviously, to have at your disposal specific statistical material, covering with its indicators the quantitative side of such a phenomenon as crime. In order to obtain this material, we will first of all have to carry out a statistical observation, i.e. registration for a certain period of time of each case of a crime that has reached the relevant state body (police, prosecutor's office, investigation or court), characterizing this crime with predetermined signs (for example, an article of the criminal code), the place and time of the crime, the conditions conducive to its commission, measure of criminal punishment, etc.

Such work will be carried out by selecting all the necessary indicators from the relevant registration cards. Of course, such cards, which are, as it were, raw material, still need to be processed and generalized, combining them into masses or aggregates, where, as is known, patterns are manifested, where appropriate interdependencies can be identified and measured.

The tasks of the second stage of statistical research are the grouping of statistical observation data into qualitatively homogeneous aggregates and summarizing (summary) both individual groups and the entire mass of observed facts.

Let's ungroup all the registered crimes into more homogeneous aggregates according to essential features (suppose by chapters and articles of the Criminal Code) and calculate these particular aggregates and their total. In practice, grouping and summary are carried out in the form of reporting, which is a calculation and breakdown into certain categories of relevant primary documents, i.e. cards, for criminal and civil cases, for the defendant, etc. The absolute figures obtained after such a calculation will already give some idea of ​​the total volume of crime or civil disputes and their structure. But this is still not enough.

The third stage of any completed statistical study provides an answer to the question of the change in crime over a certain period of time. To do this, obviously, it is necessary to compare data on the number of crimes committed over the years, to establish which types of crimes have increased, which have decreased, in which cities, territories, regions and republics crime is most common, what is the relationship between crime and other phenomena, for example, with alcoholism , etc. All this requires appropriate processing of summary statistical indicators, for example, bringing the proportion of certain types of crimes to their total; determining the degree of change in crime in relation to the previous period; calculating crime rates, i.e. the ratio of the number of crimes per 100 thousand population by cities, territories, regions and republics to compare crime in the territorial aspect; establishing the percentage of persons who committed a crime in a state of intoxication, etc. Let's say that the indicators characterizing that 96% of hooliganism, 85% of murders and 67% of rapes are committed while intoxicated, specifically show a direct link between crime and alcoholism, which is the main condition contributing to the commission of crimes. Such processing and analysis of statistical data makes it possible to see the interrelations and patterns in the studied social processes, which is the most important task of the third stage.

Statistical data on the development of the national economy and individual branches are essential material for state management of the national economy.

The conditions of the new economic reform require the improvement of statistical work, especially in terms of reflecting the effectiveness of strengthening social order, widespread introduction of machine technology, etc.

As mentioned, statistics, covering all aspects of economic, political, cultural and legal life, is divided into a number of branches.

One of these branches is legal statistics, which reflects with its indicators how the social and state system, state and private property are protected, how the rights and interests of individual citizens, institutions, enterprises, public organizations guaranteed by the Constitution are protected. The main purpose of legal statistics is to record violations of the law, considered by the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the prosecutor's office, the court and public organizations, as well as measures to combat these violations.

The role of legal statistics in improving the activities of these bodies is very serious, since it, along with other sources, makes it possible to establish how judicial, investigative and corrective labor institutions work, how they administer justice. Knowing the number of crimes committed, taking into account the criminals themselves, having information about the violation of family, labor, housing and other laws, the prevalence of crimes in various sectors of the national economy, the amount of damage from these crimes, taking into account the results of the fight against criminal and other violations, the justice authorities ( in a broad sense) get the opportunity to most effectively carry out the tasks assigned to them in strengthening the rule of law.

What phenomena are studied by legal statistics, i.e. what should be considered its subject? Legal statistics takes into account the work of all state bodies that carry out criminal law and civil law protection of the social and state system, state and private property, personality, rights and interests of citizens, enterprises and organizations. Consequently, legal statistics takes into account the work of the prosecutor's office, police, courts, correctional labor institutions, arbitration, notaries, etc. Hence, its subject will be the quantitative side of those phenomena that fall within the scope of the activities of these bodies. This is the quantitative side of crime and measures to combat it, criminals and punishments, as well as civil law disputes that have become the subject of proceedings in court, a notary or arbitration.

Consequently, legal statistics aims to take into account all violations of the law considered by the relevant state bodies, and measures to prevent these violations. In accordance with this, legal statistics, using its own specific methods, should quantitatively reflect the measures taken by state bodies to protect against any encroachment on the public and political system, on the economic system and state and private property, on political, labor, housing and other personal property rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation, on the rights and interests protected by law public institutions, enterprises, public organizations.

When studying legal statistics, we must proceed, firstly, from the different nature of the legal violations that it is called upon to take into account, and secondly, from the different nature of the institutions that practically deal with legal statistics. Based on this division, legal statistics is divided into two independent branches:

1) criminal law statistics, which have as their direct object the quantitative side of crime and measures to prevent it;

2) civil law statistics, the direct object of which is the quantitative side of civil law relations considered by the court, arbitration and notaries.

Thus, legal statistics reflects with its indicators all stages of criminal and civil processes.

Each branch of legal statistics - criminal law and civil law - is divided into several sections in accordance with the main stages of criminal and civil processes.

