Problems in society in the second half of the 19th century. Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Russia in the reign of Alexander II

home » Interwar period Problems in society in the second half of the 19th century. Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Russia in the reign of Alexander II

Subject: Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

1. Domestic politics Nicholas I.

2. Social movement of the 30-50s. XIX century: the theory of official nationality, Slavophiles, Westerners, revolutionary democrats.

3. Foreign policy of Nicholas I. Crimean War.

1. In 1825 - 1855. The Russian emperor was Nicholas I, brother of Alexander I.

He was the third son of Paul I, so he was not prepared for the throne, he received a military education usual for grand dukes. Therefore, Nikolai was accustomed to solving all state issues by the same methods as they operate in the army, that is, by direct order. It seemed to him that if executive officials were appointed to all posts, then all problems would be successfully solved. Unlike Alexander, he was also alien to liberalism and considered it necessary to keep the autocracy intact. During his reign, His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery became increasingly important. In 1826, it created department II (for the codification of laws), III (high political police), IV (management of charitable institutions). In the 1830s department V is created (to carry out reform in the state village) and VI (to manage the Transcaucasus). Non-initiative, but executive officials were appointed to all positions. There were so many of them that one day the emperor himself admitted: "Russia is ruled by head clerks."

At the same time, Nikolai tried to carry out some transformations, but it should be borne in mind that they did not address the most important problematic issues or introduced only partial improvements. So, in 1826, under the leadership of M.M. Speransky, the codification of legislation began. In 1830 - 1832. 45 volumes of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire were published. Of these, the current ones were selected, published in 1833 in the 15-volume Code of Laws.

In 1837 - 1841. a reform of the management of the state village was carried out. For this, the Ministry of State Property was created under the leadership of P.D. Kiseleva. Hospitals and schools were created for state peasants, and potato plantings were organized in case of crop failure. It was assumed that the landowners would also improve the lives of their peasants along this pattern. However, the peasants began to rebel against the forced planting of potatoes, moreover, revolutionary actions were increasingly taking place in Europe, and the Nikolaev government did not dare to continue the reform.

In 1839, under the leadership of the Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin carried out a financial reform. The basis of the monetary system was the silver ruble. Paper money could be freely exchanged for silver, but the ministry ensured that the issuance of paper money matched the government's silver reserves, and thus kept inflation in check.

In 1842, a law on obligated peasants was issued, according to which the landowner could free his peasants with land at will. For this land, the peasants were obliged to bear duties in favor of the landowner. In total, 24,000 peasants were released under this decree. Nicholas I was afraid of more serious steps in the issue of the liberation of the peasants. He told the nobles: “There is no doubt that in its current form serfdom there is evil, nor to touch it at the present moment would be a matter even more disastrous.

Thus, Nicholas I managed to strengthen the state through some partial transformations, but their effect was very short-lived. Meanwhile, in economic terms, Russia was falling further and further behind Western Europe.

1. During the reign of Nicholas I, there was a strengthening of the autocracy, the need for reform was categorically denied. The “theory of official nationality” was finally formed, formulated by the Minister of Public Education S.S. Uvarov. According to this theory, the foundations of all life in Russia are Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality (the latter was understood as a combination of love for Orthodoxy and autocracy among the common people). It was a conservative theory that if these principles of Russian life were kept intact, Russia would prosper. Despite the fact that the “theory of official nationality” in many respects correctly (at that time) reflected the peculiarities of Russian spiritual life, it assumed that Russia had reached a state close to ideal, i.e. did not put forward any prospects for development.

However, there were people who did not agree with this. So, P.Ya. Chaadaev spoke about the dangers of isolation from the latest ideological trends in Europe, spiritual stagnation. He did not see anything positive in Russia at all. By order of the emperor, he was declared insane. But reflections on the fate of the country, different from the official ideology, continued to appear. feature social movement At that time, there was a controversy between Westerners and Slavophiles. Slavophiles are former members of Stankevich's circle (A.S. Khomyakov, Yu.F. Samarin, brothers K. and I. Aksakov, and others). They believed that Russia was developing along a different path than the countries of Western Europe. They considered the Orthodox faith and the peasant community to be the basis of Russian civilization. The Slavophils believed that Peter the Great had diverted Russia from its natural path of development with his reforms, and this situation must be corrected. Naturally, at the same time they were opponents of the constitution and parliament, but for the abolition of serfdom and the convening of a deliberative Zemsky Sobor (i.e., for a partial return to the orders of pre-Petrine Rus').

Westerners (historians T.N. Granovsky, S.M. Solovyov, lawyer K.D. Kavelin) believed that Russia was developing along the same path as Europe. So, Kavelin was a supporter of the ideas of freedom of the human person, the abolition of serfdom. At the same time, he partly agreed with the Slavophiles that the peasant community played a large role in the history of Russia. Westerners were supporters of bourgeois reforms on the European model.

