Human physiology. General. Sports. Age. Read online “Human Physiology General laws of physiology and its basic concepts

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Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub

Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Textbook for higher educational institutions physical culture. 7th edition

Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg

Reviewers:

V. I. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S. M. Kirov)

I. M. Kozlov, doctor of biol. and doctor ped. sciences, prof. (NSU named after P. F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)

* * *

Solodkov Aleksey Sergeevich – Professor of the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgaft (for 25 years, head of the department 1986–2012).

Honored Worker of Science of the Russian Federation, Academician of the Petrovsky Academy of Sciences and Arts, Honorary Worker of the Higher vocational education Russian Federation, Chairman of the section "Physiology of Sports" and a member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Physiological Society. I. M. Sechenov.

Sologub Elena Borisovna – Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor. Since 2002 lives in New York (USA).

At the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgafta worked since 1956, from 1986 to 2002 - as a professor of the department. Was elected an academician Russian Academy Medical and Technical Sciences, Honorary Worker higher education of Russia, a member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists. I. M. Sechenov.

Foreword

Human physiology is theoretical basis a number of practical disciplines(medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.). Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions of activity. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.

By revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a single theoretical picture.

It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, considering the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mentioning its most prominent representatives and analyzing the natural science base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.

Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I. M. Sechenov, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A. F. Samoilov, I. R. Tarkhanov, N. E. Vvedensky and etc. But only I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov have the merit of creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.

Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. The Moscow University, founded in 1755, also plays a significant role in the development of physiology, where in 1776 a department of physiology was opened as part of it.

In 1798, the Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The department of physiology created under her supervision was successively headed by P. A. Zagorsky, D. M. Vellansky, N. M. Yakubovich, I. M. Sechenov, I. F. Zion, F. V. Ovsyannikov, I. R. Tarkhanov, I. P. Pavlov, L. A. Orbeli, A. V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other prominent representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name are discoveries in physiology of world significance.

Physiology was included in the training program in physical education universities from the first days of their organization. At the Higher Courses of Physical Education created by P.F. Lesgaft in 1896, a physiology cabinet was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N. P. Kravkov, A. A. Walter, P. P. Rostovtsev, V. Ya. Chagovets, A. G. Ginetsinsky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, L. A. Orbeli, I. S. Beritov, A. N. Krestovnikov, G. V. Folbort, etc.

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the XX century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published back in late XIX century (I. O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev and others). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I. P. Pavlov of the State Committee for Sports of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P. F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among sports universities in the country and in the world.

After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P. F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L. A. Orbeli, A. N. Krestovnikov, V. V. Vasilyeva, A. B. Gandelsman, E. K. Zhukov, N. V. Zimkin, A. S. Mozzhukhin, E. B. Sologub, A S. Solodkov and others In 1938, A. N. Krestovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of the teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the Textbook of Human Physiology, edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).

The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the wide conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses more and more new practical problems for representatives of many specialties, to which theory cannot always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily noted, “... scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit of sooner or later being useful for someone or for something.” An analysis of the development of educational and scientific areas of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.

Requests for the theory and practice of physical education and training require physiological science to reveal the features of the functioning of the body, taking into account the age of people and the patterns of their adaptation to muscle activity. The scientific principles of physical education of children and adolescents are based on the physiological patterns of human growth and development at different stages of ontogenesis. In the process of physical education, it is necessary not only to increase motor fitness, but also to form the necessary psycho-physiological properties and qualities of a person, ensuring her readiness for work, for vigorous activity in the conditions of the modern world.

Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov

Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub

Human physiology. General. Sports. Age

Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

Edition 6, corrected and enlarged

Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture

The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg

Reviewers:

IN AND. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)

THEM. Kozlov, doctor biol, and doctor ped. sciences, prof.

(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)

Foreword

Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.

By revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a single theoretical picture.

It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mentioning its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.

Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I.M. Sechenov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, A.Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Samoilov, I.R. Tarkhanov, N.E. Vvedensky and others. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov is credited with creating new directions not only in Russian but also in world physiology.

Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. The Moscow University, founded in 1755, also plays a significant role in the development of physiology, where in 1776 a department of physiology was opened as part of it.

In 1798, the Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The department of physiology created under her supervision was successively headed by P.A. Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M. Sechenov, I.F. Zion, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.R. Tarkhanov, I.P. Pavlov, L.A. Orbeli, A.V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other prominent representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name are discoveries in physiology of world significance.

Physiology was included in the training program in physical education universities from the first days of their organization. On the created P.F. Lesgaft in 1896 at the Higher Courses of Physical Education immediately opened a cabinet of physiology, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort and others.

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (And (O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I.P. Pavlov State Committee for Sports of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlova, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, I.S. Beritashvili, K.M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this branch of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among sports universities in the country and in the world.

After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft, the teaching of this subject was carried out by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilyeva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938, A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of the teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the Textbook of Human Physiology, edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).

The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful if scientifically based use of various means and methods of physical culture, as well as, if necessary, intensification or reduction of muscle loads. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns by specialists will protect the practice of physical education from the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads that are dangerous to people's health.

To date, significant factual materials on sports and age physiology have been accumulated, which are presented in the relevant textbooks and manuals. However, in last years in some sections of the subject, new data appeared that were not included in previous editions. In addition, in connection with the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans, according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. In view of the foregoing, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors' own research.

In 1998–2000 A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and developmental physiology, which were widely demanded by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook published by them in 2001 corresponds to the new program in terms of discipline, requirements State standard higher professional education Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.

Despite the large circulation of the first edition (10,000 copies), two years later the textbook was out of stock. Therefore, after making some corrections and additions, in 2005 the textbook was republished in the same edition. However, by the end of 2007, it was impossible to buy it anywhere. At the same time, from various regions of the Russian Federation, CIS countries, the Department of Physiology regularly receives proposals on the need for the next reprint of the textbook. In addition, some new materials have appeared at the disposal of the authors that meet the requirements of the Bologna process for specialists in physical culture and sports.

The prepared third edition of the textbook, along with taking into account and implementing individual comments and suggestions from readers, also includes two new chapters: "The functional state of athletes" and "Influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes." For the last chapter, some materials were presented by N.M. Koneva-Hanson, for which the authors are sincerely grateful to Natalya Mikhailovna.

All comments and suggestions on the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, will be accepted by the authors with gratitude.

Part I

General physiology

Any coach and teacher for successful professional activity needs to know the functions of the human body. Only taking into account the characteristics of his life can help to properly manage the growth and development of the human body, maintain the health of children and adults, maintain efficiency even in old age, rational use of muscle loads in the process of physical education and sports training.

1. Introduction. History of physiology

The date of the formation of modern physiology is 1628, when English doctor and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on blood circulation in animals.

Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole. The physiological function is a manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has an adaptive value.

1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports

Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on the knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methodology of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology different private sections: physiology of labor, physiology ...

2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: 2005. - 528 p.

The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the new program in physiology for universities of physical culture and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education. The textbook is intended for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical culture.

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CONTENT
Foreword ................................................................ ...................................................3
PART I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY .................................................................. ...................................7
1. Introduction. History of physiology .................................................................. ................7
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports .............................. 7
1.2. Methods of physiological research .......................................................... 8
1.3. Short story physiology ................................................. ..........9
2. General patterns physiology and its basic concepts .............................. 10
2.1. The main functional characteristics of excitable tissues ..... 11
2.2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions....................................................12
2.3. Reflex mechanism of activity nervous system..............13
2.4. Homeostasis .................................................. .......................................fourteen
2.5. The occurrence of excitation and its conduct .............................. 15
3. Nervous system.............................................. ........................................eighteen
3.1. Main functions of the CNS .............................................................. ................eighteen
3.2. Basic Functions and Interactions of Neurons...............................................19
3.3. Features of the activity of the nerve centers .................................... 22
3.4. Coordination of the activities of the central nervous system .............................................. ....26
3.5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain .............................................. 30
3.6. Autonomic nervous system .................................................................. .........35
3.7. Limbic system .................................................................. ......................38
3.8. Functions of the cerebral cortex .............................................................39
4. Higher nervous activity ............................................... ...................44
4. 1. Conditions for the formation and varieties of conditioned reflexes .......... 44
4.2. External and internal braking conditioned reflexes..............47
4.3. Dynamic stereotype .................................................................. ................48
4.4. Types of higher nervous activity, I and II signaling system .. 48
5. Neuromuscular apparatus .............................................. ........................fifty
5.1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles...................................50
5.2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of the muscle fiber ...... 52
5.3. Solitary and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram .........54
5.4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength .............................................57
5.5. Modes of muscle work ............................................... ...................60
5.6. Energy of muscle contraction...............................................................62
6. Voluntary movements............................................................... .........................64
6.1. Basic principles of the organization of movements .............................. 64
6.2. The role of various departments of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions ..............................................67
6.3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements .............................. 70
6.4. Descending motor systems .................................................................. .....73
7. Sensory systems............................................... ...................................75
7.1. General plan for the organization and functions of sensory systems ............... 75
7.2. Classification and mechanisms of excitation of receptors ....................76
7.3. Properties of receptors .............................................................. ......................77
7.4. Information coding .................................................................. .............79
7.5. Visual sensory system .............................................................. .........80
7.6. Auditory sensory system ............................................................... ............85
7.7. Vestibular sensory system ............................................................... ...87
7.8. Motor sensory system .............................................................. .....90
7.9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell ..............................................................93
7.10. Processing, interaction and meaning of sensory information .............................................. 95
8. Blood .............................................. .........................................99
8.1. Composition, volume and functions of blood .............................................. ......100
8.2. Formed elements of blood .............................................................. .........101
8.3. Physiochemical properties blood plasma ............................... 105
8.4. Blood clotting and transfusion .............................................................. 107
8.5. Regulation of the blood system .............................................................. .............. 110
9. Circulation............................................................... ............................. 111
9.1. The heart and its physiological properties .............................................. 111
9.2. The movement of blood through the vessels (hemodynamics) .............................. 116
9.3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system.............................................. 120
10. Breathing............................................... ....................................123
10.1. External respiration .................................................................. .......................124
10.2. The exchange of gases in the lungs and their transport in the blood .................................. 126
10.3. Breathing control .................................................................. .................129
11. Digestion ............................................... ............................... 131
11.1. general characteristics digestive processes.................. 131
11.2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract .............................................. 133
11.3. Absorption of products of digestion of food .............................. 139
12. Metabolism and energy............................................... ....................... 140
12.1. Protein metabolism .............................................................. .............................. 140
12.2. Carbohydrate metabolism .............................................................. ......................... 141
12.3. Lipid metabolism ............................................... ........................... 142
12.4. Exchange of water and mineral salts .............................................. 143
12.5. Energy exchange .............................................................. ........................... 145
12.6. Regulation of metabolism and energy............................................... 147
13. Highlight...................................:.......... .................................... 149
13.1. General characteristics of excretory processes .................. 149
13.2. Kidneys and their functions ............................................................... .................... 149
13.3. The process of urination and its regulation .............................................. 151
13.4. Homeostatic function of the kidneys .............................................................. 153
13.5. Urination and urination............................................... 154
13.6. Sweating .................................................................. ......................154
14. Heat exchange ............................................................... ............................... 156
14.1. Human Body Temperature and Isotherm.................................................. 156
14.2. Mechanisms of heat generation .................................................................. ....157
14.3. Heat transfer mechanisms .................................................................. .............158
14.4. Heat exchange control .................................................................. ..............159
15. Internal secretion............................................... ...............................160
15.1. General characteristics of the endocrine system .............................. 160
15.2. Functions of the endocrine glands ..........................................................163
15.3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions ..............................................173
Part II SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY .................................................................. ...................178
Section GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY .................................................................. .........178
1. Sports physiology - educational and scientific discipline ..................179
1.1. Sports physiology, its content and tasks ............................... 179
1.2. Department of Physiology, SPbGAFKim. P.F. Lesgaft and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology.181
1.3. Status and prospects for the development of sports physiology.....185
2. Adaptation to physical loads and reserve capabilities of the body .............................. 188
2.1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages ..........189
2.2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical activity ..............................................193