On this basis, criminal law statistics, reflecting the process of combating crime with its indicators, is divided into the following components:

a) preliminary investigation statistics, taking into account the activities of state bodies that investigate crimes and identify those responsible for their commission;

b) statistics of criminal proceedings, reflecting the work of the courts of the first, second (cassation) and supervisory instances in criminal cases;

c) statistics on the execution of sentences, reflecting the work of correctional labor institutions.

An independent subspecies of criminal statistics is the statistics of prosecutorial supervision. All this plays a serious role in improving the work of these bodies, as well as in the study and prevention of crime.

A few words should be said about the current and promising direction in the study and prevention of crime - victimology, which literally means "the doctrine of the victim" (from the Latin. lpsita - victim). Victimology is designed to explore in various aspects the victim of a crime, or, more precisely, people who have suffered from criminal encroachments. Such studies require the organization of a special section of criminal statistics. As can be seen from the consideration of many criminal cases, from the generalization of judicial practice, human behavior is sometimes not only criminal, but also victimized, i.e. risky, loose, provocative, frivolous, and, therefore, dangerous for oneself. The ultimate goal of victimology is the development of certain measures to avoid situations in which the personality or behavior of the victim may be the reason for committing crimes. Here you can not do without statistics. The main task of victimization statistics is to give a quantitative description of the identity of the victims and their behavior in the following approximate areas:

1) the crime committed, the identity of the accused and the harm caused to him;

2) demographic, socio-psychological, legal and other features that characterize the identity of the victim;

3) the role of the victim in a conflict situation (his interaction with the accused, his condition and behavior at the time of the crime, the question of the "guilt" of the victim - moral, criminal law, etc.).

Consequently, criminal law statistics should include not only indicators characterizing crime, measures to combat it and the personality of the offender, but also victimization and its prevention. This will quantitatively reflect the identity of the victim, his behavior, as well as measures aimed at preventing a victim situation, i.e. such when the personality or behavior of the victim may be the reason for the commission of crimes.

The second branch of legal statistics is civil law statistics. Its main goal is to take into account civil law relations that are subject to the resolution of the court and arbitration.

The area of ​​civil law statistics includes accounting for such civil legal relations that, not being related to an offense and not being the subject of a civil dispute, are certified in an administrative, notarial or indisputable court proceeding (for example, certification of wills by a notary, issuance of a certificate of inheritance , certification by the court of work experience, etc.).

Civil law statistics is divided into two sections:

1) civil justice statistics covering the work of civil courts;

2) statistics on the execution of court decisions, covering the activities of bailiffs in the enforcement of court decisions in civil cases.

Management of legal statistics is carried out by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Federal Security Service, the Ministry of Justice, the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, which include special departments of statistics. These departments develop indicators for statistical reporting, taking into account the main tasks and relevant changes in legislation, and issue instructions for statistical reporting.

Thus, the organization of the statistical apparatus in the courts, the prosecutor's office and the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs ensures the collection, processing and analysis of the statistical material necessary for a comprehensive description of their activities, to identify and eliminate existing shortcomings, and, consequently, to more effectively fulfill the tasks facing these bodies at present.

Along with the materials of surveys, audits and the study of certain categories of criminal and civil cases, the governing bodies also use the materials of legal statistics when summarizing judicial and prosecutorial practice. Statistics make it possible, for example, to determine the main directions in the development of judicial repression and to find out how typical shortcomings are in the application of criminal penalties.

However, it would be completely wrong to be limited only to statistical data. As important as legal statistics are, they should always be supported by in-depth study. For final conclusions, a comprehensive qualitative analysis of the objects and processes under study, a comprehensive knowledge of practice is required. Only under this indispensable condition, the indicators of legal statistics will reveal the qualitative originality of the phenomena under study.

The role of criminal statistics in the study and prevention of crime is exceptionally great. Criminal statistics provide comprehensive, evidence-based information about the state of crime, about its structure and dynamics, about the causes and conditions that contribute to the commission of crimes, about the personality of the offender, about the pros and cons of the activities of the police, prosecutors, courts and correctional labor institutions. All this is necessary to improve the effectiveness of activities aimed at combating crime.

One form of use of legal statistics relates to the field of legislation. Illustrating with their indicators the practice of applying certain laws, characterizing the movement of certain types of violations, statistics confirms the expediency or, conversely, the inexpediency of a particular law in a given period, its effectiveness. Hence, it may be necessary to establish a different procedure for regulating certain civil law relations (for example, family relations), new forms of combating crime.

The last form of use of legal statistics belongs to the field of theoretical research. Legal statistics has a very wide application in research work on the study of crime and other issues of criminology, criminal and civil law and process. Presenting the necessary material characterizing the volume and dynamics of criminal law and civil law phenomena, legal statistics reinforces and illustrates the relevant provisions and conclusions of these sciences. It enriches these sciences with knowledge of specific facts and phenomena, it shows where, how and under what conditions criminal and civil offenses are committed, what is their relationship with other social phenomena. Legal statistics, therefore, is one of the most important sources that supply legal science with factual material for theoretical generalization.

TEST QUESTIONS

/. ("Formulate the definition of the subject studied by legal extras who?