The revolutionary democrats (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, later - N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov) were not supporters of reforms, but of a revolution that would allow an immediate transition to socialism, bypassing capitalism with its shortcomings. Their views were close to Western ones (they also believed that Russia was developing along the same path as the European countries). But the bourgeois system of the countries of Western Europe did not seem correct to them. They considered it possible to establish a just social order without the oppression of man by man (socialism) through revolution. It seemed to them that, thanks to the presence in Russia of a peasant community (“a Russian peasant is a socialist by nature”), it could bypass capitalism with its shortcomings and go straight to socialism (the so-called “peasant socialism”).

It should be noted that the government had a negative attitude not only to the revolutionaries, but also to the Westernizers and Slavophiles. The ideas of the Westerners seemed dangerous, the ideas of the Slavophiles were close to the provisions of the “theory of official nationality”, but the Nikolaev government did not agree to the abolition of serfdom and the convening of the Zemsky Sobor.

A vivid example of the complete unwillingness of the government to cooperate with social forces was the fate of M.V. Petrashevsky (Western direction). This circle, which existed in 1844 - 1849, was small, and its members were engaged only in verbal discussion of the problems of Russia's development. Nevertheless, they were sentenced to death, which was replaced by hard labor.

3. Nicholas I, based on his idea of the greatness of autocratic Russia, sought to pursue an active foreign policy. Its main areas were the "Eastern Question" and the fight against revolutions in Europe.

The “Eastern Question” is commonly understood as the problem of the Turkish Empire, which by that time had clearly weakened and caused the desire of the great powers to divide its possessions. In a broader sense, the "Eastern Question" is the entire policy of Russia in the Near and Middle East.

IN 1826 - 1829. Russia successfully waged war with Iran. In 1827, Russia, England and France came out in support of Greece, which had rebelled against Turkish rule. The Allied fleet defeated the Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay. Considering Russia its main adversary, Turkey declared war on it, which lasted until 1829. and ended with the victory of Russia. Türkiye was forced to recognize the independence of Greece and Russian influence in Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1830, Nicholas I supported Turkey in the war with Egypt, and for this, according to the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, he received from Turkey the right of free passage of Russian ships through Black Sea straits. For the ships of other powers, they remained closed, which caused discontent in England and France.

Throughout the long reign of Nicholas I, the conquest of the Caucasus continued, which began under Alexander I under the leadership of General Eromolov, and ended only in 1859 under Alexander II with the conquest of Chechnya and the capture of Imam Shamil.

In 1848 a revolution began in Europe, in 1849 Nicholas I sent troops to the Austrian Empire to suppress the revolution in Hungary. But its too active foreign policy began to cause discontent of the leading powers of the West. " Eastern Question"even more exacerbated Russia's relations with England and France. These countries, being economically much stronger than Russia, were not going to divide Turkey, as Nicholas I suggested, but to subjugate it to themselves by economic means. As a result, started Eastern (Crimean) War 1853 - 1856. Meanwhile, Russia was not ready for war. In England and France, rifled guns had already appeared in service, the Russian army was armed with smooth-bore guns. In England and France Navy was largely steam, in Russia - mainly sailing. Initially, only Russia and Türkiye participated in the war. But on November 18, 1853, the Russian fleet of Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov utterly defeated the Turkish fleet at Sinop, disrupting the landing in the Caucasus.

England and France, under the guise of helping Turkey, hastened to enter the war. In 1854 their fleet entered the Black Sea. Anglo-French ships also operated in the Baltic Sea, in the North, attacked Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, but were not successful anywhere. The main actions unfolded in the Crimea. Having landed there, in September 1854, the Anglo-French troops, using superiority in weapons, defeated the Russian army in the battle on the river. Alma and laid siege to Sevastopol. Its siege lasted 349 days. The Black Sea Fleet, unable to fight the Allied steam ships, had to be flooded. The Russian army, located in the Crimea, continued to lose battles, but the allies could not take Sevastopol, despite the clear superiority in forces. However, the Russian troops, weakened by a long siege, could not hold Sevastopol either, and in August 1855 they left it.

Under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, Russia returned the mouth of the Danube to Turkey and was deprived of the right to have a navy on the Black Sea. These were not too difficult conditions, since England and France were also weakened by a long war and did not dare to demand more, moreover, in the Caucasus, Russian troops acted successfully against the Turks. However, Russia lost the war, which was a shock to Russian society. It became clear that one of the reasons for the defeat (as it seemed - the main one) was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Western Europe.

Subject: Reforms of Alexander II.

1. The crisis of the feudal-serf system. Reasons for the reforms.

2. Preparation of the peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom.

3. Bourgeois reforms:

a) zemstvo;

b) judicial;

c) military;

d) public education.

4. The fate of the reforms. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

1. In 1855, Emperor Nicholas I, exhausted by failures in the Crimean War, dies. His son Alexander II (1855-1881) came to the throne.

