The use of visual teaching aids in history lessons. Psychological and pedagogical substantiation of the use of visualization in history lessons Implementation of the principle of visualization of teaching in history lessons

home » Long 19th century The use of visual teaching aids in history lessons. Psychological and pedagogical substantiation of the use of visualization in history lessons Implementation of the principle of visualization of teaching in history lessons

Consider some of the types of visual aids provided for by the above classification.

Working with chalk and blackboard

Chalk drawing expert B.C. Murzaev was a teacher of history and drawing. In his bibliographical rarity, Blackboard Drawings in the Teaching of History, he wrote: “There are great and unexpected possibilities in this small and modest piece of white chalk, which the teacher holds helplessly in his hand.”

Chalk drawing entered the methodological arsenal of a history teacher, thanks to its intelligibility, speed, and great time savings in the lesson. Unlike ready-made diagrams and maps, a chalk drawing appears before the eyes of students as the presentation progresses. This greatly facilitates the process of perception of the material. Since a chalk drawing or drawing develops before the eyes of students, it contains great opportunities for enhancing attention.

The teacher's drawing on the blackboard usually serves as an example to follow, children make sketches in their notebooks instead of notes. This work teaches to distribute attention, switch it from observation to a graphic image, which contributes to the active memorization of material.

A chalk drawing is effective for showing the dynamics of a historical phenomenon or event - its occurrence, change and development. Chalk drawing allows you to highlight the stages of this development. It is also used when it is necessary to isolate certain elements or details from a complex complex or image. Thus, it helps to reveal the essence of complex historical phenomena, to identify and fix the main idea of the material being presented.

Sketch drawing of B.C. Murzaev proposed to apply in the following cases. Firstly, to recreate the images of the nature of a particular country, the so-called "chalk landscapes". Secondly, make drawings-images that reproduce tools, household items, buildings, structures, weapons, etc. Such drawings should be used in cases where the teacher wants to emphasize details, reveal their structure, show artistic value, highlight the difference in objects and create ideas about their typicality.

Pedagogical drawing is associated with diagrams, because schematicity is inherent in its very essence. Schemes are usually understood as a drawing that reflects the essential features of historical phenomena, their connections and relationships, the arrangement of various material objects, the interaction of their parts, the placement of objects and people on the ground.

P.V. Gora distinguished the following types of schemes:

1. Technical diagrams showing the structure of material objects.
2. Local schemes showing movement on the ground.
3. Schematic plans - a static location of objects on the ground.
4. Logic diagrams to help identify causal relationships.
5. Graphs and diagrams reflecting the quantitative and qualitative correlation of phenomena and processes, the pace and trends of their development.

Maps, local schemes and plans help to present the area and study the natural conditions in order to better understand historical events and phenomena - these are plans for cities and battles. Unlike maps, they convey the spatial relationships of historical phenomena on a much larger scale: hence the possibility of a more detailed study of them. But such drawings should not be cluttered with multiple details so that children remember the essence. Then, when highlighting the most important thing in the drawing, children quickly translate graphic signs into visual images of nature and terrain, into concrete forms of real space and movement.

However, such diagrams-drawings are not enough to graphically demonstrate a particular idea. For example, it is useful to accompany chalk drawings of a cartographic plan with so-called cross-sectional diagrams, demonstrating the differences in the natural conditions of countries. Historical maps are different from geographic ones. Colors familiar to students geographical maps take on a different meaning on historical maps. Green color shows not only lowlands, but also oases, as well as the most ancient areas of agriculture and cattle breeding. Another feature of historical maps is the disclosure of the dynamics of events and processes. It is easy to see the emergence of states and the change in their territories or the path of movement of troops, trade caravans, etc. on it. .

Chalk drawings should also be used in the study of socio-economic and cultural phenomena. The lesson devoted to the emergence of a feudal castle or city usually tells about the different ways of their appearance in medieval Europe and Ukraine (defensive architecture of the 13th - 17th centuries). You can offer another option. Schoolchildren are offered a chalk drawing with different types of terrain, and possible points of appearance of the castle are outlined. Children act as "feudal lords" and each choose their own place for the castle, while explaining the reasons for the choice.

Images of labor tools became classic chalk drawings. Working with chalk drawings is accompanied by questions for conversation:

1. What is the difference in the arrangement of these tools?
2. Which one is technically more advanced and why?
3. What is a plowshare, cutoff, blade?
4. How were they used in the cultivation of the land, and what role did they play in this?

In the course of the conversation, the teacher may note that the roe deer plow turned over the layer, plowed in manure. The layers of the earth are cut by a cut - a knife, which is set to the desired depth. The plowshare cuts the layers of the earth in a horizontal direction, the blade turns over and loosens the layers.

Original chalk diagrams and drawings should be used when studying trade. They combine essential knowledge about trade items, as well as the location of trade items in relation to each other. For example, demonstrating the chalk drawing “Trade Route along the Dnieper” along with the map, the teacher notes the profitability of trade routes through the lands Kievan Rus, along the riverbed of the Dnieper. Similar schemes can be demonstrated when studying other countries - Ancient Greece, Rome, Ancient Egypt.

The use of sectional drawings and chalk plans is also possible in the study of cultural history.

For example, church and secular buildings of the eighteenth century. in the Baroque style helps to satisfy the natural curiosity of children about their external and internal structure, the schematic drawings of the columns show the difference in architectural styles.

Schematic plans allow revealing the functional significance of a particular architectural monument. The combination of the section and plan of an Orthodox church allows the student to get a holistic impression of it.

Thus, chalk diagrams and drawings are an inexhaustible storehouse of creativity for a modern teacher. Drawing on the board, although it is a time-consuming learning tool for the teacher, pays off a hundredfold by the assimilation of the material by the students.

Visual education is such training in which ideas and concepts are formed in students on the basis of direct perception of the phenomena being studied or with the help of their images. Using visualization, the teacher introduces an extremely important point into teaching - living contemplation, which, as you know, is ultimately the initial stage of any cognition. It is built not on abstract ideas and words, but on specific images directly perceived by the student.

Ya.A. Comenius once defined visualization as the most important component of the learning process: “The beginning of cognition necessarily comes from sensations (after all, nothing happens in the mind that was not there before in sensations). Therefore, therefore, learning should not begin with a verbal interpretation in things, but real observation of them. And only after getting acquainted with the thing itself, let it be discussed, clarifying the matter more comprehensively ... ". This statement of his confirms the correctness of introducing visual aids to the first place in the classification. Reflected in a generalized way in visual aids, history reveals the integrity of direct perception.

The word already further concretizes, clarifies, analyzes, generalizes, enhances the emotional attitude for implementation in one form or another of interaction. It must be said that in the process of teaching history, visualization is always described by words, acting in this connection either as the main dominant means with the auxiliary word, or it illustrates verbal constructions, or equally harmoniously participates in the formation of an image, in analysis, in the act of historical action in an event. So, the whole system of means contributes, on the one hand, to the functional development of models of life and behavior of the subjects of history, and on the other hand, it participates in the formation of attitudes towards modern reality.

The use of visual aids not only to create figurative representations among schoolchildren, but also to form concepts, to understand abstract connections and dependencies is one of the most important provisions of didactics. Sensation and concept are different stages of a single process of cognition.

So, with the help of various methods of concretization, the description method, without any visual aids, it is possible to create for students who are unfamiliar with the horrors and hardships of the Second World War, some idea of the mass casualties of the war, the need to strive to ensure that such an event does not happen again, since the elements this idea ("huge losses", "extermination of peoples", "famine", "occupation") students can imagine, but not realize. The fact is that through direct perception of the phenomena of war, the trainees could receive only the elements necessary to create an integral historical image, and the image of the past itself was recreated by them on the basis of the words of the teacher in different ways, in accordance with different abilities of imagination, level of attentiveness and sympathy.

When verbally describing events and phenomena of the past in the history lessons, in the vast majority of cases it is not possible to rely on students' direct observation of the objects of description or narration because this phenomenon is already past, inaccessible to the live, direct perception of students. Therefore, their historical ideas, created by the method of internal clarity, will inevitably be vague, inaccurate, not quite adequate to historical reality.