2. What is the theoretical basis of statistics?

3. What are the stages of a statistical study?

4. What are statistical indicators?

5. What are the components of legal statistics?

6. What are the main tasks of legal statistics in modern society?

• · Direct statistical observation - observation, in which the registrars themselves, by direct measurement, weighing, counting, establish the fact to be recorded.
• § Documentary observation -- is based on the use of various types of accounting documents.

It includes a reporting method of observation, in which enterprises submit statistical reports on their activities in a strictly mandatory manner.

• § Poll - is to obtain the necessary information directly from the respondent.
• § There are the following types of survey:
• § Expeditionary - registrars receive the necessary information from the interviewees and record it themselves in the forms.
• § Method of self-registration - the forms are filled in by the respondents themselves, the registrars only distribute the forms and explain the rules for filling them out.
• § Correspondent - information to the relevant authorities is reported by the staff of voluntary correspondents.
• § Questionnaire - the collection of information is carried out in the form of questionnaires, which are special questionnaires, it is convenient in cases where high accuracy of the results is not required.
• § Private - is to provide information to the relevant authorities on a private basis.

Statistical observation data must be accurate, so the following requirements apply:

The accuracy of observation is the degree to which the value of any characteristic or indicator obtained through statistical observation corresponds to its actual value. The smaller the discrepancy between the indicators obtained as a result of statistical observation and their actual value, the higher the degree of accuracy of statistical observation.

The discrepancy between the established statistical observation and the actual values ​​of the studied tasks are called observation errors, which are divided into several types:

• · Registration errors - this is the discrepancy between the statistical value fixed during the observation of its actual value as a result of incorrect, erroneous registration of the answer to the question of the statistical form.
• Random registration errors are errors that occur due to various random reasons (the respondent made a reservation, a typo was made when recording the result, etc.)
• · Systematic registration errors are inaccuracies that arise due to certain factors that are constantly acting throughout the entire statistical observation in one direction. (these errors increase or decrease the values ​​of the indicator, which significantly distorts the results of the observation). Intentional registration errors are errors resulting from the fact that the interviewee deliberately, knowingly reports incorrect data to the registrar. Unintentional registration errors - these are errors that are inadvertent in nature, are made unintentionally (omissions in records, insufficient qualifications of employees)
• · Random representativeness errors are errors that occur when a population of randomly selected observation units does not fully and accurately reproduce the population as a whole.
• · Systematic errors of representativeness are errors that arise due to violation of the principles of impartial, unintentional selection of population units that should be observed

To ensure the necessary reliability of observations, it is necessary to provide for a thorough check of their quality, which involves statistical, logical and arithmetic control.

• 1. Statistical control consists in checking the correctness of the structure and execution of the document, as well as in analyzing the completeness of the material.
• 2. Logical control consists in comparing answers to related questions of a statistical form or other document in order to identify logically incompatible answers.
• 3. Arithmetic control consists in checking the correctness of the arithmetic totals of the indicators contained in the statements.

The most important works of Semenov:

• "Bulletin of the Geographical Society"
• «Geographical and statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire»
• Memoirs

Summary and grouping of statistics

Obtained as a result of statistical information and observation, the data must be brought into a certain order; for this, a statistical summary is used - this is a scientifically organized process of processing observation materials, where:

• Systematization of data
• Grouping
• · Spreadsheets
• Calculation of averages
• ・Counting totals

The summary allows you to analyze and predict certain processes. She happens:

• 1. Simple, when only the total count is made
• 2. Mechanized, using information technology

The summary is carried out according to a certain:

The program when the steps are set:

a) Selection of a grouping characteristic

b) Determining the order in which groups are formed

c) Development of a system of statistical indicators and table layouts to provide summary results

When summarizing, materials are combined into groups using the grouping method.

Statistical grouping is the process of forming homogeneous groups based on the division into parts of certain units.

The grouping method allows the development of primary statistical material and is currently used in the system of national accounts. Grouping allows you to solve the following tasks:

• 1. Identification of socio-economic types of phenomena
• 2. Studying the structure of the phenomenon
• 3. Identification of relationships and dependencies between individual features

To solve these problems, the following types of groupings are used:

• Typological
• Structural
• Combination

Typological grouping is the division of a heterogeneous population into separate qualitatively homogeneous groups, socio-economic classes and the identification of economic types of phenomena on this basis. When constructing a typological grouping, both quantitative and qualitative features can act as grouping features.

Grouping according to a qualitative attribute assumes that the number of selected groups strictly corresponds to the actual number of gradations of this attribute. Consider the conditions of this table 1.

Table 1 Grouping of enterprises by form of ownership

When constructing a typological grouping on a quantitative basis, it is necessary to correctly set the grouping interval, determine the required number of groups. The boundaries of the intervals are set in such a way that within each selected group the population units are homogeneous in qualitative and quantitative terms, while the groups themselves differ significantly from each other.

The number of groups in a typological grouping depends on the number of actually existing socio-economic types.

Structural grouping is the division of a qualitatively homogeneous set of units according to certain, essential features into groups that characterize its composition and structure. Quantitative and qualitative features are also considered.