Although he was in many ways similar to his father and respected him, he was more receptive to innovations, and understood that Russia was in a crisis. This crisis took the form of:

1) The labor of serfs both in industry and in agriculture was unproductive, therefore Russia was economically lagging behind the countries of Western Europe, which was shown by the Crimean War;

2) There was a threat of new peasant uprisings, especially since in 1856-1857. unrest had already begun in the southern provinces;

3) The need for change was increasingly felt in society, even the nobles themselves began to recognize serfdom as an immoral phenomenon, too similar to slavery.

It should be noted that the depth of this crisis still should not be exaggerated. The figures speak in general about the successful industrial development of the country on the eve of reforms. Thus, in 1815 there were 4,189 factories in the country with 173,000 workers; by 1858, there were already 12,258 factories, and 549,000 workers. By the middle of the century, 2/3 of all industrial products were manufactured using machines, and 4/5 of all workers were already civilian employees. Consequently, Russia has already embarked on the capitalist path anyway, even without the abolition of serfdom.

2. In 1857, an Unofficial Committee was created to consider the peasant problem, but its activities were ineffective. Therefore, in the same year, Alexander II was forced to openly point out to the nobles the need to create noble provincial committees on the peasant question. The proposals of these committees were submitted to two editorial commissions established in March 1859. They were headed by A.Ya. Rostovtsev, assisted by Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs Nikolai Milyutin. In 1858, the peasant question was allowed to be openly discussed in the press.

In 1859 - 1860. the project for the liberation of the peasants was ready; for its final discussion, the nobles were summoned to St. Petersburg in two receptions (separately from the black earth and non-black earth provinces). Based on their latest comments, the draft was finalized and February 19, 1861. serfdom is abolished.

Peasants ceased to be property and received civil rights. They still united in communities, which were headed by elected village elders. To resolve all issues with the former owners, the position of peace mediators was introduced, who were appointed from the nobility.

The land was recognized as the property of the landlords, and the peasants still had to bear duties for the use of it until they redeemed the land. Hence the concept temporarily liable peasants - peasants released under the reform of 1861, but not yet transferred for redemption and bearing duties in favor of the landowner. But these duties were already strictly regulated in charter- a document establishing the relationship between the landowner and the temporarily liable. In the black earth provinces, peasant allotments were greatly reduced, some of them were “cut off” in favor of the landowners (hence the concept "segments"). But the peasants themselves, in any case, did not have the means to immediately redeem their allotment, so the state paid the landowners 80% of the land value for them. The peasants had to return the debt to the state for 49 years with the payment of 3% per annum.

Thus, the reform had an obviously compromise character. The state tried to inflict as little damage as possible on the nobles. At the same time, although the situation of the peasants was difficult due to the difficulties of buying land, the fact that they nevertheless received land was a positive fact.

3. a) zemstvo reform

Held in 1864. In the course of this reform, zemstvos were created - all-class bodies of local self-government. They consisted of the zemstvo assembly (provincial and district), which made decisions, and the zemstvo council (provincial and district), which carried out these decisions. Nobles prevailed in the zemstvos, since the elections of deputies (“vowels”) were held at three separate congresses - large landowners, city owners and peasants. As a result, the nobles dominated the first two congresses. At the same time, the role of zemstvo workers - doctors, teachers, statisticians, agronomists, veterinarians, who were mostly not nobles, but raznochintsy - began to constantly increase.

In 1870, on similar grounds, a city reform was carried out.

b) judicial reform

In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. The court became common for all estates. The order of the court was as follows - the prosecution was brought by the prosecutor, the defender (sworn attorney) objected to him, the decision (guilty; not guilty; guilty, but deserves leniency) was made by jurors - 12 people chosen by lot from each class. Small cases were dealt with by a magistrate. A judge of any level could not be removed from office before the expiration of his term of office.

c) military reform

Military reforms were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin. In 1861, the division of the country into military districts was introduced. The number of military educational institutions for the training of officers was increased. The rearmament of the army began with steel rapid-fire cannons, rifles of the Berdan-2 system with a firing range of 1 thousand meters (instead of the Krnk rifle with a firing range of 400 m). The main part of the reform was the adoption of 1874. law on universal military service. This made it possible, having a relatively small peacetime army, to create a trained reserve in case of war. Service in the army (6 years) or in the navy (7 years) became mandatory for all men who are fit for health reasons and have reached the age of 20. But people who had an education served a shorter term - an elementary public school - 4 years, a county school - 3 years, a gymnasium - 1.5 years, a university - half a year. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army.

d) reform of public education (1864)

In connection with the development of the country along the capitalist path, i.e. due to the rapid growth of industry and transport, the need for educated people has increased. The number of schools began to increase - both zemstvo and parochial. For non-Russian peoples, writing in their languages begins to be created. Secondary education has become classical or real. Ancient languages (Latin and Greek) were taught to a greater extent in classical gymnasiums, while natural sciences were taught in real schools. But graduates of real schools could only enter institutes according to the profile of their education, and not universities. Higher education also developed, and there were more students in universities. The development of higher women's education began - in 1878, higher women's courses were created in St. Petersburg.