2.3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity.....195
2.4. Functional Adaptation System.................................................... 198
2.5. The concept of the physiological reserves of the body, their characteristics and classification .......... 201
3. Functional changes in the body during physical exertion ....... 203
3.1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body .... 203
3.2. Functional shifts under constant power loads ..... 205
3.3. Functional shifts with variable power loads .... 206
3.4. Applied value of functional changes for assessing the performance of athletes....208
4. Physiological characteristics of the state of the body during sports activities ............... 209
4.1. The role of emotions in sports activities .............................................209
4.2. Prelaunch states .................................................................. .............213
4.3. Warm-up and workout ............................................................... ..............215
4.4. Steady state during cyclic exercises .............................. 217
4.5. Special states of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises 218
5. Physical performance of an athlete ..............................................219
5.1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition ........ 220
5.2. Principles and methods of physical performance testing ..............................................221
5.3. The relationship of physical performance with the orientation of the training process in sports..227
5.4. Reserves of physical performance .............................................. 228
6. Physiological bases of sportsmen's fatigue...............................................233
6.1. Definition and Physiological Mechanisms of Development of Fatigue.......................................233
6.2. Fatigue factors and the state of body functions .............................236
6.3. Features of fatigue during various types of physical activity .......................................... 239
6.4. Prefatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork .......... 241
7. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes ........ 243
7.1. General characteristics of recovery processes ............................... 244
7.2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes......246
7.3. Physiological regularities of recovery processes...............................................248
7.4. Physiological measures to improve the efficiency of recovery .............................250
Section II SPECIAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY .................................................................. .......253
8. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises .................................... 253
8.1. Different Criteria for Classifying Exercises ...................................... 253
8.2. Modern classification of physical exercises ............................... 254
8.3. Physiological characteristics of sports postures and static loads .................256
8.4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements ..... 259
8.5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements.......263
9. Physiological mechanisms and regularities in the development of physical qualities.......................266
9.1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms, reserves for the development of strength .......... 266
9.2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of speed ....... 270
9.3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of endurance development .............................. 273
9.4. The concept of dexterity and flexibility; mechanisms and regularities of their development............... 278
10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of formation of motor skills ....... 279
10.1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their research ........ 279
110.2. Physiological Mechanisms of Motor Skills Formation ..........................280
10.3. Physiological regularities and stages of formation of motor skills ..........283
10.4. Physiological bases for improving motor skills .......................................... 289
11. Physiological bases of the development of fitness .............................. 292
11.1. Physiological characteristics of training and the state of training .............................. 292
11.2. Testing the functional readiness of athletes at rest .................................... 294
11.3. Testing the functional fitness of athletes under standard and ultimate loads.297
11.4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overstrain ......... 300
12. Sports performance in special environmental conditions ....... 303
12.1. The influence of air temperature and humidity on sports performance .......... 303
12.2. Sports performance under conditions of changed barometric pressure..305
12.3. Sports performance when changing climatic conditions ........ 309
12.4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming .......... 310
13. Physiological bases of women's sports training ....................... 313
13.1. Morphofunctional features of the female body ....... 313
13.2. Changes in body functions during training .............................. 320
13.3. The influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women .... 324
13.4. Individualization of the training process, taking into account the phases of the biological cycle......327
14. Physiological and genetic features of sports selection ............... 329
14.1. Physiological and genetic approach to the issues of sports selection .................................330
14.2. Hereditary influences on the morphofunctional features and physical qualities of a person.332
14.3. Accounting for the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection .................................336
14.4. Significance of genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports specialization, style of competitive activity and sensorimotor dominance.343
14.5. Using Genetic Markers to Find Highly and Fast Trained Athletes.....347
15. Physiological bases of health-improving physical culture......350
15.1. The role of physical culture in conditions modern life.....350
15.2. Hypokinesia, hypodynamia and their influence on the human body .................................353
15.3. Neuropsychic tension, monotony of activity and their influence on the human body.....355
15.4. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the organism.358
Part III AGE PHYSIOLOGY .................................................................. ........364
1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body ........... 364
1.1. Periodization and heterochrony of development .................................364
1.2. Sensitive periods .................................................................. .................366
1.3. Influence of heredity and environment on the development of the body ....................... 369
1.4. Acceleration epochal and individual, biological and passport age.......................371
2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool and younger children school age and their adaptation to physical activity 375
2.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...375
2.2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system .................382
2.3. Features of blood, blood circulation and respiration .......................... 383
2.4. Peculiarities of digestion, metabolism and energy....................386
2.5. Features of thermoregulation, processes of excretion and activity of endocrine glands.....388
2.6. Physiological features of the adaptation of children of preschool and primary school age to physical activity.391
3. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of middle and senior school age and their adaptation to physical activity ..411
3.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...411
3.2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system .................416
3.3. Features of blood, blood circulation, respiration .......................... 419
3.4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system 422
3.5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy .......... 427
3.6. Physiological features of the adaptation of children of middle and senior school age to physical activity ... 429
4. Physiological features of the lesson of physical culture at school.. 448
4.1. Physiological substantiation of normalization of physical activity for children of school age ........ 449
4.2. Changes in the functions of the body of schoolchildren at the lesson of physical culture ............................................... 451
4.3. Influence of physical culture classes on physical, functional development, working capacity of schoolchildren and their health status.453
4.4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical culture and physiological criteria for the restoration of the body of schoolchildren.460
5. Physiological features of the body of people of mature and old age and their adaptation to physical stress ........ 465
5.1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive responses and reactivity of the body.................................................................465
5.2. Age features of the musculoskeletal system, vegetative and sensory systems ..................................................468
5.3. Age features of regulatory systems .............................................473
5.4. Physiological features of the adaptation of people of mature and old age to physical activity ...... 476
6. Physiological features of information processing in athletes of different ages ..............................487
6.1. Significance of information processing processes for sports and their age-related features ..............................487
6.2. Physiological basis of the processes of perception, decision making and programming of response actions....489
6.3. The speed and effectiveness of tactical thinking. Brain capacity ...............................492
6.4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics.. 495
7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages......................496
7.1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age characteristics.. 496
7.2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile...................498
7.3. The manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes .......... 501
7.4. Physiological bases of training process management taking into account functional asymmetry.....505
8. Physiological bases of individual-typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis.507
8.1. Individual typological features of a person ............... 508
8.2. Development of typological features of ontogeny...............................510
8.3. Individual-typological features of athletes and their consideration in the training process......512
8.4. Individual typological features of biorhythms and their influence on human performance..515
Conclusion.....520