In the teaching of history, no means of artistic storytelling, no imagery of presentation can create in students such accurate and concrete ideas about the past that arise when perceiving the objects being studied or their images.

Usually, methodologists and teachers treat drawings and photographs, diagrams and tables, maps and timelines as teaching aids and develop techniques for them. effective use to figuratively demonstrate new facts, to summarize and test the knowledge and skills of students. Much less often, illustrations are seen as sources of historical information that are equivalent to printed texts.

But this function at the "genetic" level is embedded in the illustrations related to the pictorial clarity of a documentary nature. These are photographic shots taken directly in the period of time that the textbook talks about; posters, caricatures and paintings, where the time of creation of the picture (in the period close to the event or much later) determines the peculiarities of its perception and analysis. For obvious reasons, this list does not contain only drawings made by contemporary artists commissioned by publishers in the preparation of educational books.

All these images, varied in content and genres, are united by their inherent subjective, authorial character. Therefore, each illustration can (and in modern conditions should) become the object of critical and axiological analysis of students.

Regarding photographs, there is an opinion that the film certainly conveys the whole truth. Nevertheless, the possibilities of editing and retouching can be assessed, for example, by carefully comparing two photographs depicting the signing of the German-Soviet non-aggression pact: the first shows only Molotov and Ribbentrop, the second shows the same, but against the background of a different decoration, and all the official leaders of the USSR, including Stalin, stand behind them. How many “wonderful discoveries” await curious schoolchildren where the authors of posters, cartoons and even historical paintings did not hide their faces, views and demands!

The analysis of illustrations from a critical and axiological angle of view seems to be quite difficult, because in history textbooks they are usually provided only with a brief explanatory text, and questions and tasks, if any, invite children to figuratively describe the illustration or creatively comment on its plot, for organization such work, it is necessary to thoroughly select material from additional sources. Meanwhile, in some foreign history textbooks, special headings have appeared that teach schoolchildren the techniques critical analysis maps and statistics, methods of historical research, as well as methods of working with works of art as evidence of a historical era. All of these skills are essential for living in a multicultural and rapidly changing world.

Thus, visualization plays a big role in teaching history:

When presenting historical events, visibility partially specifies or partially replaces narrative or descriptive material;

Visibility increases the content of the presentation, reducing the time spent;

Visualization allows you to clarify the historical ideas of students;

Visibility creates a vivid and accurate visual image of the historical past;

Visualization facilitates the knowledge of complex phenomena of the past, historical concepts, leading to an objective understanding of history.

2. Techniques for working with educational pictures in history lessons.
3. Techniques for working with illustrations in textbooks in history lessons.
4. Conditional visibility in teaching history.
5. Technical means and their application in teaching history.

Bibliography.

1. Functions and meaning visual learning stories.

Visual learning is such learning, in which ideas and concepts are formed in students on the basis of the direct. perception of the studied phenomena or with the help of their images.
The principle of visibility was also formulated in the 17th century. substantiated by Ya.A. Comenius: “... everything that can only be represented for perception by the senses, namely: visible - for perception by sight, heard - by hearing, smells - by smell, subject to taste - by taste, accessible to touch - by touch. If any objects can be perceived by several senses at once, let them be grasped at once by several senses.
Visual learning in history lessons plays a special role. Students are deprived of the opportunity to directly perceive the events of the past. Historical events are unique. Therefore, various visual aids are an important source of historical knowledge. They provide the perception of historical events through "living contemplation". Visual learning affects not only the sphere of feelings when perceiving the past, but also the sphere of thinking and performs a number of functions.
First of all, with the help of visual teaching aids, students create reliable, visual images of the historical past.
Visual teaching aids concretize historical facts overcome the modernization of the past in the minds of students.
Visualization serves as a support for revealing the essence of historical phenomena, the formation of basic historical concepts and patterns, and ensures their deeper assimilation by students.
Visual teaching aids have an emotional impact on students. Visual education also forms the aesthetic views of schoolchildren, teaches them to "see" the moral content, artistic merit, skill of their creators in works of art, develops the need for constant familiarization with beauty.
Visual teaching develops observation, imagination, memory and speech of students, maintains a constant interest in the historical past.
A variety of visual aids are used in teaching. Based on the work of Soviet methodologists, we single out three groups of visual teaching aids: subject, visual, conditional-graphic.
Object visibility has a special cognitive value, it involves the direct perception of genuine material monuments of the past or its material traces. It includes monumental historical monuments (Egyptian pyramids, the remains of a Roman water supply system, the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, architectural monuments, etc.); memorable places of historical events (Montmartre in Paris, Senate Square in Leningrad, Krasnaya Presnya in Moscow, etc.). Relatively few such monuments have come down to us from the distant past in an unchanged form, but even they cannot be an object of direct perception for the vast majority of students. Material monuments of the past and closer historical time include tools, household items, clothing, jewelry, vehicles, weapons, etc. The degree of their availability for use in the educational process is much higher: they are exhibited in central, local, and even school museums. IN Lately training sessions are often held in the form of excursions to the museum (for example, to the archaeological department of the local museum of local lore on the topic “Our land in antiquity” or to the modernity department on the issue of “Economic and cultural achievements in our region”).
The creation of school historical museums is of great cognitive importance and plays an important role in the education of students.
Graphic visualization involves the use of scientifically based reconstructions of architectural monuments, objects of work and life, artistic compositions. They are embodied in various layouts, models (including existing ones), copies made in full (external) accordance with the original. These are documentary flat visual aids - drawings of contemporaries, documentary photographs, films, etc. Compositional visual means include educational paintings, reproductions, feature films, etc.
Figurative means in the visual teaching of history occupy the main place. Their educational value is enhanced by the fact that schoolchildren of all ages can actively participate in the production of such manuals.
Conditional graphic visualization reflects the essence of historical phenomena, their interconnection, dynamics in the language of conventional signs. These are maps, charts, graphs, diagrams.
It is reflected in the variety of visualization types and their classifications. In the classification according to external features, scientists and methodologists include printed, screen, sound teaching aids. Most often, they refer to the classification according to the content and nature of the historical image, highlighting the visibility of the subject, pictorial, conditional-graphic.