4. After the reforms, oddly enough, Alexander II was not loved by all sectors of society. The conservatives did not support the reforms, and the most radical social forces could not forgive Alexander II for inconsistency in the implementation of reforms. The revolutionaries made a number of attempts on him, in 1881 he died as a result of one of them. His son Alexander III became emperor ( 1881 - 1894.).

In his personal views, he was a conservative, not a reformer. In addition, the murder of his father made a strong impression on him. From the point of view of Alexander III, his father weakened the autocracy too much with his reforms, which led to the strengthening of anti-government, revolutionary forces. This means that it was necessary, without abandoning the reforms that had taken place, to strengthen the autocracy, which he considered the historically established, the only possible form of power in Russia.

In 1881, the “Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Protection” were adopted, according to which local authorities received the right to close educational establishments, periodicals, to refer cases to a military court instead of a civil one, if they believed that this was in the interests of protecting the existing order.

At the same time, it cannot be argued that Alexander III completely abandoned his father's reforms and did not approve of them. So, in 1882, the Peasants' Bank was created, which gave loans to peasants to buy land; in 1883, all peasants who had not yet concluded a redemption deal for land with the landowners were transferred to the compulsory redemption of land.

In 1885, the Noble Bank was created, which issued very profitable loans secured by noble estates.

In 1887, an educational counter-reform was carried out - the so-called “circular about cook's children” was published, according to which it was not recommended to admit children of laundresses, cooks, small shopkeepers, etc. to the gymnasium, unless they are distinguished by outstanding abilities.

In 1889, the “Regulations on Zemstvo district chiefs” were adopted, who were appointed from the nobility and replaced justices of the peace in the village. They had the right to cancel any decision of the peasant assembly. As a result, the power of the nobles over the peasants was partially restored. The exit of peasants from the community was difficult.

In 1890, the Zemstvo counter-reform was carried out. The property qualification for the nobles during elections to the zemstvos was lowered, and for the townspeople it was increased. Vowels from the peasants were now approved by the governor.

It seemed to Alexander III that by his actions he put the country on a healthy, historically determined path of development. On the one hand, he really strengthened the state. On the other hand, the brevity of government and the great economic successes of that time prevented him from seeing the emerging problems (relations between the workers and the bourgeoisie, the dissatisfaction of the bourgeoisie with its removal from power, the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the lack of land, etc.). And his son Nicholas II, who ascended the throne, was also sure that his father had handed him a pacified, strong Russia, and was not ready to solve these problems.

Subject: Social movement in Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

1. Social movement in the late 1850s - early 1860s. Revolutionary Democrats.

2. Formation of the theoretical views of the populists. Populist movement in the 70s - 90s. 19th century Revolutionary and liberal populism.

3. Labor movement in late XIX V. The first workers' organizations. Spread of Marxism in Russia.

4. The liberal movement at the end of the 19th century

1. In the late 1850s. and immediately after the abolition of serfdom in Russia there was an upsurge in the social movement. The main figures of revolutionary democracy at that time were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky. The dissatisfaction of the peasants with the unfavorable conditions for the redemption of land under the reform of February 19, 1861, had an impact on revolutionary democracy. The appeals “To the young generation”, “Young Russia”, “What do the people need”, “What should the army do?” Are distributed, directly calling on the peasantry and youth of various ranks to take action. In 1861, the Land and Freedom Society was created, seeking to unite the revolutionary forces. The government took retaliatory measures - N.G. was arrested. Chernyshevsky, the publication of the Sovremennik magazine was suspended for eight months. At the same time, the activity of the revolutionaries at that time was still on the whole weak and fragmented, it mainly consisted in the work of a few, mainly student circles. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutin at Moscow University D. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on Alexander II, but was captured. Another circle was organized in St. Petersburg by S.G. Nechaev, who demanded blind obedience from the members of the organization in the name of the revolution and preached the principle of permissiveness in order to achieve his goals. On his orders, one of the students who refused to obey was killed, the circle was opened.

Thus, the activity of revolutionary organizations at that time was still insignificant. Although the educated part of society often sympathized with the young revolutionaries, who endured heavy punishments in the name of their views, their unscrupulousness and readiness for murder did not contribute to their support.

2. The leading trend in the revolutionary movement since the 1870s. becomes populism. As a social trend, it began to take shape from the end of the 1860s, when its representatives began to incline towards the need to fight for the interests of the people (by which they meant, first of all, the peasants). The main ideologists of revolutionary populism were M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov and P.N. Tkachev.

M.A. Bakunin headed the anarchist, or rebellious trend in populism. He considered statehood in any form to be the source of all the troubles of the people. He argued that the Russian people should not be agitated, but rebelled. After this general revolt, which the state would sweep away, a federation of self-governing rural communities and industrial associations was to be created.