The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the new program in physiology for universities of physical culture and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education.
For students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical culture.

FOREWORD ...... 3 Part I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY ...... 8 1. Introduction. History of physiology ...... 8 1. 1. The subject of physiology, its relationship with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports ...... 8 1. 2. Methods of physiological research ...... 9 1 3. Brief history of physiology ...... 10 2. General laws of physiology and its basic concepts ...... 12 2. 1. Main functional characteristics of excitable tissues ...... 12 2. 2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions ...... 14 2. 3. The reflex mechanism of the nervous system ...... 15 2. 4. Homeostasis ...... 16 2. 5. The occurrence of excitation and its conduct .. .... 17 3. Nervous system ...... 21 3. 1. Basic functions of the central nervous system ...... 21 3. 2. Basic functions and interactions of neurons ...... 21 3. 3. Features of the activity of nerve centers ...... 25 3. 4. Coordination of the activity of the central nervous system ...... 29 3. 5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain ...... 33 3. 6. Autonomic nervous system ...... 39 3. 7. Limbic system ...... 43 3. 8. Functions of the cerebral cortex ...... 43 4. Higher Nervous activity ...... 49 4. 1. Conditions for the formation and varieties of conditioned reflexes ...... 49 4. 2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes ...... 52 4. 3. Dynamic stereotype. ..... 52 4. 4. Types of higher nervous activity, the first and second signaling system...... 53 5. Neuromuscular system...... 55 5. 1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles.. .... 55 5. 2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of the muscle fiber ...... 57 5. 3. Single and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram ...... 60 5. 4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength ...... 63 5. 5. Modes of muscle work ...... 67 5. 6. Energy of muscle contraction ...... 68 6. Voluntary movements...... 71 6. 1. Basic principles of organization of movements...... 71 6. 2. The role of various departments of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions...... 75 6. 3. The role of various departments of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements ...... 77 6. 4. Descending motor systems ...... 81 7. Sensory systems ...... 83 7. 1. General plan of organization and functions sensory systems ...... 83 7. 2. Classification and mechanisms of excitation of receptors ...... 84 7. 3. Properties of receptors ...... 86 7. 4. Coding of information ...... 87 7. 5. Visual sensory system ...... 88 7. 6. Auditory sensory system ...... 93 7. 7. Vestibular sensory system ...... 96 7. 8. Motor sensory system ...... 99 7. 9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell. ..... 102 7. 10. Processing, interaction and meaning of sensory information...... 105 8. Blood...... 109 8. 1. Composition, volume and functions of blood...... 110 8. 2. Blood cells...... 112 8. 3. Physical and chemical properties of blood plasma...... 116 8. 4. Blood clotting and transfusion...... 118 8. 5 Regulation of the blood system ...... 121 9. Blood circulation ...... 123 9. 1. The heart and its physiological properties ...... 123 9. 2. The movement of blood through the vessels (hemodynamics) .. .... 128 9. 3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system ...... 132 10. Respiration ...... 136 10. 1. External respiration ...... 136 10. 2. Gas exchange in the lungs and their transport by blood...... 139 10. 3. Regulation of respiration...... 143 11. Digestion...... 145 11. 1. General characteristics of digestive processes...... 145 11. 2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract ...... 147 11. 3. Absorption of food digestion products ...... 153 12. Metabolism and energy ...... 155 12. 1. Protein metabolism ...... 155 12. 2. Carbohydrate metabolism ...... 15 6 12. 3. Lipid metabolism ...... 157 12. 4. Water and mineral salts metabolism ...... 159 12. 5. Energy metabolism ...... 160 12. 6. Metabolism regulation and energy ...... 163 13. Excretion ...... 165 13. 1. General characteristics of excretory processes ...... 165 13. 2. Kidneys and their functions ...... 165 13 3. The process of urination and its regulation ...... 168 13. 4. Homeostatic function of the kidneys ...... 170 13. 5. Urination and urination ...... 170 13. 6. Sweating .. .... 171 14. Heat exchange ...... 173 14. 1. Human body temperature and isothermia ...... 173 14. 2. Mechanisms of heat generation ...... 174 14. 3. Mechanisms heat transfer ...... 176 14. 4. Regulation of heat transfer ...... 177 15. Internal secretion ...... 178 15. 1. General characteristics of the endocrine system ...... 178 15. 2 Functions of endocrine glands...... 181 15. 3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions...... 192 Part II. SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 198 Section I. GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 198 1. Sports physiology - an educational and scientific discipline ...... 199 1. 1. Sports physiology, its content and tasks. ..... 199 1. 2. The Department of Physiology and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology ...... 201 1. 3. The state and prospects for the development of sports physiology ...... 206 2. Adaptation to physical loads and reserve capabilities of the organism ...... 210 2. 1. The dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages ...... 211 2. 2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical stress. ..... 215 2. 3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity ...... 217 2. 4. Functional system of adaptation ...... 221 2. 5. The concept of the body's physiological reserves ...... ... 224 3. Functional states of athletes ...... 226 3. 1. General characteristics of functional states ...... 226 3. 2. Physiological patterns of development of functional states ...... 229 3. 3 Types of functional states ...... 231 4. Functional changes in the body during physical exertion ...... 237 4. 1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body ...... 237 4. 2. Functional shifts under loads of constant power ...... 240 4. 3. Functional shifts under loads of variable power ...... 241 4. 4. Applied value of functional changes for assessing the performance of athletes ...... 243 5. Physiological characteristics of the state of the body during sports activities ...... 244 5. 1. The role of emotions in sports activities ...... 244 5. 2. Pre-launch states iya ...... 247 5. 3. Warm-up and working out ...... 250 5. 4. Steady state during cyclic exercises ...... 252 5. 5. Special states of the body during acyclic, static and exercises of variable power ...... 253 6. Physical performance of an athlete ...... 254 6. 1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition ...... 255 6. 2. Principles and methods physical performance testing ...... 257 6. 3. The relationship of physical performance with the orientation of the training process in sports ...... 262 6. 4. Physical performance reserves ...... 264 7. Physiological foundations of athletes' fatigue ...... 269 7. 1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of the development of fatigue ...... 269 7. 2. Factors of fatigue and the state of body functions ...... 273 7. 3. Features of fatigue in various types physical activity ...... 275 7. 4. Prefatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork ...... 278 8. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes ...... 281 8. 1. General characteristics of recovery processes ...... 281 8. 2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes ...... 283 8. 3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes ...... .. 285 8. 4. Physiological measures to increase the efficiency of recovery ...... 288 Section II. PARTICULAR SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 291 9. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises ...... 291 9. 1. Various criteria for the classification of exercises. ..... 292 9. 2. Modern classification of physical exercises...... 293 9. 3. Physiological characteristics of sports postures and static loads ..... 294 9. 4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements ...... 298 9. 5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements ...... 303 10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities ...... 305 10. 1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of strength development ...... 306 10. 2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of development of speed ...... 310 10. 3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of development of endurance ...... 313 10. 4. Concept about agility and flexibility. Mechanisms and patterns of their development ...... 318 11. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of formation of motor skills ...... 320 11. 1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their study ...... 320 11. 2 Physiological mechanisms of motor skills formation...... 321 11. 3. Physiological regularities and stages of motor skills formation...... 324 11. 4. Physiological bases of motor skills improvement...... 330 12. Physiological fundamentals of the development of fitness ...... 333 12. 1. Physiological characteristics of training and the state of fitness ...... 334 12. 2. Testing the functional fitness of athletes at rest ...... 336 12. 3. Testing the functional fitness of athletes under standard and maximum loads ...... 339 12. 4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overstrain ...... 343 13. Sports performance in special environmental conditions ...... 346 13. 1. Influence of temperature and humidity air on sports performance ...... 346 13. 2. Sports performance under conditions of changed barometric pressure ...... 348 13. 3. Sports performance under changing climatic conditions ...... 353 13. 4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming...... 355 14. Physiological basis of women's sports training...... 357 14. 1. Morphological and functional features of the female body...... 357 14. 2. Functional changes body during training...... 365 14. 3. The influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women...... 370 14. 4. Individualization of the training process, taking into account the phases of the biological cycle...... 373 15. Physiologist -genetic features of sports selection ...... 375 15. 1. Physiological and genetic approach to the issues of sports selection ...... 376 15. 2. Hereditary influences on the morphological and functional characteristics and physical qualities of a person ...... 378 15. 3. Accounting for the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection ...... 383 15. 4. The value of a genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports activities and sensorimotor dominance ...... 390 15. 5. The use of genetic markers to search for highly and quickly trained athletes ...... 395 16. The influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes .. .... 398 16. 1. Storage, transmission of hereditary information and genome decoding ...... 398 16. 2. Genetic DNA markers in sports ...... 402 16. 3. Genetic doping in sports .. .... 405 16. 4. Detection of dopings ...... 415 16. 5. Health risk ...... 417 17. Physiological foundations of health-improving physical culture ...... 421 17. 1. The role of physical culture in the conditions of modern life ...... 422 17. 2. Hypokinesia, physical inactivity and their effect on the human body ...... 4 25 17. 3. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body...... 428 Part III. AGE PHYSIOLOGY ...... 435 1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body ...... 435 1. Periodization and heterochrony of development ...... 435 1. 2. Sensitive periods ... ... 438 1. 3. The influence of heredity and the environment on the development of the body ...... 441 1. 4. Epochal and individual acceleration, biological and passport age ...... 444 2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool children and primary school age and their adaptation to physical activity ...... 448 2. 1. The development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ...... 448 2. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system ...... 456 2. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration ...... 457 2. 4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy ...... 461 2. 5. Features of thermoregulation, processes secretion and activity of the endocrine glands ...... 462 2. 6. Physiological features of the adaptation of children of preschool and primary school about age to physical activity ...... 466 3. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of middle and senior school age and their adaptation to physical stress ...... 488 3. 1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ...... 489 3. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system ... ... 494 3. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration...... 497 3. 4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system...... 500 3. 5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy ...... 506 3. 6. Physiological characteristics of the adaptation of children of middle and senior school age to physical activity ...... 508 4. Physiological characteristics of a physical education lesson at school ...... 530 4. 1. Physiological substantiation of normalization of physical activity for children of school age ...... 530 4. 2. Changes in the functions of the body of schoolchildren at the lesson of physical culture ...... 533 4. 3. Influence of physical culture on physical, functional development, working capacity and the state of health of schoolchildren ...... 536 4. 4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical education and physiological criteria for the restoration of the body of schoolchildren ...... 543 5. Physiological characteristics of the body of people of mature and old age and their adaptation to physical stress. ..... 548 5. 1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive reactions and reactivity of the organism ...... 549 5. 2. Age-related features of the musculoskeletal system, vegetative and sensory systems ...... 553 5 3. Age-related features of regulatory systems...... 557 5. 4. Physiological features of the adaptation of people of mature and old age to physical activity...... 561 6. Physiological features of information processing in athletes of different ages.... .. 573 6. 1. Significance for sports of information processing processes and their age-related characteristics ...... 573 6. 2. Physiological basis of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions ...... 575 6. 3. The speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. Brain capacity ...... 579 6. 4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics ...... 582 7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages ...... 583 7. 1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age characteristics ...... 583 7. 2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile ...... 586 7. 3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes ...... 589 7. 4. Physiological bases of training process management, taking into account functional asymmetry ...... 593 8. Physiological bases individual-typological features of athletes and their development in ontogenesis...... 595 8. 1. Individual-typological features of a person...... 596 8. 2. Development of typological features in ontogenesis. ..... 598 8. 3. Individual typological characteristics of athletes and their consideration in the training process ...... 601 8. 4. Individual typological characteristics of biorhythms and their impact on human performance ...... 604 CONCLUSION...... 609