2. Techniques for working with educational pictures in history lessons.

A significant place among visual visualization is occupied by educational paintings - visual aids specially created by artists or illustrators for the topics of the school course. So that educational pictures can be easily perceived from any place in the classroom, thematic collections of pictures are made large enough and performed in bright colors.
Educational pictures are divided into event, typological and cultural-historical. Event pictures give an idea of specific single events. More often than not, they recreate a pivotal moment in the story and require a narrative narrative. These are, for example, paintings by V.A. Tombi "Battle of Salami", M.G. Reuther "Entry of Joan of Arc into Orleans", T.I. Ksenofontov "The Battle of Spartacus with the Roman Detachment".
Typological pictures reproduce repeatedly repeated historical facts, events typical of the era under study. Even in pre-revolutionary times, such paintings were created by V.I. Lebedev; among them - "Polyudye", "In the estate of the prince of the votchinnik", "Veche in Novgorod". Sometimes event pictures can be classified as typological, for example, “The Burning of Giordano Bruno”. Although a single event is considered here, it is typical of the time of the Inquisition of the Catholic Church in the 16th century.
The educational picture "Temple economy in Egypt" is analyzed together with the illustrations of the textbook. The analysis allows us to determine what knowledge the Egyptians acquired in the course of their labor activity (knowledge of arithmetic, geometry, about the nature of the country, the movement of the Sun), and in the future to suggest what scientific knowledge should arise in Western Asia.
Cultural and historical pictures introduce household items, monuments of material culture. They can depict architectural monuments and architectural styles, sculptures of different times with their features, various mechanisms and principles of their work.
In the lesson, the picture is used for various purposes: as an initial source of knowledge or as a visual support in the teacher's story; as an illustration of the presentation of the story or as a means of reinforcing. To reveal a process, several pictures are shown at once, for example, to show changes in the styles of architectural monuments in different periods of history. As a rule, the presentation of the content of a new picture for students is given most of the time in the lesson.
What is the sequence of work on the picture in the lesson? Methodist V.G. Kartsov suggested the following actions:
1) the teacher opens or hangs the picture at the moment when, in the course of the explanation, he comes to the description of what is depicted on it;
2) gives students some time to perceive as a whole the image that has just appeared before them;
3) starting the story, indicates the place and time of the action;
4) giving a general description of the situation, the background on which the action unfolded, stops at the main thing;
5) reveals details and particulars;
6) in conclusion, draws a general conclusion, indicates the essential features of the phenomenon.
A purely art history analysis of the artist's work is also possible. The lessons analyze the paintings of V.I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “The Conquest of Siberia by Yermak”); I.E. Repin (“Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan”, “M.P. Mussorgsky”) according to specially designed memos. One of these memos is offered by N.I. Zaporozhets:
1. Name of the author and time of creation of the work.
2. The content of the work: its plot, who is depicted, what is depicted (foreground, center, background, the environment in which people are depicted - the interior of the room, landscape).
3. Means of expression: volume, proportionality, perspective, color.
4. What feelings and ideas did the artist put into his creation?
Perhaps such a task for students: to tell what historical legends and real events underlie the paintings created by Russian artists of the 19th century.
Paintings by V.I. Surikov "Boyarynya Morozova", "Morning of the Streltsy Execution"; N.I. Ge "Tsar Peter and Tsarevich Alexei"; V.V. Vereshchagin "Don't block it, let me come!"; I.E. Repin "Letter of the Cossacks to the Turkish Sultan".
When analyzing this or that work of the artist, students for educational purposes should be introduced to the biographical data of the author of the picture. Demonstration of portraits of painters is accompanied by a description of historical figures. The description may include the memories of people who knew the person depicted in the portrait, concerning his documents, letters, memoirs, excerpts from fiction.
Methodists I.V. Gittis, V.N. Vernadsky, A.A. Vagin describe various techniques for working on a painting. The teacher shows the picture, and the students name everything that is shown on it; on the instructions of the teacher, they give a description of individual elements and the picture as a whole; they come up with words for the characters and stage individual plots of the picture; they try to imagine what happened before the moment that is depicted in the picture, or later.
Educational pictures can be used to consolidate and generalize students' knowledge. So, students are invited to place in chronological order the paintings "Battle of Kulikovo", "Battle on the Ice", "Speech" Minin in Nizhny Novgorod "or explain the order of the paintings" Here you are, grandmother, and St. George's Day "," Cossacks.
According to the pictures, it is possible to conduct a final repetition, for example, on the topic “Fight against the Mongol-Tatar invaders”. Students are offered pictures: 1. Defense of the city of Vladimir from the Mongol-Tatars. 2. Morning on the Kulikovo field. 3. Ivan III tramples the khan's basma. Questions and tasks for students: 1. What was the strength of the Mongol army? 2. How did the Russians fight? (Picture 1.) Why were they still defeated? 3. What is the idea of the painting? 4. Is it possible to determine who will win from picture 2, showing the army before the battle? 5. What made it possible Ivan III so answer the khan's ambassadors? (Picture 3.) 6. Using these three pictures, show the development of the three main stages of the struggle of the Russian people against the Mongol-Tatar invaders.
To practice skills, you can bring several pictures to the lesson, but no more than two or three. The abundance of illustrative material, especially when used for the first time, will weaken the intensity of children's perception, and numerous images will be confused in their minds and complicate the perception of the new.

3. Techniques for working with illustrations in textbooks in history lessons.
The illustrations in the textbook are a means of visualization, which is always at hand for the student. They organically enter into its content, creating a specific visual image of historical facts. Considering the textbook as a source of knowledge, students need to take into account the information that the illustrations contain. Determining the methods of students' activities with a textbook in the classroom and at home, it is necessary to think over them in relation to illustrations.
The main work with illustrations is carried out in the lesson. In the textbook for middle grades, illustrations are given for each paragraph and it is more convenient to work with them than with educational pictures. According to the drawing in the textbook, it is easier for the student to understand all the details. You can, without getting out of the general rhythm of the class, linger for a few moments on the details that attracted special attention.
The illustrations in the history textbook are varied. These are schematic representations of labor tools, drawings of weapons and household items, and images of architectural monuments, reproductions of works of art, plot and everyday compositions, portraits, caricatures, documentary photographs.
Students should be taught to see in illustrations not an "entertaining picture", but an important, scientifically reliable source of knowledge. Not a single illustration related to the topic of the lesson should be left without attention.
The teacher refers to some in the course of the presentation as visual illustrations of his story, he analyzes others together with students to explain the essence, the main features of the historical phenomenon, and attracts others in order to form in students accurate and clear ideas about the historical fact (image of tools , weapons, etc.). A comparison of several illustrations depicting the same phenomenon in different historical periods allows us to trace their development (for example, a comparison of English residential buildings of the 13th and 16th centuries allows us to see the changes during this period in the life of feudal lords and wealthy citizens).
Some illustrations have only a short caption (“Luther burns the papal letter of excommunication. Engraving of the 16th century”, “The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789”). Others are detailed comments. Detailed captions and assignments for illustrations are contained mainly in textbooks for middle grades and serve as a guide for independent work of students in the classroom and at home.
An important aspect of using textbook illustrations is to create a certain emotional mood. It is necessary to clearly consider which of the illustrations for this paragraph will be considered in the class, and which students will analyze while doing their homework. When explaining homework, it is necessary to give instructions for working with illustrations, to include questions in it, the answers to which can be obtained mainly from illustrations. Examples of such tasks are contained in textbooks.

4. Conditional visibility in teaching history.
Conditionally graphic visualization includes schemes, graphs, diagrams, applications, schematic drawings. They are used to form local ideas, reveal the essence and connection of historical events, their dynamics.
A schematic drawing conveys the most essential features of the subject, contributes to the formation of concepts. In “the very nature of pedagogical drawing,” noted A.A. Vagin, - in its sketchy, constructive nature, there is a tendency towards generalization, a movement from objective visualization to a concept, from an image to an idea.
Chalk drawing on the blackboard is performed in the course of the oral presentation and serves as its visual support. As a rule, this is a very simple, lively, swift drawing that recreates the image of material objects, people, military battles, typical scenes of economic activity. With the help of a schematic representation, the teacher reveals the phenomenon in its logical sequence, determining the pace and at the right time interrupting or resuming the visual series.
To create a realistic image for students, in some cases it is advisable to compare a schematic image with an illustration or photograph. Talking about the monumental monuments of Ancient Egypt, the teacher first shows a photograph of the pyramid, and then draws with chalk a diagram of the section of the pyramid, which shows the outer contour, the inner laying of the slabs, the arrangement of the burial chamber, the passage to it.
Applications can be used in combination with a pattern. Translated from Latin, "application" means "application", "attachment". Applications are cut-outs of paper or cardboard and colored images of objects or representatives of various social groups typical of the era under study: silhouette, in light colors, drawings of people, tools and weapons, animals, buildings; symbols of a broader content than what is directly depicted. So, several papyrus stalks near the water symbolize the deep-sea Nile, the figurine of a warrior - a large army. Such images-symbols help to create clearer ideas about the events and phenomena being studied.
Applications appear on the board and replace each other in the process of presentation, helping to reveal the essential aspects of the facts and the sequence of events. The appearance of each new application focuses the attention of students on a specific action, creates a visual image. They can follow the course of military battles, understand the sequence of agricultural work, the features of manufacturing and industrial production. The effect is enhanced if the teacher attaches applications to a metal board, turning them into virtual dynamic models.
So, talking about the battle on Lake Peipus, the Battle of Kulikovo, Grunwald and Poltava, the teacher on the “battle board” places figures made of plywood and equipped with a magnet, colored rectangles and other conventional signs. In the course of the story about the battle, the teacher moves the signs, showing the dynamics of the battle.
Applications are most often used in teaching junior schoolchildren. They are placed in a certain sequence, it is also possible to combine applications with drawings.
At lessons in high school, schematic images are more often used, when lines, arrows, squares, circles appear on the board during the explanation. These are elements of conditional-graphic visualization.
This includes tables, charts, graphs, logic diagrams. Schemes are a drawing that reflects the essential features, connections and relationships of historical phenomena. They are used for a visual comparison of the studied phenomena, showing the trend of their development, as well as for generalizing and systematizing historical knowledge. Schemes allow you to give a visual representation of generalized ideas that help students learn the essential features of historical concepts. Explaining the material, the teacher consistently writes down the content of the links on the board and indicates the connections between them. Gradual reconstruction of schemes facilitates their understanding. With the help of a diagram, the teacher shows the chain of his reasoning, for example, about the Arab conquests.
Along with logical diagrams, diagrams are used in the lessons. If the diagrams present homogeneous data of simultaneous action, then they are easily compared and analyzed, their sequence is established. Diverse information allows us to trace the dynamics and development trends.
Working with diagrams develops in students the ability to see the development of social phenomena behind the statistical material, to determine the internal connections between them. Diagrams are also used to compare or compare the studied phenomena, processes, limited in time. Diagrams make it possible to succinctly express complex processes. School history textbooks contain diagrams of various types: segment, round, bar, curly; according to the main feature, they are divided into static and dynamic, reflecting the dynamics of homogeneous, data and heterogeneous phenomena.
Experience shows that students are poorly versed in statistics, do not always understand the language of numbers, do not associate digital material with socio-economic processes, and cannot establish a development trend. Often they use numerical data only to illustrate certain points.
In the educational process, one can single out techniques for working with diagrams and graphs, depending on the purpose of the lesson and the type of diagram. Diagrams characterizing the phenomena of economic development contain homogeneous data of simultaneous action. Tasks for students will be aimed at analyzing and grouping data, comparing them, and establishing the consequences of this process.
When using diagrams containing heterogeneous information in the dynamics of development, tasks are aimed at comparing data, tracking dynamics and establishing development trends:

5. Technical means and their application in teaching history.

These include static visual aids: screen (movies or film fragments, educational video cassettes, filmstrips, transparencies, coda positives), visual-sound (audio recordings, CDs, audio or computer). The industrial production of technical means makes it possible to accumulate and store them in video libraries and use them in combination with textbooks and teaching aids.
Filmstrips and transparencies are the most common and accessible means of on-screen visualization for the teacher. In terms of the coverage of historical events, the variety of subjects, the richness of visual material, they surpass the totality of other teaching aids.
The sequence of demonstration of transparencies is determined by the teacher himself. In a filmstrip, the logic of showing frames is sometimes embedded not only in the visual material, but also in the captions for each frame.
Based on the frames of transparencies and filmstrips, the teacher can lead a story, explain, analyze them in a conversation with the class (in these cases, filmstrips are shown with closed subtitles).
Recently, more and more filmstrips have appeared containing questions and tasks and providing students with an opportunity to independently analyze and explain images that are new to them. These primarily include filmstrips for iterative-generalizing lessons.
Increasingly, the practice of the school includes a codoscope. It is designed to project onto a screen or blackboard texts, schematic drawings, drawings, diagrams, etc., printed on a transparent film.
Several banners that gradually recreate a drawing, diagram, diagram, etc. by sequentially superimposing each other, make the image more dynamic, allow you to show the change, the development of historical phenomena. Demonstration with an overhead projector does not require darkening. Therefore, you can simultaneously work with other visual aids, keep notes in notebooks. When working with a codoscope, the teacher faces the class and does not lose contact with the students.
The film and television show have a number of common features in teaching history. They are dynamic. In them, the image and the word are presented in unity. They allow you to convey extensive information in a short time, “bring” documentary material to the lesson that students cannot get acquainted with in the lesson with the help of other sources. Only from a film or television screen directly at the lesson can schoolchildren find themselves in the center of dramatic events of the distant past, hear the live voices (performed by actors) of their witnesses and participants. This is achieved by including fragments from feature films, theatrical productions or specially staged dramatic scenes in educational films, television programs. TV shows are more relevant than movies.
First of all, the teacher is required to know the content of the film and transmission. Without this, he will not be able to organically include them in the system of his work. At a minimum, it is necessary to clearly understand how the film or TV program corresponds to the curriculum, how their content correlates with the material of the textbook, how well, accessible and complete they convey the educational material. The inclusion of a film fragment, a TV insert in a lesson requires an exact “docking” with the previous work in the lesson, involving their content in the subsequent course of the lesson. The teacher needs to clearly understand what function the movie clip or TV insert will perform in the learning process (fully reveal one of the questions of the lesson, illustrate the presentation of the material or supplement it with new information important for mastering the topic, pose a problem, create a problem situation that must be solved by students in during the subsequent study of new material).
Based on the objectives of the lesson, the content of the educational film or TV show, taking into account the information that students will receive from the textbook, as well as their knowledge and skills, tasks are developed that mobilize students to work during the film or TV lesson. First of all, they need to be prepared to receive information from the screen: explain what information they should gather (without disclosing the content), why this particular source of information was chosen in this lesson, what are its advantages, formulate a task that is performed while watching a movie (TV show) ) or in subsequent work.
While watching an educational film or TV show, the teacher draws the attention of schoolchildren to the most important frames with separate remarks, briefly explains unfamiliar terms, fixes place names, names of historical figures, digital data on the board that schoolchildren must remember, observes whether all students are closely following the events on the screen and complete the task. After watching a movie or TV show, the teacher answers the questions of the students, makes the necessary explanations, checks the results of their independent work, gives a task for further work on the content of the viewed educational film (TV show).
After the lesson, the teacher analyzes it for himself in order to fix good moments, think about overcoming shortcomings when conducting a film or television show (usually the same TV show, especially if it does not concern the history of our country and other states in modern times, with relatively minor changes is shown for next year),
Sources of knowledge, strong emotional, moral impact are radio broadcasts, recordings made on gramophone records, on magnetic tape.
Techniques for using audio aids have much in common with using dynamic screen aids. Listening to recordings, magnetic recordings in the classroom is often combined with the display of educational and artistic historical paintings, portraits.
The computer has great potential for imitating historical reality and computer programs, reproducing the most significant features of historical eras, socio-cultural complexes. Forming bright and voluminous ideas about the past, they create the illusion of presence when the student travels with any hero of the program in geographic space and time. Moving along various semantic, associative lines, he follows the development of events, intervening in their course and solving problems. He is given the opportunity to meet with historical figures, get acquainted with the economy, life, customs of the peoples of ancient civilizations.
The computer provides great opportunities for modeling historical processes, as well as for working with a database - a huge amount of information stored in a form suitable for automatic processing. It is easy for a student to search, organize and process historical information. In the process of work, events are easily remembered, as well as historical and geographical names, names, dates.
Yes, studying history Russia XIX c., students can work with statistical data on the problem of the post-reform development of Russia. The educational database on agrarian history is based on the materials of the first post-reform land census of 1877 and contains information about the class affiliation of owners, the size of land holdings, and forms of ownership in each of the 49 provinces of the European part of Russia.

Bibliography
1. Vagin A. A. Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1968.
2. Gora P. V. Methodical methods and means of visual teaching of history in secondary school. - M., 1971.
3. Methods of teaching history in high school. - M., 1986.
4. Nikiforov D. N. Visibility in teaching history. - M., 1964.
5. Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school. - M., 2000.

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M. V. Korotkova Visibility in the lessons of history M. 2000.

1. AROUND THE MAP

Every history teacher knows that a map must be used in the lesson. However, today the school has a much smaller volume than before, and very poor quality cartographic material.