P.L. Lavrov actively participated in the student movement in his youth, in particular, in Ishutin's circle. He was a very gifted man, he graduated from the Artillery Academy and became a professor there. Lavrov, like Bakunin, considered the peasant community a "cell of socialism", but rejected the position that the peasants were ready for an immediate revolution. Therefore, he considered it necessary to propagate revolutionary ideas for a long time, first among the intelligentsia, and then by its forces, among the peasants. Accordingly, this direction of revolutionary populism is usually called propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev led in revolutionary populism conspiratorial direction. At one time he was convicted in the case of Nechaev and shared the views of the latter. According to Tkachev, the revolution should not be a general peasant revolt. He believed that a small group of professional revolutionary conspirators should seize power, and as a result of this coup, conditions would appear for the construction of socialism by the peasants.

Despite the difference in views on the nature of the revolution itself, in the views of all revolutionary Narodniks one can single out something in common, namely:

The need for a revolution to overthrow the existing system;

Reliance on the peasantry as the main force of this revolution;

The opportunity, using the peasant community, to prevent the development of Russia along the capitalist path and immediately go over to socialism.

Thus, the revolutionary populists were the ideological heirs of the revolutionary democrats of an earlier period.

In 1874, supporters of Bakunin's ideas organized a "going to the people", in which more than 2 thousand people took part. However, the peasants, willingly criticizing the severity of taxes and redemption payments, the lack of land, did not accept complex and incomprehensible ideas about the future of socialism. Moreover, they did not perceive attempts to raise them to an uprising, but when it came to overthrowing the tsar, the peasants themselves often betrayed the populists to the police. More than a thousand people were arrested, "going to the people" failed.

After this failure, the Narodniks tried to move on to more systematic propaganda, striving to settle in the countryside as doctors, teachers, blacksmiths, and gradually impressing their ideas on the peasants. However, this "going to the people" in 1876 had a very modest result.

The failures of "going to the people" led some of the Narodniks to realize the fallacy of their views and the need to create a stronger and more united revolutionary organization. In 1876, it was created under the name "Land and Freedom", using the name of the organization that existed in 1861-1864. Among its organizers and the most active figures are G.V. Plekhanov, V. Figner, S. Perovskaya. This organization participated in the "going to the people" in 1876, in December of the same year held a demonstration at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which was easily dispersed by the police. In general, the organization was small, numbering up to 150 people throughout Russia. The main demands were the transfer of all land to the peasants, freedom of speech, assembly, religion, the creation of industrial agricultural and industrial associations. The main tactical means was considered to be revolutionary propaganda among, first of all, the peasants, as well as workers, students, and the military. Acts of terror, although committed, were not yet recognized as an important element of tactics. However, in 1879 it was precisely the problem of political terror that caused the split of the "Land and Freedom" - its supporters (A. Zhelyabov, V. Figner, S. Perovskaya and others) founded their own organization "Narodnaya Volya". Supporters of the old tactics created the Black Redistribution organization.

The Narodnaya Volya very soon came to the idea that the autocracy in Russia had no support and that it was enough to kill the emperor for a revolution to take place. Since 1879, they made several attempts on Alexander II, whom they managed to kill on March 1, 1881. After that, the police managed to arrest many Narodnaya Volya members, and the organization was crushed. Many people who had previously sympathized with the revolutionaries were pushed away by regicide. "Black redistribution" by 1882 also collapsed.

It should be noted that in populism there was not only a revolutionary, but also a liberal trend. The ideologists of this trend were the publicist, sociologist and literary critic N.K. Mikhailovsky, economists V.V. Vorontsov and N.F. Danielson. The fact is that populism was originally born not as political movement, initially, populism was understood as the desire to study folk life and the desire to alleviate the plight of the peasantry. The idea of "returning debt" to the people by the educated classes of society became popular among young students of noble origin. Liberal populism came up with the idea of a peaceful path of social transformations and with the theory of "small deeds" in the cultural, educational and national economic spheres. Supporters of liberal populism also sought to settle among the peasants, working for them in their specialty (doctor, teacher, agronomist, statistician), but not for the sake of conducting revolutionary propaganda, but precisely for the sake of benefiting the people with their profession.

3. With the emergence in post-reform Russia of a fairly large working class and its awareness of its own interests, the labor movement also begins to emerge. Workers begin to organize strikes, presenting economic demands to the owners. The most significant strike was the "Morozov strike" at T.S. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuev in 1885. The workers were put on trial, but the court, having found that working conditions at Morozov's factory were indeed extremely difficult, justified them. Moreover, under the influence of this and some other strikes, the government created a factory inspectorate, banned night work for women and adolescents, reduced fines to a maximum of a third of earnings, with the condition that fines be used only for work needs.