Publisher: "Sport" (2015)

UDC 612:796.01 LBC 58.0

Solodkov A.S., Sologub E.B. Physiology of sports:

Textbook / SPbGAFK im. P. F. Lesgaft. SPb., 1999. 231 p.

The manual presents modern data on the main sections of general and particular physiology of sports. The materials correspond to the curriculum in physiology for higher education institutions of physical culture and the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education.

The manual is intended for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors who study and develop the problems of sports physiology and exercise control over people who are engaged in physical culture and sports.

Tab. 9. bibliogr. 13.

Reviewers:

V. I. Kuleshov, Dr. honey. sciences, prof. (VMedA); O. S. Nasonkin, Dr. honey. sciences, prof. (SPbGAFK named after P.F. Lesgaft).
St. Petersburg state academy physical culture. P. F. Lesgaft, 1999

Foreword

The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of our century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although some works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the last century (I. O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I. P. Pavlov and the State Committee for Sports of the USSR have existed in our country since the 1960s.

The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Particularly great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the Academy of Physical Culture named after P. F. Lesgaft and its department of physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country.

The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the wide conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses more and more new practical problems for representatives of many specialties, to which theory cannot always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily remarked, "... scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit sooner or later to be useful for someone or for something." An analysis of the development of educational and scientific areas of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.

Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of the physiology of sports, mentioning its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine promising directions for its further development.

To date, there are significant factual materials on the physiology of sports, presented in the relevant textbooks and teaching aids. However, in recent years, new data have appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplementing curriculum, the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to the modern thematic plans, according to which teaching is conducted in the physical education universities of Russia. In view of the foregoing, the presentation of the supplemented and a number of new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information is the subject of this textbook, in which the general and particular parts of the physiology of sports are highlighted. The corresponding sections of the manual also include the results of the authors' own research.

The authors are aware that with a brief presentation of the material, some of the questions did not find a sufficiently complete and comprehensive presentation in the manual. They will gratefully accept all comments and suggestions aimed at its further improvement.

PART ONE

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF SPORTS

PHYSIOLOGY OF SPORT -

EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE.
Physiology of sports is both an academic and a scientific discipline. Its study is carried out in all higher and secondary physical education institutions, at the faculties of physical education of pedagogical universities, as well as at individual departments of state universities and medical universities. In the teaching of the subject, the practical activities of coaches, physiologists and sports doctors, materials obtained in the course of scientific research are used, which are carried out in the relevant research institutes, laboratories and departments.

Physiology of sports, its content and tasks.

Physiology of sportsis a special section of human physiology that studies changes in body functions and their mechanisms under the influence of muscular (sports) activity and substantiates practical measures to increase its effectiveness.