Predominate are maps made on the basis of the old methodology and devoted mainly to territorial changes, political unification processes in states, or military events. Currently, no more than a dozen maps reflect new approaches to the content of historical material. They depict religious processes, economic and demographic development of regions, cultural achievements of countries and peoples, etc. Such maps include, for example, some of the atlases published in 1998 by the Dick publishing house: The Christian Church in the early Middle Ages, Medieval cities, Agriculture and crafts in the 11th-14th centuries, Monastic schools and universities in Western Europe, Printing and humanism in the XIV-XV centuries (Atlas on the history of the Middle Ages and early modern times / Under the general editorship of T.P. Gusarova. - M., 1998). In the atlas of modern history, edited by M.V. Ponomarev has a map dedicated to the material culture of European society and the spiritual culture of European countries in the 19th century. For the first time in the practice of creating maps, architectural monuments of various styles, museums and theaters founded in the 19th century are marked on it.

In the atlas History of Civilizations, published in 1997, the selection of cartographic material has been radically revised. Much attention is paid to the evolution of tools, inventions, technological progress, monuments and cultural figures, the most important world cultural and religious centers, the history of the church and the heritage of various eras. Geographic associations cultural activities people were embodied in the cards: In the footsteps of Homer's legends, Under the sky of Hellas, Cradle of Christianity, Feudal lords and peasants, Humanism and Renaissance, Age of Enlightenment, Age of iron and steam, etc.

There are much fewer such maps in the history of Russia. Perhaps the only example is the map Enlightenment in the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century in the atlas on the history of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries, edited by P.A. Stepnyak.

Of the three main types of historical maps - general, survey and thematic, the latter clearly prevail today. Thematic maps are devoted to individual historical events and phenomena, many of them are unloaded from unnecessary details and designations, but contain visual and artistic symbols of the events being disclosed. According to the old methodological tradition, the themes of these maps are wars and major events. domestic policy(for example, the reformation, oprichnina, the abolition of serfdom, etc.).

General and especially overview maps have become much less common than before in atlases and textbooks. At the same time, their use in the educational process has changed. Now, in a number of topics, overview maps are presented as a set of 2-3 pieces. They reflect a number of successive moments in the development of the studied phenomena and their state at a certain moment. This avoids the long-standing disadvantage of having all the information contained in one card. The atlas on the history of Russia until the 17th century (M., 1998) presents sets of 3-4 maps: Territorial growth of the Moscow principality in 1300-1462, Feudal war. 1425-1453, Russian-Turkish wars of the 19th century.

A very common technique in atlases has become the placement of two or three maps on one turn for comparison. For example, in the atlas History of Civilizations, these are maps ancient india and China, Medieval China and Japan, England without a king and France and her king.

The use of schematic maps is seen differently in the teaching of history today. Local plans and maps were previously a free application to large maps. They were designed to detail individual fragments of a large map. Today, in many manuals, maps have become independent. They provide not only details military history but also centers of culture and cultural-ethnic processes. For example, such maps in the atlas on the history of the Middle Ages include: Medieval cities, the Papal State in Italy, Viking voyages, in the atlas History of Civilizations - plans for the Eternal City, Jerusalem.

Today, it is also characteristic that the cartographic material is accompanied by an illustrative series, textual and chronological information.

However, these new atlases are now available to only a few schools because of their high cost. Moreover, computer and multimedia images of maps are still only a dream for most Russian schools. Few teachers have the ability to use transparencies of maps that could be projected onto a screen to replace worn-out old school wall maps.

Sometimes, in addition to maps in textbooks, a history teacher has practically no visual aids with cartographic materials, so he has to make them himself. Of the old methodological methods, time-tested, one can recall a chalk drawing of a map on a board (usually a map), an enlarged photocopy or a silhouette image pasted on cardboard, a drawn image on a dark piece of linoleum (the so-called black map of A.I. Strazhev), images on transparent film, drawn with a felt-tip pen.

The use of handicraft maps to some extent can fill the cartographic hunger in the history lesson. In addition, if they are successfully produced, they can be much better suited to the cognitive abilities of students and the teaching process than mass-produced cards.

In today's situation of the absence of wall maps in a number of schools, it is useful to listen to the recommendations of the oldest methodologists V.S. For example. The Apennine Peninsula is easily likened to a boot, Africa and India - a triangle. Iberian Peninsula - hooded head profile, etc. (see fig. 1).

3. WORLD OF SYMBOLS

Applications are an undeservedly forgotten means of teaching history today. In Latin, this word means application, attachment. Indeed, drawings of people or objects, printed or hand-drawn on paper and cut out along the contour, can be applied to a diagram, table, drawing, time line, map, or simply to a board.

Classics of the technique of the XX century. not only wrote about applications, but also created them themselves, described how to work with them. Many generations of history teachers literally grew up on applications on the history of the Ancient World by F.P. Korovkin and G.I. Goder, they found illustrated symbols on the history of the Middle Ages by N.I. Apparovich, developed by Z.I. Yanko-Trinitskaya. This work has enabled many teachers to make applications on their own. Today, the tradition of teaching history through symbols is only partly trying to revive the authors of workbooks, tests, and followers of the system of reference signals.

In a number of modern workbooks there are not only symbolic appliqué drawings, but also those that need to be cut out and glued. The secret of the attractiveness of applications-symbols and their use in school lies in their dynamism, mobility, clarity of the visual image and the sequence of perception by students who cannot observe a stationary object for a long time. Applications are attached to the board with magnets or plasticine.

The well-known methodologist P.V. Gora not only noted the beneficial qualities of applications, but also the limited number of students working with them in the lesson at the same time. This is at best 1-2 people. Therefore, the methodologist suggested that when demonstrating applications, it is imperative to use a conversation that would indirectly involve almost the entire class in the work (Methodological techniques and means of visual teaching of history in high school. - M., 1971. - P. 87).

He also advised to use applications more often when checking. A workbook helps to partially solve the problem of activating students in the process of working with applications. This happens under the condition High Quality and when combining work with applications on the board and in a workbook.

Figurative identification of a fact is possible in some cases with the help of reference signals. The technique of working with supporting notes is described in the following works: Miroshnichenko N.P. Teaching history according to the system of V.F. Shatalov // Teaching history at school. - 1990. - No. 4; Miroshnichenko P.Ya Miroshnichenko N.P. From the textbook History of Russia. Reference notes // Ibid. - 1995. - No. 1; Oberman V. Ya. Supporting notes and diagrams in history lessons // Ibid. - 1996. - No. 3; Andryusev B.E. Basic notes on the history of the ancient world. Grade 5 - M., 1998; Andryusev B.E. Basic notes on the history of the Middle Ages. - M., 1998 (see Fig. 48).

We are more impressed by the method of pictogram study of history, which, like applications, is focused on visual sensations. Each pictogram gives an idea of the subject, the phenomenon that is embodied in the drawing: specific concepts are linked to the world of things (Myskin VA .. Pictograms and games in history lessons. Teaching history in

school. - 1990. - No. 6).

The use of symbols is possible, for example, in workbooks. An example is the symbols of the era of Peter I. One of them - scissors - a symbol of the struggle between the new and the old, the main means of cutting beards and long caftans. The Christmas tree can serve not only as a symbol of a new holiday, but also a new reckoning (see Fig. 49, 50).

Symbolic drawings can be used for students to learn popular expressions and proverbs. E.V. Saplina offers such drawings: a heel, an apple, a horse, etc., accompanied by a question: what popular expressions do these drawings remind you of (Saplina E.V., Saplin A.I. The ancient world. A notebook of creative tasks. - M ., 1996. - S. 39).

E.N. Abdulaev, A.Yu. Morozov, V.V. Sukhov proposed a symbolic drawing of a dinosaur as an allegory of Soviet totalitarianism. The task is to correlate parts of the dinosaur with individual parts of the socialist economic mechanism in the USSR in the 1930s: bureaucracy, prisoners, peasantry, workers, outcasts, councils, party leadership, army and repressive bodies ( National history XX century. Workbook. Part 1. - M., 1995. - S. 93).

Applications focus the most important aspects of the revealed phenomena, key details of typical representatives of social groups of a particular society. The teacher is not afraid of distracting attention to minor details, as happens when using pictures.