In the second half of the 1870s. the first workers' organizations began to appear. In 1875, in Odessa, a former student, revolutionary E. Zaslavsky created the "South Russian Union of Russian Workers", but in the same year it was crushed by the police. In 1878, in St. Petersburg, S. Khalturin organized the "Northern Union of Russian Workers", but it was also defeated in 1880.

The new upsurge of the labor movement was connected with the enthusiasm of the revolutionary intelligentsia for Marxism. Seeing the inconsistency of populist views, the revolutionaries are inclined to the idea of K. Marx that the most revolutionary class is not the peasantry at all, but the industrial proletariat, and it is precisely this class, in alliance with the poorest peasantry, that can make a socialist revolution. In 1883 in Geneva, G.V. Plekhanov created the Emancipation of Labor group. In the same year, a group of D. Blagoev was organized in St. Petersburg. The main promoter of Marxist ideas in Russia was G.V. Plekhanov. In 1895 in St. Petersburg V.I. Lenin created the "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class". Already in 1896, the police stopped his activities, but V.I. Lenin persistently sought the creation of a new organization in the form of a single political party uniting all Marxists with strong internal discipline. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was held in Minsk, but the congress delegates were arrested almost immediately. In fact, the party appeared only in 1903, at the II Congress in Brussels and London, and immediately split into two parties - the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.

Marxist intellectuals began to propagate their views among the workers, explaining to them that it was necessary to wage not only an economic, but also a political struggle, since the enemy of the workers is not only a particular entrepreneur, but the entire existing socio-political system, which allows the exploitation of man by man. As a result, part of the Russian workers gradually became Marxists.

4. In the second half of the XIX century. the liberal direction of social and political thought in Russia also experienced an upsurge. This was due to the zemstvo reforms, since the positions of the liberal nobility and intelligentsia were very strong in the zemstvo and city governments from the very beginning. Work in the zemstvos was well suited to their views (liberals reject the violent path of transformation).

At the end of the 1870s. vowel of the Tver Zemstvo Petrunkevich openly called on the government to continue the reforms, but was exiled to the Kostroma province. Nevertheless, the Zemstvo liberals continued to demand constitutional freedoms. They were little interested in social issues, but, working in zemstvos, they did a lot for the development of public education and health care.

The weakness of Russian liberalism consisted not only in the unwillingness to fight for their views, but also in the political inertia of the bourgeoisie, which could become the social pillar of liberalism. As a result, revolutionaries quickly occupied the first place in the social movement. The government also did not seek to use liberals to work together, pushing them away from itself.

Subject: Economic development of Russia after the abolition of serfdom.

1. Agriculture.

2. Development of trade and industry.

1. In the XIX century. The center of the country remained the most developed agricultural region. The main part of arable land was located here, more than 80% of livestock were kept. In total, by the end of the century in Russia there were 25 million horses, 30 million head of cattle, 12 million pigs, 63 million sheep. Russia was the world's largest producer of agricultural products, ranked first in the export of bread. With the abolition of serfdom, the economy began to develop more successfully. So, if in the cash of the 1860s. the average harvest of grain from a tithe (1.09 hectares) was 25 pounds, then after 20 years - 40 pounds. The peasant economy was increasingly drawn into market relations, focusing not only on self-sufficiency in products, but also on their sale. But there were also difficulties. According to the reform of 1861, the peasants, especially in the black earth provinces, received very small plots - often only 3-4 acres, which was not enough to increase production. By the end of the century, the population of the village had almost doubled, which led to a shortage of land, especially in the black earth provinces. Lacking funds for the development of the economy, the overwhelming majority of the peasants continued to use the same tools as in the 18th century, often even wooden rather than metal ones. Only at the end of the XIX century. the introduction of new tools of labor in peasant farms has become more widespread. This process was also held back in connection with the conservatism of the peasant psychology. The productivity of landlord farms, where fertilizers and new implements were used more often, was often twice as high. Many landowners, especially those of the most distinguished families (Stroganovs, Sheremetevs, Shuvalovs), retained the character of latifundia, sometimes including not hundreds, but thousands and hundreds of thousands of acres. By the beginning of the XX century. 155 owners owned 16 million acres - 20% of all privately owned land. Nevertheless, the main part of market production was given by peasant farms. Rye was grown mainly (40% of all crops), as well as oats (20%), wheat (17%), and other cereals. Potatoes were still little sown, it occupied only 2% of the crops. At that time, the state began to create agricultural schools and courses for peasants; in 1865, the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forestry Academy was founded in Moscow.

The abolition of serfdom, the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of the social movement, the establishment of capitalism - all this contributed to the growth of enlightenment and the further development of culture. The leading role in art in the post-reform period belonged to the progressive raznochintsy intelligentsia.

in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Primary education developed at the fastest pace. Along with parochial and one-class schools of the Ministry of Public Education, zemstvo schools, which were maintained at the expense of local zemstvos, are becoming widespread. By the end of the century, primary education in rural areas included several million students. Many cities had Sunday schools for adults. But the number of literate people in Russia in 1897 was only 21% of the total population of the country.