When grouping according to a qualitative (attributive) attribute, groups differ from each other in the nature of the attribute. The number of groups into which the studied population is divided, as a rule, is determined by the number of gradations of the attribute. This is clearly shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Distribution of the unemployed by sex and education (% of total)

Structural grouping on a quantitative basis also involves determining the number of groups and the width of the interval (for more details, see Table 3)

Table 3 Grouping the elements of the stock market by the value of the quotation of bank debts offered for sale in the bill center

This grouping shows that 60.6% of stock market issuers have a total debt of 24.6%, and 24.2% of issuers - 52.9%, i.e. more than twice as many.

The practical application of structural groupings allows at the local level to reveal the structure of the population, to analyze the phenomena and processes under study, their change over time, and the patterns of change in the composition of the population over time.

An analytical grouping is a grouping that reveals the interrelationships and interdependencies between the studied socio-economic phenomena and the features that characterize them. In statistics, all signs are divided into factorial and effective. Factor signs are signs that influence the change in effective signs. Effective features are features that change under the influence of factor features. The relationship is manifested in the fact that with the increase in the role of the factor trait and under its influence, the effective trait changes more intensively.

A grouping is considered combinational when the population is divided into groups according to two or more grouping characteristics taken in combination with each other. First, groups are formed according to one attribute, then they are divided into subgroups according to another attribute, and so on. Combination groupings allow you to study the units of the population simultaneously on several grounds. These groupings are used, as a rule, in the study of complex socio-economic phenomena and processes. An example of combinational grouping is presented in Table 4.

Group number	Group of issuers by bank debt quotation, million rubles	Subgroups of issuers by weighted average rate	Number of elements
		100-120 120-140
		100-120 120-140
		100-120 120-140
Subgroup total	100-120 120-140

In statistics, more attention is paid to grouping by quantitative characteristics, where the grouping interval is determined. An interval is a quantitative value that separates one group from another. It is determined by dividing the difference Xmax and Xmin by n, where n is the number of groups, X is the largest and smallest value of the feature.

For example, in 2010 the salary of workers ranged from 10 to 25 thousand. Divide into 5 groups.

I 1000 to 13000

II 13000 to 16000

III 16000 to 19000

IV 1900 to 22000

V 22000 to 25000

Table, types, rules.

The table is one of the visualization methods in statistics, i.e. it is the result of a summary, grouping for further analysis of indicators. The construction table should be convenient, compact and small.

The basis (backbone) of a statistical table is a series of intersecting horizontal and vertical lines that form horizontal lines and graphs vertically. An atistic table contains three types of headings: general (reflects the contents of the entire table), upper (characterize the content of the column, subject headings) , lateral (headings of the predicate).

The subject in the statistical table is an object that is characterized by numbers. The predicate of the statistical table forms a system of indicators that characterize the object of study, i.e. subject of the table.

Table building rules

• 1. The table should be compact.
• 2. The title and title of the column, lines should be clear, concise and capitalized.
• 3. Information located in the columns must be completed with a total (“total” or “total”).
• 4. In large tables, it is necessary to leave a gap between the five columns in order to make it easier to count.
• 5. Columns and lines must be numbered. Usually the subject columns denote capital letters alphabet, and the predicate in numbers in ascending order
• 6. It is necessary to arrange information sequentially.
• 7. For convenient work with digital material, the numbers in the columns should be written one under the other, observing the units.
• 8. If the data will have additional information, then a note must be given to the table.
• 9. The table must always be closed.

There are the following types of tables:

1. Simple tables, in the subject of which there is no grouping, but a listing of territorial units, units of time, or some other list is given. Such tables are the most widely used. (example table 1)

Table 1 Provision of the population of the Russian Federation with medical care

2. Group tables in which the object under study is divided in the subject into groups according to one or another attribute. (example table2)

statistics information observation data

Table 2 Correlation between urban and rural population in Russia for 1996-1999,%

3. Combination tables, in the subject of which a grouping of units of the population is given according to two or more features taken in combination. Such tables contain groups formed according to one attribute, and subgroups formed according to another attribute.

Any statistical research begins, firstly, with obtaining initial statistical data, for example, taking into account violations of judgments or other legally significant facts; The statistical summary program includes the following stages: development of a system of indicators characterizing crime or other social and legal phenomenon in general and its individual groups; ...

Share work on social networks

If this work does not suit you, there is a list of similar works at the bottom of the page. You can also use the search button

Three methods of legal statistics:

Mass statistical observation;

Statistical observation is the first stage of a statistical study of any legal or legally significant phenomenon, which is a scientifically organized collection of data on legal and legally significant phenomena and processes by registering established facts in accounting documents for subsequent generalization.

Any statistical research begins, firstly, with obtaining the initial statistical data (for example, taking into account offenses, court decisions or other legally significant facts), and secondly, with the generalization of the established facts into the appropriate totality (the data obtained are reduced for some reason). in various forms of reporting).

Mass statistical observation is such an observation in which all units of the population without exception are subject to registration. Mass observation makes it possible to obtain complete data on the phenomenon under study (for example, a full account of all registered offenses), it is the most reliable and reliable, but due to its high cost, it can be carried out only for a limited number of signs.

The opportunity to reduce labor and financial costs, expand the observation program and study the phenomena and processes under study in more detail is provided by selective observation.

Summary and grouping;

A statistical summary is a scientific processing of statistical observation materials, including the systematization and grouping of primary statistical information, entering them into tables, calculating group and total results, calculating derived indicators to characterize groups and the object as a whole (percentages, coefficients, averages).