The physiology of sports in its place in the system of training specialists in physical culture and sports is associated with three groups of educational and scientific disciplines. The first group consists fundamental sciences, where based physiology of sports, it uses their theoretical achievements, research methods and information about the environmental factors with which the athlete's body interacts in the process of training and competitive activities. These disciplines include biology, human and animal physiology, chemistry and physics.

The second group includes educational and scientific disciplines that interact with the physiology of sports in such a way that they mutually enrich or complement each other. In this regard, the physiology of sports is closely related to anatomy, biochemistry, biomechanics, hygiene and psychology.

And, finally, the third group of disciplines with which the physiology of sports is associated are those that use its scientific achievements and research methods for their own purposes. These include the theory and methodology of physical culture, pedagogy, sports and pedagogical disciplines, sports medicine, physiotherapy exercises.

The physiology of sports includes two relatively independent and at the same time interconnected parts. The content of the first general sports physiology - are the physiological bases of adaptation to physical loads and the reserve capabilities of the body, functional changes and body conditions during sports activities, as well as the physical performance of the athlete and the physiological bases of fatigue and recovery in sports. The second part - private sports physiology - includes the physiological classification of physical exercises, the mechanisms and patterns of formation and development of motor qualities and skills, sports performance in special environmental conditions, the physiological characteristics of the training of women and children of different ages, the physiological foundations of mass forms of recreational physical culture.

One of the important tasks of the physiology of sports is the scientific substantiation, development and implementation of measures that ensure the achievement of high sports results and the preservation of the health of athletes. Consequently, sports physiology - applied science and mainly preventive , since, by exploring and taking into account the reserve capabilities of the human body, it substantiates ways and means of increasing efficiency, accelerating recovery processes, preventing overwork, overstrain and pathological changes in body functions, as well as preventing the occurrence of various diseases.

Distinctive methodological feature physiology of sports is that its materials can only be obtained on humans, where the application of a number of classical methods of physiology is impossible. In this regard, only separate clarifying experiments, as a rule, in order to study the mechanisms of physiological changes during physical exertion, are carried out on animals. It is also important to emphasize that The main task of sports physiology is a comparative study of the functional state of the human body, i.e. the study is carried out before, during and after motor activity, which is very difficult in natural conditions. Therefore, special load tests have been developed that allow dosing physical activity and register the corresponding changes in body functions in different periods of human activity. For this purpose, a bicycle ergometer, a treadmill (treadmill), steps of different heights, as well as various devices are used to record the functions of the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular and central nervous systems at a distance, transmitting the corresponding indicators via telemetric channels.

The physiology of sports occupies an important place in the theory of physical culture, forming the foundation of knowledge necessary for a coach and teacher to achieve high sports results and maintain the health of athletes. Therefore, the coach and teacher should be well aware of the changes in the physiological processes that occur in the athlete's body during training and competitive activities in order to scientifically build and improve this work, be able to argue their orders and recommendations, avoid overwork and overstrain and not cause harm to health. exercising. They must also understand the essence of the changes that occur in the athlete's body during the rehabilitation period in order to actively and competently influence them, accelerating the recovery reactions.

Thus, it follows from the above that The physiology of sports as an educational and scientific discipline solves two main problems. One of them is the physiological substantiation of the patterns of strengthening human health. with the help of physical exercises and increasing the resistance of his body to the action of various adverse environmental factors (temperature, pressure, radiation, air and water pollution, infections, etc.), as well as in maintaining and restoring working capacity, preventing the development of early fatigue and correction psycho-emotional overload in the process of professional activity of a person. These tasks of the physiology of sports are solved within the framework of mass forms of physical culture.

The second problem of the physiology of sports is the physiological substantiation of measures aimed at achieving high sports results, especially in professional sports. These two problems do not completely coincide, since in order to achieve the highest results in the process of training, in some cases such loads are used that can lead to a decrease in the body's resistance to adverse environmental influences, deterioration in health, and even the occurrence of diseases.

Based on the foregoing, it becomes obvious that the physiological characteristics of body functions should be studied and evaluated separately both in relation to mass physical culture and physical training of special contingents (military personnel, firefighters, geologists, students, schoolchildren and some other categories), and in relation to various sports, especially elite sports.

Department of Physiology, St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture im. P. F. Lesgaft and its role in the formation and development of the physiology of sports.

By a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of October 22, 1919, on the basis of the Higher Courses of Physical Education, the Institute of Physical Education named after A.I. P. F. Lesgaft (in 1929 transformed into the Institute of Physical Culture named after P. F. Lesgaft, and in 1993 - into the Academy) with the establishment of a number of departments, including the Department of Physiology ~ the first such department among the country's sports universities

The organized department from 1919 to 1927 was headed by Leon Abgarovich Orbeli, later active member Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR and Academy of Sciences of the ArmSSR, Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of the State Prizes of the USSR, colonel-general of the medical service, honorary member of a number of foreign academies. Already in those years, under the leadership of L.A. Orbeli carried out the first research work on the effect of physical activity on the body. However, the subject was mainly taught according to the program of medical institutes in the form of lecturing and performing separate laboratory studies in the course of general physiology with some emphasis on the "muscle physiology" section. In the applied plan, only certain medical issues related to the effect of physical exercises on the body were covered. Such content of the discipline reflected at that time the objective state of scientific knowledge in the field of physiology of muscular activity both in our country and abroad. This was the initial, first, period of formation of the physiology of sports.

After leaving the Institute of L. A. Orbeli, Aleksey Nikolaevich Krestovnikov was elected head of the Department of Physiology for 28 years - from 1927 to 1955. During this period, the staff of the department did a great job of collecting the functional indicators of the body of athletes under the influence of various physical exercises and analyzing their changes. The generalized material allowed Professor A. N. Krestovnikov to publish the first textbook of physiology in our country for institutes of physical culture (1938) and the first monograph on the physiology of sports (1939). The publication of these books made it possible to single out and finally form a new educational and scientific sections of the subject in human physiology - the physiology of sports. From this time begins the second, transitional, period of development of the physiology of sports (1930-1950s) as an educational and scientific discipline. From 1955 to 1960 the department was headed by Professor Evgraf Konstantinovich Zhukov.

The modern, third, period of development of the physiology of sports (1960-1990s) is characterized by the creation of systematic educational and scientific sections of the discipline, corresponding to the new tasks of training highly qualified, competent specialists in physical culture and sports. AT curricula This period reflects two interrelated parts of the subject (general and particular sports physiology). Since that time, sports physiologists have begun to study not only the impact of individual physical loads on body functions, but also the impact of systematic training and its characteristics on the functional state of athletes, especially in the process of achieving higher sportsmanship.