By the end of 1914, there were about 124 thousand primary educational institutions in Russia, in which a little more than 30% of children aged 8 to 11 studied (46.6% in cities).

After heated debates about the nature of secondary education, the classical gymnasium became its basis, in which up to 40% of the study time was devoted to the study of Latin and Greek. In 1862, the first women's gymnasiums were opened. A special ministerial circular ("On the cook's children") limited the admission of children of poor parents to the gymnasium.

Advances in higher education have included both an increase in the number of higher education institutions and an increase in the number of students. In the post-reform period, along with the opening of new universities (in Odessa, Tomsk, Saratov), other higher educational institutions were opened (Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg, various institutes in St. Petersburg and Moscow).

In 1913/14 academic year in Russia there were 63 state higher educational institutions, in which more than 71 thousand students studied.

Literature

In the post-reform period, literature continues to occupy a leading place in Russian culture. Realism is still the predominant direction in it. A feature of realism was the constant desire to reflect reality as broadly as possible, to reveal and denounce public untruth. At the same time, the literature of realism asserted positive social ideals. Nationality, patriotism, protection of the rights and interests of the masses and the individual, the struggle for social justice - these are the characteristic features inherent in progressive Russian literature.

The names of I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov have forever entered the treasury of world literature. Advanced literature, responding to the most important socio-political events of that time, had a significant impact on the development of theater, music and fine arts.

Theater

Russian theatrical culture of the second half of the XIX century. nationality and humanism, ideological and emotional richness, deep reproduction of human characters and historical truth were inherent. Continuing the traditions of Fonvizin, Griboedov, Pushkin, A. Ostrovsky completed the creation of Russian national drama with his work (the plays “Dowry”, “Our people - we will settle”, “Thunderstorm”, “Profitable place”, etc.).

The Maly Theater was rightfully the center of the theatrical life in Russia. The leading place in his repertoire was occupied by Ostrovsky's plays. The great actress M. Yermolova created many memorable female images on the stage of the theater. Among them is the image of Catherine from Ostrovsky's Thunderstorm.

Music

From the middle of the XIX century. the musical life of Russia more and more often leaves the walls of salons for the elite. In 1859, the Russian Musical Society was created in St. Petersburg. In the early 60s. M. Balakirev founded a free music school in St. Petersburg. The first Russian conservatories are opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At the same time, a circle of composers formed around the composer Balakirev in St. Petersburg, known as the “Mighty Handful” (M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky Korsakov, A. Borodin, C. Cui). The composers of The Mighty Handful included motifs from folk songs in their symphonic and operatic works. An important place in their work was occupied by operas on historical themes: "Boris Godunov" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky-Korsakov. The pinnacle of Russian musical art of the second half of the 19th century. was the work of P. Tchaikovsky. His operas ("Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker"), romances forever entered the history of not only Russian, but also world art.

Painting

In the second half of the XIX century. it is the time of the rise and flourishing in Russia of the national realistic and democratic school of painting. In 1863, a group of the most talented students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, headed by I. Kramskoy, demanded freedom in choosing a subject for graduation work. Having been refused, they left the Academy and created an artel of free artists. In 1870, on the initiative of I. Kramskoy, G. Myasoedov, N. Ge, V. Perov, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was organized in St. Petersburg. The ideological leader of the Wanderers was Kramskoy, who created a whole gallery of portraits of Russian writers, artists, and public figures. The highest achievements of Russian realism in painting are associated with the work of I. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn't Wait”, “The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan”) and V. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyary Morozova”, “Conquest of Siberia by Ermak”).

The development of art in the second half of the XIX century. in Russia - one of the most remarkable pages in the history of Russian and world culture.

The beginning of the 20th century - the "silver age" of Russian culture

The Russian culture of the beginning of the new century was a worthy successor to the Russian culture of the 19th century, although its development took place in different historical conditions.

The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of Russian science, literature, art, a kind of cultural revival. It seemed to fall apart into several currents: on the one hand, the further development of the best democratic traditions, on the other, doubts, revision of the old, contradictory and rebellious searches for the new, attempts at maximum self-expression. In many ways, it was a culture for the "chosen ones", far from not only the people, but also from the broad circles of the intelligentsia. But it was she who laid the foundation for a new direction in the art of Russia.

New directions in literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Literature continued to play an exceptionally important role in the cultural life of the country. Along with the realistic trend (L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, and others), new trends appear in Russian literature, especially in poetry. This was associated with the names of L. Andreev, A. Blok, V. Bryusov, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, V. Mayakovsky and others. A characteristic feature of the new trends in poetry - decadence, symbolism - was not only a kind of protest and rejection of reality, but also the search for new ways of self-expression.