Statistical summary allows you to switch from primary materials from statistical cards, accounting logs, etc. to a generalizing characteristic of the totality as a whole (from individual crimes to crime as a social and legal phenomenon, etc.), to analyze and predict the development of the studied phenomena and processes.

The statistical summary program includes the following steps:

Development of a system of indicators characterizing crime or other socio-legal phenomenon in general and its individual groups;

Statistical grouping of received data;

Calculation of group and general results (technics (manually, on a computer) and summary methods);

Development of layouts of summary statistical tables for presenting summary results (for example, statistical reporting forms).

Statistical grouping is the process of dividing a statistical population into qualitatively homogeneous groups or combining individual cases into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to their essential characteristics.

For example, the grouping of crimes by types, categories of severity, methods of commission, the object of encroachment (against the individual, the state, in the economic sphere, etc.), etc. The selection of essential features is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. At the same time, the correct selection of such features is a very important point, since the use of different methods of grouping in the analysis of the same statistical material can lead to completely opposite conclusions. Therefore, in order to identify the patterns of development of legal phenomena and processes, it is necessary to apply such grouping signs that follow from really existing patterns.

Grouping features can be qualitative or quantitative features of the phenomenon under study.

Generalization and analysis

Generalization and analysis of the collected and grouped data based on the use of generalizing statistical indicators: absolute, relative and average values, coefficients, indices, etc. system of measures to combat crime.

Other related works that may interest you.vshm>
11759.		Fundamentals of legal statistics	1.34MB
	At the same time, legal phenomena and processes are considered in the dynamics of development; interrelations that allows to reveal cause-and-effect relations of development; comparison and comparison, which allows you to establish the specifics and typical features of the phenomenon under study. In establishing and quantifying the regularities and interdependence of mass phenomena, statistical science relies on the law of large numbers, the peculiarity of which is that the correctness and regularities of mass phenomena can be clearly detected only when they are massive ...
15025.		Legal nihilism and legal idealism as factors slowing down the development of civil society in Russia, and the tasks of legal culture in overcoming them	465.78KB
	Legal reality dictates the need to discuss miscalculations in state policy in order to further improve the legal consciousness of Russians and determine the socio-psychological reasons for the emergence of the phenomenon of legal nihilism in society. It must be said that the introduction of legal nihilism into the legal consciousness of young Russians casts doubt on the idea of ​​implementing rule of law in Russia.
15259.		Methods used in the analysis of synthetic analogues of papaverine and multicomponent dosage forms based on them 3.1. Chromatographic methods 3.2. Electrochemical methods 3.3. Photometric methods Conclusion List l	233.66KB
	Drotaverine hydrochloride. Drotaverine hydrochloride is a synthetic analogue of papaverine hydrochloride and, in terms of chemical structure, is a derivative of benzylisoquinoline. Drotaverine hydrochloride belongs to the group of drugs with antispasmodic activity, antispasmodic myotropic action and is the main active ingredient of the drug no-shpa. Drotaverine hydrochloride A pharmacopoeial article on drotaverine hydrochloride is presented in the Pharmacopoeia edition.
11765.		Statistics of foreign economic activity	212.78KB
	If earlier foreign economic activity, and hence the import of goods and services, was a monopoly sphere of state activity, today the situation has changed: the Russian Federation has taken the path of liberalization foreign trade by opening free access to participation in it of enterprises, organizations and other economic entities. For the effective management of international economic relations, decision-making in the field of foreign trade, data are needed that comprehensively reflect the development of foreign economic relations both in the country as a whole and ...
4238.		The subject of statistics and its tasks	12.27KB
	Statistics is the science of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of human life, their changes, relationships and methods of analysis. The subject of statistics is any type of human activity that requires numerical accounting, accounting for qualitative indicators, their systematization and analysis, followed by a forecast for the future.
2229.		Subject, method and tasks of statistics	24.01KB
	The main tasks of statistics in a market economy. Organization of state statistics in Russian Federation. The role of statistics was significant at different stages of the development of states, but it increased especially noticeably in the 20th century.
16062.		FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT AND METHOD OF AIC STATISTICS	17.23KB
	The agro-industrial complex (AIC) is a set of sectors of the economy that are closely interconnected in a single technological chain, starting with the production of raw materials, obtaining the finished product and ending with bringing it to the consumer.
11350.		The system of financial statistics indicators and their analysis	179.93KB
	List of questions developed by the student: When performing thesis the author set reasonable tasks involving the study theoretical foundations enterprise finance statistics as well as from the analysis in the system. The concept of the meaning and tasks of analyzing the financial condition of an enterprise ...
15668.		The study of socio-economic health statistics	59.5KB
	Indicators for assessing the health of the population. Strategic directions in the field of public health protection. The Ministry of Health is developing projects to improve the health of the population: the national calendar of preventive vaccinations, the medical examination of the population, the health of the male population, the protection of the health of mothers and children, etc. The state's economy directly depends on the health of the population.
20738.		Elements of mathematical statistics and correlation analysis	1.26MB
	Processing of observational data and testing hypotheses Statistical distribution of the sample Calculation of the summary characteristics of the sample Calculation of interval estimates of general parameters Testing the hypothesis about the normal distribution of the general population using the Pearson test Building a histogram of the sample and the theoretical normal straight line ...