An important role in the development of the modern course of physiology of sports was played by Professor Nikolai Vasilyevich Zimkin, who headed the Department of Physiology from 1961 to 1975. and published three editions of the textbook "Human Physiology" under his editorship (1964, 1970, 1975). Research in the field of blood circulation, the neuromuscular apparatus, electroencephalography is intensively developing, and the physiology of stress conditions in sports is being studied. Doctoral dissertations are defended by VV Vasiliev. E. B. Sologub, Yu. Z. Zakharyants. In the period 1975-1984. The department is headed by Honored Worker of Science of the RSFSR, Professor Alexander Sergeevich Mozzhukhin. The main direction of research work is the study of the athlete's functional reserves. During 1984-1986. the duties of the head of the department are temporarily performed by the Honorary Worker of Higher Education of Russia, Professor Elena Borisovna Sologub. Since 1986, the Department has been headed by the Honored Worker of Science of the Russian Federation, Professor Aleksey Sergeevich Solodkov. The scientific interests of the team focus on the problem of the physiological adaptation of the body of athletes to physical activity.

Having a highly qualified staff, the Department of Physiology has made a great contribution to the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel and the preparation of curricula, textbooks and manuals for institutes and technical schools of physical culture. Thus, from 1935 (when the defense of dissertations was introduced) to 1998, 13 doctoral and 160 master's theses were successfully defended under the guidance of the staff of the department (including by foreign graduate students from Cuba, China, India, Egypt and Poland).

Employees of the department took part in the compilation of all published works from 1938 to 1990. 11 study programs and 10 textbooks on physiology for institutes of physical culture. At the same time, the editors of 8 curricula and 6 textbooks were the heads of the Department of Physiology of the GDOIFK them. P. F. Lesgaft. In 13 textbooks on sports and pedagogical disciplines, chapters on the physiological characteristics of physical exercises were also written by employees of the Department of Physiology. The department prepared and published 8 methodological manuals in the form of workshops for conducting laboratory classes in physiology, 7 special teaching aids were published for students correspondence faculty and 4 - for technical schools of physical culture. More than 30 lectures on various issues of the physiological characteristics of physical exercises have been published.

The research work of teachers covered all the main sections of physiology: the nervous and muscular systems, sensory organs, blood circulation and respiration, excretion, internal secretion, as well as special problems of sports physiology: adaptation to physical exertion, functional reserves of the athlete's body, fatigue and recovery, etc. Every year, dozens of scientific papers are published on various issues of the physiology of sports. From 1939 to 1990, the staff of the department published 20 monographs directly related to the physiology of sports, some of them were translated abroad (Bulgaria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Greece, Czechoslovakia).

The highly qualified team of employees of the Department of Physiology constantly attracted the attention of the teaching staff of other institutions, especially newly formed ones. Starting from the pre-war years, teachers of a number of institutes of physical culture and faculties of physical education of pedagogical institutes, institutes of physical culture of the socialist countries and some medical universities were trained at the department. Only in the last 5 years, about 40 people have undergone such an internship at the department. In addition, advanced training of teachers from the aforementioned institutes with a specialization in "physiology" is regularly carried out in the Institute of Education and Science of our university.

The role of the staff of the department in the field of organizational activity is also essential. So, A. N. Krestovnikov until 1955 headed the methodological commission on physiology of the All-Union Committee for Physical Culture and Sports under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, N. V. Zimkin from 1962 to 1976, along with the leadership of this Commission, was the chairman of the scientific commission on physiology , biomechanics, morphology and biochemistry of sports, chairman of the coordinating commission for the teaching of biomedical disciplines and a member of the presidium of the Scientific Council at the USSR State Sports Committee. A.S. Mozzhukhin from 1976 to 1985 was a member of the methodological commission of the State Committee for Sports of the USSR and was chairman of the Council of Heads of the Departments of Physiology of the Institutes of Physical Culture of the RSFSR, and A.S. Solodkov is a member of the Scientific Council of the USSR State Sports Committee for Biological Sciences, chairman of the "Sports Physiology" section of the Problem Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and currently leads the "Sports Physiology" section of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists. I. M. Sechenov and is a member of the Board of this society.

In recent years, the staff of the department has been doing a lot of work on restructuring and improving the teaching of physiology and conducting scientific research. In accordance with the new curriculum and the new program in physiology, the work programs and thematic plans for lectures and laboratory classes on the subject have been redone. Taking into account the fact that the number of lecture hours in the new program has been significantly reduced, lectures are predominantly problematic. Laboratory classes are conducted in such a way that they contribute to understanding the essence, mechanisms and characteristics of the regulation of physiological processes during muscle activity, mastering research methods, instilling in students the skills of research work.

Implementation of the new curriculum According to the multilevel structure of higher physical education, it requires the creation of special educational and professional programs in physiology, taking into account the training of bachelors, graduates and masters of science. The solution of these problems is especially important and a priority for the department because our academy has developed its own version of the curriculum for the implementation of a multi-level structure of higher physical education in Russia.

For the successes achieved in educational and scientific work and in connection with the 75th anniversary of the founding of the department in April 1995, by the decision of the Academic Council of the Academy, it was named after Professor A. N. Krestovnikov, and two of his nominal scholarships were established for students.

1.3. Status and prospects for the development of sports physiology.

The main educational and scientific developments in the physiology of sports began for the first time and are inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture. P. F. Lesgaft. A feature of the activity of the Department of Physiology was the creation of scientific laboratories in the main sections of the physiology of sports.

The studies performed in these laboratories made it possible to obtain new data on sports bioenergetics and to classify sports exercises taking into account their energy characteristics (AB Gandelsman); a method for non-invasive determination of the composition of skeletal muscles was developed and mechanisms for the development of motor skills were discovered (N. V. Zimkin); the phenomenon of synchronization of potentials on electromyograms during fatigue was revealed (E.K. Zhukov); the features of vascular reactions in athletes of various specializations were determined (V.V. Vasilyeva); an original technique for recording electroencephalograms directly in the process of high-intensity muscular work was created and the cortical mechanisms of regulation of athletes' movements were studied for the first time (E. B. Sologub); the emotions of competitive activity were studied (S. A. Razumov); the concept of the athlete's physiological reserves has been developed (A. S. Mozzhukhin); the doctrine of the functional system of adaptation of athletes was substantiated (A. S. Solodkov), etc.

In the future, the study of various problems of the physiology of sports in our country was significantly expanded and deepened, but in most cases, methodological approaches developed at the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture named after A.I. P. F. Lesgaft. Currently, research is being conducted in all educational and research institutes of physical culture, in many universities, medical and pedagogical universities. The role and significance of all physiological systems of the body during muscular activity are studied, as well as priority problems for the physiology of sports: adaptation to physical exertion, performance, fatigue and recovery of athletes, functional reserves of the body, etc.