The mobility of applications is used in cases where it is necessary to show the development of historical phenomena. In this case, the pictures are moved and replenished with new ones, unnecessary ones are removed from the demonstration field. By exposing the figures one after another, the teacher can demonstrate the sequence of development of one phenomenon: changes in the economy, life, social composition of society, political structure. Visual support helps to understand the dynamics of facts.

Compositions from applications and the ability to arrange them in various sequences and various combinations with each other allow the teacher to show children complicated relationship and dependencies in historical reality. They are expressed at the place of each character in the overall scheme.

Applications make it possible to divide the material into parts, and the studied phenomena and processes at stages, to compare them with each other. Thus, complex theoretical phenomena can be deduced through a vivid and concrete idea of its individual stages. Applications also make it possible to hold the child's attention on a separate image, to focus it on fine details that are unique to him. The clothes and jewelry of people, the objects they hold in their hands, often even their postures indicate their occupation, belonging to a particular social stratum, position in society.

The people and objects depicted on the applications help the teacher to characterize the economy, life, military affairs in the era under study. Today this is extremely important, since the study of history is largely detailed. However, the teacher must not forget that the application is just a symbol that is instantly imprinted in the mind of the student, and subsequently one figure is identified, for example, with a whole social stratum. Placing a familiar figure in a new composition helps to transfer the known material with which this figure is associated to new conditions, which contributes to its more meaningful perception and assimilation.

One of the types of applique schemes are static compositions that fix and fix the order of individual drawings against each other. In this order is the essence of the matter disclosed in the lessons. Such schemes can create in children strong ideas about the state and social structure, the order of battle of the troops, the general picture of the life of a particular people, the occupations of the population and the forms of duties, the origin and social composition of certain strata of society, the causes of a historical phenomenon, etc.

Work with schemes of the state and social structure begins with the simplest fixation of the students' attention on the place of each representative of society in the general system: who is higher and who is lower, and why. For example, the scheme of governance of the Athenian state (see Fig. 51). Other structures may also be subject to fixation of a place, for example, religious: the position of the gods in relation to each other, church organization.

Considering the scheme of the ancient Greek gods, students fix their significance, which is reinforced by their place on the scheme (see Fig. 53). At the same time, the teacher focuses the attention of students on the objects in the hands of the gods depicted on the applications. This important moment can be further used in the task of the type: people - objects. An example is the task from the workbook History of Ancient Greece and Rome by N.G. Petrova: give the gods the necessary items using the connecting arrows (see Fig. 52).

When studying the history of medieval Western Europe and Russia, working with application schemes becomes more complicated. So, when considering the schemes for the structure of the States General and Parliament, the place of each representative of the authorities is associated with his role and the general tasks of the authority (see Fig. 54.55).

4. ALMOST EVERYTHING ABOUT CHARTS AND TABLES

Often in practice at school, students and even teachers confuse block diagrams with tables: the squares of the diagrams are called tables, and the tables, on the contrary, are called diagrams. Why is this happening?

If you look closely at these two teaching aids, you can find a lot in common. Both schemes and tables are means of highlighting the main thing, they lock information into a closed space. When drawing up diagrams and tables, the student performs logical operations - analysis, synthesis, comparison, the ability to transform and generalize historical material, bring it into a system and graphically depict.

However, despite all the similarities, schemes and tables have clearly defined differences. By diagrams, we mean a graphic representation of historical reality, where individual parts, signs of a phenomenon are depicted by conventional signs - geometric shapes, symbols, inscriptions, and relationships and connections are indicated by their mutual arrangement, connected by lines and arrows.

By tables, following A.A. Vagin, we mean a synthetic image of the topic being studied, a graphic representation of historical material in the form of comparative, thematic and chronological graphs with the aim of filling them in by students. In the table, unlike the schemes, there are no symbols of historical phenomena.

Traditionally, in the methodology of teaching history, the following types of schemes are distinguished: logical, essential, sequential, diagrams, graphs, technical, local. Tables are divided into thematic, comparative, chronological and synchronistic.

The title of this section contains the word almost, since certain schemes have already been discussed in the three previous sections. In this part of the book, we would like to talk not about traditional methodological approaches to the use of charts and tables, but to show all their types and possible options work in the classroom. Particular attention will be paid to those diagrams and tables that are not so often used in history lessons.

This aspect seems relevant to us for several reasons. Firstly, the history teacher's interest in diagrams and tables today, unfortunately, has not revived to the same extent as it did, say, in the era of strictly regulated teaching of history based on the class approach and the theory of socio-economic formation (for example, diagrams were given for each lesson in the manual: Agibalova E.V. Donskoy G.M. Toolkit on the history of the Middle Ages. - M., 1988).

Secondly, today in the teaching of history there have been new aspects that are not comprehended at theoretical level. The reason for this is the lack of an abstract level of generalization of this material, which can partly be achieved with the help of schemes. Thirdly, the current attempts to revive these means are quite arbitrary and boil down to the desire to fit the whole history into a given framework (for example, book: Aliyeva S.K. General history in tables and diagrams. - M., 1997). The appearance of such works has become massive in recent times and causes a generally negative attitude among teachers, which extends to diagrams and tables in general. Our task also includes changing the negative attitude of the history teacher towards this type of teaching aids.

In modern teaching, much less than before, logical schemes such as the Causes of geographical discoveries are used (see: Methodological manual on the history of the Middle Ages. - M., 1988. - P. 241). Usually they are used in the study of the causes and consequences of events and phenomena, help to identify cause-and-effect relationships. They are quite simple to perform by students, as they are based on the sequential connection of squares, in which causes and effects are fixed, arising from one another.

A new approach in the study of historical figures can be considered a cycle of schemes Incomplete Genealogy. These schemes are laid down in the Workbook on the history of Russia (M., 1998. Part 1, 2). They omit the names of princes, kings and emperors. Working with these schemes allows you to build a sequence of reign of monarchs (see Fig. 73-76).

Essential structural schemes usually reflect the structure, main parts, features and essence of a particular phenomenon. They can reflect the names of tribes, the main occupations of the inhabitants, estates, expenses and incomes of the state, the national state structure of the country (see, for example, Fig. 77-81: Slavic tribes, Income and expenses of the Russian state, National state structure of the USSR).

E.N. Zakharova in the workbook History of the Fatherland 1917-1939 (M., 1996) introduced a number of improved essential schemes: they have a plot, a core or a certain intrigue. For example, one can refer to her scheme New Economic Policy and compare it with the traditional one (see Fig. 82). In the scheme of E.N. Zakharova, the NEP measures contain eight points: the introduction of a tax in kind, the abolition of free services, the introduction of freedom of trade, the permission to lease land and hire labor, the permission of foreign concessions, voluntary employment, the admission of small private businesses, the introduction of cash wages . Arranging these events in a logical connection, students comprehend the corresponding informative series.

To study the measures of the policy of war communism, E.N. Zakharova offers a different essential scheme in the form of a five-pointed star (see Fig. 83). At the ends of the star are the words: production, labor, distribution, exchange, management. Such a scheme is remembered for a long time by the guys precisely because of its core - the red star, which simultaneously turned on all the main directions of the functioning of society.

When studying political events and phenomena, one can also apply schemes by location. Traditionally, history teachers indicate the alignment of political forces on the right, on the left and in the center. E.N. Zakharova gives three models of the alignment of forces in 1917 in Russia and suggests choosing the right one (see Fig. 84, 85). The Methodist proposes to depict the ratio of political forces in the form of scales that outweigh in one and the other direction (see: Zakharova E.N. History of the Fatherland. 1917-1939. - M., 1996. - P. 23,33,59,66) ,

8. OWN HANDS

In the context of the lack of visual aids in modern history classrooms, the practice of making do-it-yourself models and models is increasingly spreading. Material monuments embodied in simulated objects are companions of the life of the past, without which it is impossible to understand both the essence of this life and individual phenomena that were inherent in a certain time.