The term "statistics" appeared in the middle of the 18th century. Meaning "government". It became widespread in monasteries. Gradually acquired a collective meaning.

On the one hand, statistics is a set of numerical indicators characterizing social phenomena and processes (labor statistics, transport statistics).

On the other hand, statistics mean Practical activities for the collection, processing, analysis of data in various areas of public life.

On the third hand, statistics are the results of mass accounting published in various collections.

Finally, in the natural sciences, statistics are methods and methods for assessing the compliance of mass observation data with mathematical formulas.

Thus, statistics is a social science that studies the quantitative side of mass social phenomena in close connection with their qualitative side.

Tasks of statistics

(1) Development of a system of hypotheses characterizing the development, dynamics, state of socio-economic phenomena.

(2) Organization of statistical activities.

(3) Development of analysis methodology.

(4) Development of a system of indicators for managing the economy at the macro and micro levels.

(5) To popularize the data of statistical observation.

A statistical set is a set of units of the phenomenon under study, united by a single qualitative basis, a common connection, but differing from each other in individual features. Such, for example, are the totality of households, the totality of families, the totality of enterprises, firms, associations, etc.

A set is called homogeneous if one or more of the studied essential features of its objects are common to all units.

The totality of events different type, is considered heterogeneous. A collection may be homogeneous in one respect and heterogeneous in another. In each individual case, the homogeneity of the population is established by conducting a qualitative analysis, clarifying the content of the studied social phenomenon.

A feature is a qualitative feature of a unit of the population. By the nature of the display of the properties of the units of the studied population, the signs are divided into two main groups:

signs that have a direct quantitative expression, for example, age, work experience, average earnings, etc. They can be discrete and continuous;

signs that do not have a direct quantitative expression. In this case, individual units of the population differ in their content (for example, professions - the nature of work: a teacher, a carpenter, a seamstress-minder, etc.). Such signs are usually called attributive (in philosophy, an “attribute” is an integral property of an object). In the case when there are variants of a feature that are opposite in meaning, they speak of an alternative feature (yes, no). For example, products may be good or defective (not good); for representatives of certain age groups, there is a probability of surviving or not surviving to the next age group; each person may or may not be married, and so on.

Variation - the difference in the values ​​of any attribute in different units of the population for the same period of time. The reason for the occurrence of variation is the different conditions for the existence of different units of the population. Variation is a necessary condition for the existence and development of mass phenomena. The definition of variation is necessary when organizing sample observation, statistical modeling and planning expert surveys. By the degree of variation, one can judge the homogeneity of the population, the stability of the values ​​of the trait, the typicality of the average, the relationship between any traits. Variation indicators: relative and absolute.

Bodies of state statistics of the Russian Federation

In accordance with Art. 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the management of statistics in the country is carried out by the State Statistics Committee as a federal executive body.

The State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, its bodies in the republics, territories, regions, autonomous regions and districts, in the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg, other cities and regions, as well as organizations, institutions and organizations subordinate to them educational establishments constitute a unified system of state statistics of the country.

The forms and methods of collecting and processing statistical data, the methodology for calculating statistical indicators established by the State Statistics Committee are the statistical standards of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the regulation, the main tasks of the State Statistics Committee of Russia are:

1) provision of official statistical information to the President, government, federal assembly of the Russian Federation, federal executive authorities, and the public;

2) development of evidence-based statistical methodology that meets international standards;

3) coordination of statistical activities in the state;

4) development of economic and statistical information, its analysis, compilation of national accounts, carrying out the necessary balance calculations;

The main functions of the State Statistics Committee of Russia are that it:

1) organizes the conduct of state statistical observations according to the programs, forms and methods developed by him or agreed with him;

2) ensures the functioning of the Unified State Register of Enterprises and Organizations (Unified State Register of Enterprises and Organizations);

3) ensures the collection, processing, storage and protection of statistical information, compliance with state and commercial secrets, the necessary confidentiality of data (confidential - secret, confidential);

4) compares the main socio-economic indicators of Russia with similar indicators of other countries, together with the Central Bank draws up the country's balance of payments;

5) pursues a unified technical policy in the field of collection, processing and transmission of statistical information, in the development and formation of federal programs on issues assigned to the State Statistics Committee.

The Scientific Research Institute of Statistics of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation plays an important role. The Scientific and Methodological Council of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, which brings together leading workers in state statistics and representatives of economic and statistical science, also takes part in this work.

The organization of international statistics is carried out by the statistical services of the United Nations (UN), specialized agencies (ILO, FAO, WHO, etc.) and other international organizations - the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the European Community (EU), the International Monetary Fund (IMF). ), the World Bank, etc. The activities of the statistical services of these organizations include the development of international standards that ensure the comparability of statistical indicators of different countries, the implementation of international comparisons, the publication of data on groups of countries, regions and the world as a whole. Foreign national and international statistical publications, as well as domestic ones, can be divided into consolidated, including data on all sections of statistics, and specialized, including data on any one industry, for example, financial, demographic, agricultural and other statistics. Of the consolidated publications, the most important is the UN Statistical Yearbook. The scientific international center in the field of statistics is the International Statistical Institute (ISI).