Clarification of the issue of extrapolation processes in the CNS is essential for substantiating the variability of loads in the process of sports training. Only on the basis of this concept can a training process be correctly built, in which the magnitude, speed and intensity of loads should vary, which is not always taken into account by doctors, coaches and athletes. It is also necessary to take into account the age dynamics of human locomotor functions.

Priority areas for further research into the physiology of the central nervous system are elucidation of the features of the formation and mobilization of the functional reserves of the brain of athletes and the study of rearrangements of cortical functional systems interrelated activity in the process of adapting them to specialized loads. Significant attention should be paid to studies of the evoked activity of the cerebral cortex and spinal cord, as well as the role of functional asymmetry and sensory systems in the formation of some special motor skills.

In recent years, a new direction in the physiology of sports has been developing, associated with the development of sports genetics and considering the features of hereditary influences and trainability of various physiological indicators and physical qualities, and, first of all, the role of innate individual typological features of the body for sports orientation, selection and prediction of achievements in sports .

Favorable changes occurring in the body, and in particular, in the cardiovascular system during physical education and sports, are obvious. However, far from all issues of this section of sports cardiology have been resolved, and the study of functional changes cannot be considered complete. The possibility of developing pathological changes in the heart (pathological sports heart, according to G.F. Lang), which may occur primarily as a result of excessive training loads that exceed the capabilities of a particular athlete, requires further research. Difficulties in the study and prevention of a number of diseases in athletes lie in the fact that at present there is no developed and scientifically based course of pathological physiology of sports, the need for which is very obvious.

So far, there are no data on the effectiveness of different combinations of movement tempo and respiration rate in various sports, as well as on the nature and degree of voluntary corrections of external respiration.

Until now, the issue of the duration of recovery after intense training and competitive loads remains controversial.

Concerning some special theoretical issues that have undeniable applied significance in sports, it is necessary first of all to point out the problems of adaptation to physical loads, functional reserves of the body, sports biorhythmology, psychophysiological and medical selection and professional orientation of athletes. In particular, the immediate tasks are the determination of quantitative criteria for various stages of adaptation, the analysis of adaptive functional systems that are formed during various types of sports activities, the differentiation of adaptive changes from pre-pathological conditions, and the study of compensatory reactions.

For many years, research has been carried out on various functions of the body of athletes. However, complex surveys are carried out relatively rarely, and the analysis of their results is associated with lengthy processing of the data obtained. In this regard, in the physiology of sports, the so-called express methods are of great importance, which allow assessing the functional state of an athlete not only after, but also during training and competition. The important tasks of sports physiologists are also the substantiation, development and implementation of express methods to study the functional systems of adaptation that are formed to various types of physical exercises. The use of computers will make it possible to quickly analyze and generalize the results obtained by various research methods, and immediately put the most important and informative into practice.

Speaking about mass physical culture, the following should be taken into account. The applied loads should cause changes corresponding only to the stage of increasing the nonspecific resistance (adaptation) of the organism. It is also necessary to prevent the possibility of injury. All this also applies to the physical training of special contingents: military personnel, rescue teams, etc. Physical training with children, women, the disabled and people with poor health deserves special attention. Further development and scientific substantiation of a number of physiological problems associated with the age and medical and biological characteristics of these contingents of individuals, the nature of their adaptive rearrangements are required.

In the coming years, in mass physical culture, the issues of the minimum amount of physical exercises with their various combinations and the required duration of classes should be resolved, which together will allow obtaining a sufficient healing effect in terms of people's resistance to adverse environmental factors and maintaining high mental and physical performance. Such studies are complex, voluminous, but they are extremely necessary. At the same time, the minimum norms of load and time during physical exercises will obviously be different for people of different ages, health status, gender, professions, which will require a differentiated approach to research of different population groups. At the same time, it must be emphasized that until now the main attention of researchers has been paid to sports, especially sports of higher achievements. Physical culture of a mass nature is on the sidelines, and functional changes, adaptive changes are studied to a lesser extent.

The intensively developing practice of physical culture and sports requires the fastest implementation of applied areas of sports physiology. At the same time, once again it is necessary to recall the well-known provision that without developing deeply theoretical problems and without spending fundamental research, we will constantly lag behind in practice. It is useful to recall the words of the famous Italian physicist and physiologist Alessandro Volta, which he said back in 1815: "There is nothing more practical than a good theory."

2. ADAPTATION TO PHYSICAL LOADS AND RESERVE CAPABILITIES OF THE ORGANISM.
One of the most important problems of modern physiology and medicine is the study of the regularities of the process of adaptation of the organism to various environmental factors. Human adaptation affects a wide range of general biological patterns, the interests of workers of various scientific disciplines and is connected, first of all, with self-regulation of multicomponent functional systems. It is no coincidence that the problem of human adaptation is one of the main sections of the extensive International Biological Program.

Currently, there are a number of definitions of adaptation. In our opinion, the most complete is the concept of physiological adaptation, given in the third edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia: "Physiological adaptation is a set of physiological reactions that underlies the adaptation of the body to changes in environmental conditions and is aimed at maintaining its relative constancy internal environment- homeostasis". (M., 1969. T.], p. 216).

The significance of the problem of adaptation in sports is determined primarily by the fact that the athlete's body must adapt to physical activity in a relatively short time. It is the speed of the onset of adaptation and its duration that largely determine the state of health and fitness of an athlete. In this regard, the development of a systematic justification for the adaptation of the body in the process of achieving the highest sportsmanship is of considerable scientific interest for the practice of sports. At the same time, it is well known that the morphological and functional features of the human body, formed over a long period of evolution, cannot change with the same speed as the structure and nature of training and competitive loads in sports change. The discrepancy in time between these processes can lead to the emergence of functional disorders, which are manifested by various pathological disorders.

2.1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages.
The determination of functional changes that occur during training and competitive loads is necessary, first of all, to assess the process of adaptation, the degree of fatigue, the level of fitness and performance of athletes and is the basis for improving recovery measures. The influence of physical activity on a person can only be judged on the basis of a comprehensive consideration of the totality of reactions of the whole organism, including reactions from the central nervous system, hormonal apparatus, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, analyzers, metabolism, etc. It should be emphasized that the severity of changes in functions body in response to physical activity depends primarily on the individual characteristics of a person and his level of fitness. Changes in the functional indicators of the body of athletes can be correctly analyzed and comprehensively assessed only when they are considered in relation to the adaptation process.

Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov

Foreword

PART ONE

ecosystems

Zoology

Biology

Long 19th century

recent history

Middle Ages

new time

Interwar period