It seems to us that in this work there is no need to describe in detail how useful modeling is for schoolchildren (and even history students of pedagogical universities). It develops Creative skills, replenishes their historical knowledge and ideas, makes them take a substantive look at the historical past.

It is important that the teacher, student and student do not treat the model as a toy, they achieve only a visual resemblance to the original, similarity to it. In this sense, an invaluable role is played by operating models, models approaching museum exhibits. Homemade models should be as close as possible to the original. The material should be natural (wooden parts - from wood, stone - from stone, metal - from metal), and the manufacturing technique should resemble the technique of a past era.

In the methodology, the models can be conditionally divided into several types: public buildings (temples, palaces, theaters), private buildings (dwellings), tools and technical devices (from hand axes to water mills), weapons (from bows to aircraft), household items (ovens, furniture, dishes, utensils), clothes (suits, hats, jewelry). They also make copies of individual things and entire complexes (for example, a model of a Greek house with utensils).

In order to show students the process of technological development and the standard of living of peoples, models must be shown in action: how weapons shoot, how furnaces work, how technical devices make people's work and life easier.

The building materials for layouts are: cardboard and paper, paints, a torch (bars) that can be chopped from dry spruce or pine logs, plywood, round sticks that are obtained by cutting tree limbs, pieces of a whole tree, pine bark, plasticine. Absorbent cotton is soaked in a paste and an excellent plastic material is obtained for sculpting bas-reliefs, battlements of fortress walls, and domes.

Plasticine is rarely used as a building material for models, as it has a significant drawback: it changes its shape and melts at high temperatures, for example, in hot weather. Therefore, plasticine models are best done on a frame made of strong wire (for example, a frame in the form of the letter P is used for human figures). Plasticine is much better preserved and does not lose its shape if it is covered with gouache. Nevertheless, it is better to make small things from plasticine (vessels, tiles, utensils).

Surgical gypsum, which used to be freely sold in pharmacies, has become a great rarity today. It can be used, like alabaster, to imitate stone. Most of all, the technique of making manuals from papier-mâché has been developed. Instead of metal, it is more expedient to use thin sheets of iron, tin-plated tin, tin, and cans. Pieces of ordinary glass are used in layouts not so much for windows, but to simulate water bodies. Cellophane is recommended for windows.

Sawdust dyed green, yellow, or brown can be useful to simulate the landscape. To do this, dilute the gouache in a container and place all the sawdust there. The stony surface is imitated with crushed clay and dyed crushed chalk with preliminary coloring. Forest moss is a very good material for simulating bushes and trees.

Trees on the layout can be made from paper, tin, chicken feathers, colored threads, moss, washcloths, cork, sponge, sawdust. For example, if you pluck a green sponge, you can get the crown of a tree. To work on the layout, it is recommended to use threads, ropes, wire, carnations, pins, needles. You also need wood glue, paste, gouache, ink, varnish, oil paints, watercolor. To work with wood, you need a carpentry tool.

To imitate various building materials in models of architectural structures, painting and sprinkling of cardboard models is used. The main material in this process is crushed chalk. Pounded brick can perfectly depict a tiled roof. Sculptural decorations of buildings are molded from cotton wool impregnated with a paste. Wall paintings and frescoes imitate watercolors.

V.E. Vakurko in the book Equipping history lessons with home-made visual aids recommends plastic mass as a material. It can be made from paper pulp soaked in water and ground on a grater, this mass is mixed with chalk, clay, ash, asbestos, glue and drying oil. You can also use sawdust, chalk, wood glue and drying oil. Modeling of such a mass is made with special spatulas.

When modeling, you should also remember that painting finished models with oil, enamel paints or varnish not only imitates the natural look of the product, but also strengthens its surface. Oil paints in a tube, diluted with drying oil and varnish, give an opaque shiny background. It is desirable to paint the layout twice: the first time it is primed, as it were, a background is applied, after which it is painted and decor is applied. After painting, varnish is sometimes applied (for example, on wooden products), fired to give maximum reliability.

Before any layout can be made, a drawing must be completed. For this, paper, a ruler, a pencil are used. Schoolchildren need to explain that the drawing must be kept to scale. First you need to try to make a drawing of a template from plain paper, then cut it out and figure out what happened. Then proceed to the original drawing.

Not being able to show all the examples of making various visual aids, we will limit ourselves to those that reflect work and everyday life in distant eras.

The material for models of primitive dwellings are sticks not peeled of bark, pieces of bark, straw and reeds to imitate roofs and walls, writing paper pasted over with cotton wool and painted to imitate animal skins. For models of primitive dwellings, moss, pre-dried leaves, and thin twigs should also be used. It is important to show the various types of primitive dwellings - huts, yurts, piled buildings, caves, dolmens (see Fig. 138).

When studying the topic of Ancient Egypt, it is advisable to build a model of a shaduf, which partly resembles a village crane. The well itself is made of red plasticine (imitation clay). For the rocker - a rod, to the thick end of which a stone is tied, and to the thin end - a bucket (made of dark plasticine) with holes with ears. The rocker is attached to the recess. Next to the well is an inclined chute, through which water will flow. To demonstrate the work of the shaduf, two cans of water are used - one under the well, the second - on the edge of the gutter, the surface of the earth on which the shaduf is placed is painted black and black sawdust (see Fig. 139, 140).

You can also make a model of a dwelling - a small Egyptian estate with a flat roof and a garden. According to the drawings, you can recreate the utensils and furniture of the Egyptian house (see Fig. 142). The Egyptian boat certainly deserves a layout. Its design is extremely original. With a small load, the middle part of the boat (along the length) was immersed in the water, the remaining two-thirds from the bow and stern rose high above the water. Thanks to this design, the boat glided over the surface, almost without encountering water resistance. The mast was in front, all ships retained the oars (see Fig. 141).

It is also desirable to have a piece of Egyptian papyrus in the history office. The scarab was one of the most popular amulets of the Egyptians. Schoolchildren are happy to make a model of such a beetle from all kinds of materials.

When studying a topic Ancient Greece you can make a number of useful models: an ancient Greek ship, a model of a theater and a mask, a temple, a tripod, a painted vase made of wood or papier-mâché, a whole Greek house. The layout of the ancient Greek ship and temple is shown in fig. 143, 144.

For a lesson on the ancient Greek school, each student can make wax tablets dipped in melted wax or paraffin, thin wooden sticks. Having written with such a stick on a wax tablet, students quickly remember its name - style and expression: everyone has their own style. If the letters do not appear clearly, then the surface is sprinkled with finely crushed and sifted coal, and then the excess is shaken off (the coal remains only in the recesses).

The closeness of the Greek dwelling emphasizes the layout of the house, which can be made from cardboard (see Fig. 145). Tiled roofs are painted red or sprinkled with finely crushed bricks. In order to show the interior decoration of housing on the layout, it is possible to attach the roof in two or three rooms or in the whole house only on one side, and on the other, make it folding to view the interior. Furniture should be fashioned from plasticine, the rest of the utensils - from hard paper, fabric, wire, wood (the experience in making a model was carried out by a student of the history department of Moscow State Pedagogical University O. Kokoreva).

When studying a topic Ancient Rome the teacher can also organize the activities of students to make models. These are triumphal arches, columns, defensive structures, towers, siege weapons, tools and temples, a private dwelling - domus.

The Romans significantly improved the flour-grinding business, so it is advisable to make ancient Roman millstones and a mill. They are made of clay (see Fig. 146). Grain is poured into the millstones, and they rotate, the flour is poured into the box. The device of the mill is more complicated. The stationary millstone made of stone had a conical shape. A runner was put on at the end - a rotating millstone resembling two flower pots connected by a common bottom.

The grain was poured into the upper pot and woken up between the millstones, ground into flour and poured into the chute. The upper millstone was suspended, so there was a gap between the millstones. The lower pot had a bottom in the form of a circle with five holes. An iron axle was firmly inserted into the cylindrical part of the lower millstone. The washer, mounted on the axle with a central hole, held the upper millstone on itself at a certain distance from the surface of the lower one, and the grain spilled

On the basis of direct perception of objects or with the help of images (visibility) in the learning process, students form figurative representations and concepts about the historical past. The principle of visibility is reflected in the variety of types of visibility and their classifications.