The activities of the statistical services of the CIS member countries are coordinated by the Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States, established in 1992. Statistical collections are published for the CIS countries and other countries of the near abroad.

Statistics methods:

1. Statistical observation

Quantitative characterization of socio-economic processes in direct connection with their qualitative essence is impossible without deep statistical research. The use of various methods and techniques of statistical methodology presupposes the availability of comprehensive and reliable information about the object under study, which includes the stages of collecting statistical information and its primary processing, information and grouping of observation results into certain aggregates, generalization and analysis of the obtained materials.

If a mistake is made in the collection of statistical data or the material turned out to be of poor quality, this will affect the correctness and reliability of both theoretical and practical conclusions. Therefore, statistical observation from the initial to the final stage must be carefully thought out and clearly organized.

Statistical observation is the first stage of any statistical research, which is a scientifically organized accounting of facts characterizing the phenomena and processes of social life, and the collection of mass data obtained on the basis of this accounting.

The following requirements are imposed on statistical observation:

1) completeness and practical value of statistical data;

2) reliability and accuracy of data;

3) their uniformity and comparability.

Any statistical research must begin with a precise formulation of its purpose and specific tasks, and thus the information that can be obtained in the process of observation. After that, the object and unit of observation are determined, a program is developed, and the type and method of observation are selected.

The object of observation is a set of socio-economic phenomena and processes that are subject to research, or the exact boundaries within which statistical information will be recorded. For example, during a population census, it is necessary to establish which population is to be registered - cash, i.e. actually located in the area at the time of the census, or permanent, i.e. permanently living in the area.

In some cases, one or another qualification is used to delimit the object of observation. Qualification is a restrictive sign that all units of the studied population must satisfy.

A unit of observation is a component of the object of observation, which serves as the basis for counting and has features that are subject to registration during observation.

So, for example, in a population census, the unit of observation is each individual person.

The monitoring program is a list of issues on which information is collected, or a list of signs and indicators to be recorded. The observation program is drawn up in the form of a form (questionnaire, form), in which primary information is entered. A necessary addition to the form is an instruction (or indications on the forms themselves), explaining the meaning of the question. The composition and content of the questions of the observation program depend on the objectives of the study and on the characteristics of the social phenomenon being studied.

Organizational matters statistical observation include the definition of the subject, place, time, form and method of observation.

In statistical practice, two organizational forms of observation are used - reporting and a special statistical survey.

Reporting is such an organizational form in which observation units provide information about their activities in the form of regulated forms.

The peculiarity of reporting is that it is mandatory, documented and legally confirmed by the signature of the head.

An example of the second form of observation - a special statistical survey - is the conduct of population censuses.

Depending on the tasks of statistical research and the nature of the phenomenon under study, facts can be taken into account:
- systematically, constantly covering the facts as they arise - this will be the current observation (reporting);
- regularly, but not constantly, but at certain intervals - this will be periodic observation (population census).

Rice. Forms, types and methods of statistical observation

From the point of view of the completeness of the coverage of facts, statistical observation can be continuous and incomplete. Continuous observation is a complete account of all units of the studied population. Non-continuous observation is organized as accounting for a part of the population units, on the basis of which a generalizing characteristic of the entire population can be obtained. The types of non-continuous observation include: the method of the main array, selective observations, monographic descriptions.

With direct accounting of facts, information is obtained by personal accounting of units of the population: recalculation, weighing, measurement, etc.

The documentary method of collecting statistical information is based on systematic records in primary documents confirming a particular fact.

In a number of cases, to fill in statistical forms, they resort to a survey of the population, which can be carried out by expeditionary, questionnaire or correspondent methods.

There are various ways to form a sample population. This is, firstly, individual selection, including such varieties as actually random, mechanical, stratified, and, secondly, serial, or nested, selection.

2. Summary and grouping of statistical observation data

The material collected in the process of statistical observation needs some processing, bringing together disparate data. Scientifically organized processing of observation materials (according to a previously developed program), which, in addition to the mandatory control of the collected data, includes systematization, grouping of materials, compilation of tables, obtaining results and derived indicators (average, relative values), is called a summary in statistics.

The summary is the second stage of the statistical study. The purpose of the summary is to obtain, on the basis of the summarized materials, generalizing statistical indicators that reflect the essence of socio-economic phenomena and certain statistical patterns.

The statistical summary is carried out according to the program, which should be developed even before the collection of statistical data, almost simultaneously with the preparation of the plan and program of statistical observation. The summary program includes the definition of groups and subgroups; scorecards; types of tables.

Grouping is the division of a population into groups that are homogeneous in some way. From the point of view of individual units of the population, a grouping is the union of individual units of the population into groups that are homogeneous in some way.

A stable delimitation of objects is expressed by a classification that is based on the most essential features (for example, the classification of sectors of the national economy, the classification of fixed assets, etc.). Thus, classification is a legalized, generally accepted, normative grouping.

The grouping method is based on the following categories: grouping attribute, grouping interval, and number of groups.

A grouping attribute is a sign by which individual units of a population are combined into homogeneous groups.

The interval outlines the quantitative boundaries of the groups. As a rule, it represents the interval between the maximum and minimum values ​​of the attribute in the group. The intervals are:

equal, when the difference between the maximum and minimum values ​​in each of the intervals is the same;

unequal, when, for example, the width of the interval gradually increases, and the upper interval often does not close at all;

open, when there is only either an upper or a lower boundary;

closed when there are both lower and upper bounds.