In modern didactics, it is customary to distinguish between internal visualization, or verbal-figurative (literary images, examples from life, etc.) and external, or objective visualization (graphic visual aids, natural objects and their images, etc.).

There is a classification according to external features. It includes: printed (pictures, illustrations, maps, charts, tables); screen and screen-sound (stripes, films, video recordings, sound recordings); computer (graphic images: paintings, drawings, graphs, tables) teaching aids. Most often, they refer to the classification according to the content and nature of the historical image, highlighting the visibility of the subject, pictorial, conditional-graphic.

By objective visibility in the study of history is meant the direct perception not of the historical past itself, but of the material monuments of the past, its material traces; not the very life of primitive people, but the traces of their life and activities in the form of tools of the Stone Age, systematized in the museum exposition; not feudal strife and knightly tournaments, but the material remains of this "noble" activity - weapons and armor. Object visibility, therefore, includes material monuments of the past, memorable places of historical events, works of art and household items of past times, genuine antiquities that make up the museum exposition.

Also, specially made subject visualization stands out - various models and models, for example, a model of a feudal castle, a model of the ancient Kremlin, a model of a hand loom, a catapult, etc. And of course, the operating models are especially effective - a water mill, an ore-lifting machine.

Visual clarity has a much wider application, i.e. image of historical events, figures, historical monuments. Visual visualization includes works of historical painting, study cards on history, illustrations, photographs, portraits, caricatures, feature films, educational and documentary films, as well as layouts and models. Among the visual aids used in school, there are:

a) images of a documentary nature - documentary photographs, documentary films, images of material monuments, tools, cultural monuments in the form in which they have come down to us;
b) scientifically substantiated reconstructions of architectural and other monuments, tools, household items or their complexes, etc.;
c) artistic compositions created by the creative imagination of an artist or illustrator, of course, based on historical data; this includes works of historical painting, educational paintings and illustrations in textbooks depicting events and scenes of the past;
d) technical teaching aids: filmstrips, transparencies, audio recordings, CDs.

A special type of visualization is conditional-graphical visualization, i.e. expression of historical phenomena in the language of conventional signs. This includes maps, schematic plans, diagrams, charts, graphs.

In modern conditions, in school practice, visual and graphic visual aids are most often used.

Event pictures give an idea of specific single events. More often than not, they recreate a pivotal moment in the story and require a narrative narrative. These are, for example, paintings by V.A. Tombi "Battle of Salami", M.G. Reuter's "Entry of Joan of Arc into Orleans", etc. The content of the paintings is included in the story when the moment depicted in them comes.

Typological pictures reproduce repeatedly repeated historical facts, events typical of the era under study. Even in pre-revolutionary times, such paintings were created by K.V. Lebedev; among them - "Polyudye", "Veche in Novgorod".

Cultural and historical pictures introduce students to household items, monuments of material culture. They can depict architectural monuments and architectural styles, everyday details of different times with their features, various mechanisms and principles of their work.

Portrait paintings help to recreate the images of historical figures. Portraits are studied in a narrow and broad sense. When studying a portrait in the narrow sense of the word, first of all, attention is drawn to the facial features that characterize the person depicted on it as a person. When studying the portrait in the broad sense of the word, along with the outline of the anatomical features of the face and their decoding, much attention is paid to awards and insignia. All this is commented, which ultimately gives a meaningful description of the depicted person and her place in history.

One of the visual means of teaching history is the caricature. It is accessible, artistically expressive, it is characterized by a sharply expressed idea. Therefore, the caricature is easily perceived. An illustration caricature is used only to visually confirm the words of the teacher. A caricature-characteristic requires an explanation of the essence, a teacher's commentary. For a figurative characterization of a person, a portrait caricature is used, and for an entire era or a major historical phenomenon, a symbolic one is used.

Applications are paper cut-outs and colored images of objects typical of the era under study or representatives of various social groups: drawings of people, tools, buildings; symbols of a broader content than what is directly depicted.

Applications appear on the board and replace each other in the process of presentation, helping to reveal the essential aspects of the facts and the sequence of events. The appearance of each new application focuses the attention of students on a specific action, creates a visual image.

Conditionally graphic visualization includes: schematic drawings, diagrams, tables.

A schematic drawing conveys the most essential features of the subject, contributes to the formation of concepts. In "the very nature of pedagogical drawing," A.A. Vagin noted, "in its sketchy, constructive nature, there is a tendency to generalization, a movement from objective visualization to a concept, from an image to an idea."

Chalk drawing on the blackboard is performed in the course of the oral presentation and serves as its visual support. As a rule, this is a very simple, lively, fast-paced drawing that recreates the image of material objects, people, and military battles. With the help of a schematic representation, the teacher reveals the phenomenon in its logical sequence, determining the pace and at the right time interrupting or resuming the visual series.

Chalk drawings on the board can give geographical landmarks, can depict various schemes. The internal structure of objects can be studied with the help of a "sectional" drawing. External static art drawings help the description. Dynamic drawings are the most difficult and help to reveal the sequence of events.

To create a realistic image for students, in some cases it is advisable to compare a schematic image with an illustration or photograph.

Applications can be used in combination with a pattern. Applications are more often used in teaching younger students.

At lessons in high school, schematic images are more often used, when lines, arrows, squares, circles appear on the board during the explanation. These are elements of conditional-graphic visualization. This includes diagrams, diagrams, graphs, cartograms, tables.

A scheme is a graphic representation of historical reality, where individual parts, signs of a phenomenon are depicted by conventional signs - geometric shapes, symbols, inscriptions, and relationships and connections are indicated by their mutual arrangement, connected by lines and arrows.

Traditionally, in the methodology of teaching history, the following types of schemes are distinguished: logical, structural, sequential, search, diagrams, graphs, technical, local.

Structural diagrams reflect the relative position and connection of the constituent parts of something. Logic diagrams are graphic images that reflect the process, containing its components, arising from one another. Search schemes are graphic images in the form of a logical scheme, the components of which contain, along with information, productive and cognitive questions, the answers to which allow students to think and reason logically, to more consciously assimilate the knowledge gained.

P.V. Mount attached great importance another type of schemes - diagrams, which can emphasize the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the events under study. If the diagrams present homogeneous data of simultaneous action, then they are easily compared and analyzed, their sequence is established. Diverse information allows us to trace the dynamics and development trends.

Cartograms are maps that graphically represent statistical data related to a phenomenon.

Graphs are drawings depicting quantitative indicators of development, the state of something with the help of curves. Graphs, unlike diagrams, show the cyclical nature of historical phenomena and processes, their stages.

Tables are a graphic representation of historical material in the form of comparative, thematic and chronological graphs for the purpose of filling them in by students. In the table, unlike the schemes, there are no symbols of historical phenomena. Tables are divided into thematic, comparative, chronological and synchronistic.

The system of highlighting the main thing in historical material by demonstrating or filling in diagrams and tables is an important part of the history teaching system.

cartographic visibility. Historical events occur both in time and space. The assignment of events to a specific space and the description of the geographic environment in which it occurred is called localization. The locality of historical events is studied with the help of such schematic aids as historical maps, terrain plans, maps. All of them are used for demonstration purposes and help to reveal the connections between historical events, their essence and dynamics.

Maps reproduce spatio-temporal structures using an abstract symbolic language.

Historical maps are created on a geographical basis and are reduced generalized figurative and symbolic images of historical events or periods. They are subdivided according to the coverage of the territory (world, mainland, maps of states); by content (review, summarizing and thematic); scale (large, medium and small scale). On generalizing maps within a certain place and time, all the main events and phenomena provided for by sections of the school curriculum and state standard are reflected. Overview maps show the events of a certain period.

Generalizing maps concretize and reveal in more detail thematic maps, which reflect the events and phenomena of educational topics.

Working with chalk and blackboard

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