Determining the number of groups. Several conditions must be taken into account here:

a) the number of groups is determined by the level of fluctuation of the grouping trait. The more significant the variation of the trait, the more other things being equal, there should be groups;

b) the number of groups should reflect the actual structure of the studied population;

c) allocation of empty groups is not allowed. If the problem of empty groups does arise, unequal intervals are used when conducting structural groupings.

Grouping types:

There are a number of issues that need to be addressed while grouping:

1) allocation of a grouping feature;

2) determining the number of groups and the size of the intervals;

3) if there are several grouping features, a description of how they are combined with each other;

4) the establishment of indicators that should characterize the groups, i.e. predicate grouping.

Statistical groupings and classifications are aimed at highlighting qualitatively homogeneous populations, studying the structure of the population, and studying existing dependencies. Each of these goals corresponds to a special type of grouping: typological, structural, analytical (factorial).

Typological grouping solves the problem of identifying and characterizing socio-economic types (private subsets).

Structural makes it possible to describe the constituent parts of a set or the structure of types, as well as to analyze structural shifts.

Analytical (factorial) grouping allows you to evaluate the relationship between interacting features.

Depending on the number of features underlying them, simple and multidimensional groupings are distinguished.

A grouping based on one attribute is called a simple grouping.

Multidimensional grouping is carried out according to two or more features. A special case of a multidimensional grouping is a combinational grouping based on two or more features taken in a relationship, in combination.

Structural grouping is used to characterize the structure of the population and the structure of shifts.

Structural grouping is called, in which there is a division of the types of phenomena, homogeneous aggregates, identified with the help of technological grouping, into groups that characterize their structure according to some varying attribute. For example, grouping the population according to the size of the average per capita income. An analysis of structural groupings taken over a number of periods or points in time shows changes in the structure of the studied phenomena, that is, structural shifts. Changes in the structure of social phenomena reflect the most important patterns of their development.

The number of groups is represented either by frequency (the number of units in each group) or frequency (the proportion of each group).

Among simple groupings, distribution series are especially distinguished.

A distribution series is a grouping in which one indicator is used to characterize groups (ordered by the value of the attribute) - the size of the group. In other words, this is a series of numbers showing how the units of a certain population are distributed according to the trait under study.

Rows built on an attribute basis are called attribute distribution rows.

Distribution series built on a quantitative basis are called variation series.

An example of attribute series is the distribution of the population by sex, employment, nationality, profession, etc.

An example of a variational distribution series can be the distribution of the population by age, workers - by length of service, wages, etc.

Variational distribution series consist of two elements of variants and frequencies.

Options are the numerical values ​​of a quantitative trait in a distribution series, they can be positive and negative, absolute and relative.

Frequencies are the numbers of individual variants or each group of the variation series. The sum of all frequencies is called the volume of the population and determines the number of elements of the entire population.

Variation series, depending on the nature of the variation, are divided into discrete and interval.

3.Statistical tables and graphs

Statistical tables are a means of visual expression of research results.

Practice has developed certain requirements for the compilation and design of tables.

1. The table should be as short as possible.

2. Each table must have a detailed title, from which it becomes known:

a) what range of questions the table sets out and illustrates;

b) what are geographical boundaries presented statistical population;

c) for what period of time to which they relate;

d) what are the units of measurement (if they are the same for all tabular cells). If the units of measure are not the same, then in the top or side headings it is necessary to indicate in which units the statistical data are given (tons, pieces, rubles, etc.).

3. The table may be accompanied by notes indicating the sources of data, the content of the indicators is disclosed in more detail, other explanations are given, as well as reservations if the table contains data obtained as a result of calculations.

4. When designing tables, the following symbols are usually used: a dash (-) - when the phenomenon is absent; х – if the phenomenon has no meaningful content; ellipsis (...) - when there is no information about its size (or the entry "No information" is made). If information is available, but the numerical value is less than the accuracy accepted in the table, it is expressed as a fractional number (0.0).

Rounded numbers are given in the table with the same degree of accuracy (up to 0.1; up to 0.01, etc.). If the table shows growth percentages, then in many cases it is advisable to replace percentages of 300 or more with ratios in times. For example, write not “1000%”, but “10.0 times”.

The use of graphs for the presentation of statistical indicators makes it possible to give the latter visibility and expressiveness, facilitate their perception, and in many cases helps to understand the essence of the phenomenon under study, its patterns and features, to see its development trends, the relationship characterizing its indicators.

Statistical graphs can be classified according to different criteria: purpose (content), method of construction and nature of the graphic image.

According to the content or purpose, one can distinguish graphs of comparison in space, graphs of various relative values ​​(structures, dynamics, etc.), graphs of variation series, graphs of placement across the territory, graphs of interrelated indicators. Combinations of these graphs are also possible, for example, a graphical representation of variation in dynamics or dynamics of interrelated indicators, etc.

According to the method of constructing graphics, they can be divided into diagrams, cartograms and cartograms.

According to the nature of the graphic image, there are point, line, planar (bar, hourly, square, circular, sector, curly) and volumetric graphs.