Music

The development of musical art, as in previous years, was closely connected with the names of composers - members of the "Mighty Handful". However, new names also appear in Russian music. At this time, A. Glazunov, S. Rachmaninov, A. Scriabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Prokofiev began their composing activities. In their work, national traditions are associated with active searches in the field of musical form. A lot of wonderful singers were given by the Russian vocal school. Among them, the stars of the first magnitude were F. Chaliapin, L. Sobinov, A. Nezhdanova.

Painting

For Russian painting, however, as for all the fine arts of the early 20th century, two main trends are characteristic: traditional realistic and modernist. The realistic trend in painting was represented by I. Repin, who wrote in 1909-1916. a number of portraits (P. Stolypin, L. Tolstoy, V. Korolenko, V. Bekhterev and others), his student V. Serov, whose portraits are real psychological characteristics of writers, artists, doctors. The activities of the “poet of Russian nature” I. Levitan also belong to this period.

Modernism was associated with the departure of a number of artists from established norms in painting and the search for new artistic solutions. Modernism was not a purely Russian phenomenon in the visual arts. It affected all countries, especially France and Italy. At the beginning of the century, impressionist painting was developing in Russia. Its adherents were K. Korovin, V. Borisov-Musatov and others. M. Vrubel can be considered the founder of modernism in Russia. The theme of the Demon, which for decades was the main one in his work, embodied the dissatisfaction, longing and anger of a restless person.

V. Kandinsky and K. Malevich became the true leaders of abstractionism not only in Russia, but also in world art.

It should be noted that cultural life in Russia was supported by a galaxy of Russian patrons (S. Diaghilev, S. Mamontov, S. Morozov and others), who played a significant role in the development of Russian culture.

World recognition of Russian culture. Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. reached amazing heights. It contributed not only to the growth of self-awareness of the peoples of Russia, but also influenced the entire European culture.

Russian art has received wide international recognition. Organized by S. Diaghilev "Russian Seasons in Paris" (1906-1912) were notable events in European cultural life.

Thus, in 1906, the exhibition "Two Centuries of Russian Painting and Sculpture" was presented to Parisians, which Diaghilev supplemented with a concert of Russian music. The success was amazing. The following year, Parisians could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to Scriabin. In 1908, F. Chaliapin performed in Paris with exceptional success as Tsar Boris in Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov. A truly unique phenomenon was the rise of Russian ballet at the beginning of the century. From 1909 to 1912, the “Russian Ballet Seasons” were held annually in Paris, which became a world-class event. The names of Russian dancers flashed on the newspaper pages - Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Vatslav Nijinsky. Unprecedented success fell to the share of I. Stravinsky's ballets "The Firebird", "Petrushka", "The Rite of Spring".

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW:

I. Repin in the painting “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan” painted one of the Cossacks from the famous Russian writer V. Gilyarovsky, the author of the book “Moscow and Muscovites”. The sculptor N. Andreev sculpted Taras Bulba from him for a bas-relief on the monument to N. Gogol in Moscow.
Despite the relatively low level of literacy in Russia (less than 30% by 1913), newspapers, magazines, and books are becoming more and more widespread. On the eve of the First World War, 2915 magazines and newspapers were published in the country, and in terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of the Modern Times XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Topic: Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Vladimir 2007

Plan. page
Introduction 3
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century 4
(1861-1900)
2. Domestic policy of the Russian Empire in 1881-1900 7
3. Social - political and opposition movement in 1861-1900 9
4.Development of the labor movement in Russia. Russian education 12
social democratic party
5. Test 15
Conclusion 16
References 17

Introduction.

In 1861, the most important event in the history of Russia took place - the abolition of serfdom, which had existed as a system for more than two centuries. Peasant reform cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, the abolition of serfdom led to irreversible changes in all spheres of Russian life. In the countryside, the stratification of the peasantry was in full swing: out of the patriarchal milieu of the communal peasants, the owners who grew rich quickly stood out - potential bourgeois - and the poor, who turned into poor proletarians. Factories and plants received a constant influx of cheap labor. The accelerated destruction of the subsistence economy made the all-Russian domestic market more capacious. All this, taken together, gave a powerful impetus to the development of industrial production. On the other hand, the reform preserved and mothballed serf relations. Carrying out the abolition of serfdom, which undermined the traditional landlord economy, the government at the same time sought to preserve this economy itself, compensating the landowners for the inevitable losses. Moreover, she laid the compensation on the liberated peasantry. As a result, the landowners retained the best lands and received huge sums of money; the peasantry, for the most part, was dispossessed of land and subjected to exorbitantly heavy payments. This aggravated the features of backwardness in rural life and ultimately led to a deep crisis. After that, a whole band of various transformations begins.

1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century (1861-1900)

After the reform of 1861, the development of capitalist relations accelerated significantly. This process under conditions had significant specific features:

The great inhibitory influence of semi-serfdom relations;

Significant role of the state, especially in the development of large-scale industry;

Sharp disproportions in the development of industry and agriculture.

Industry development. After the abolition of serfdom and until the end of the 19th century, two periods of industrial growth were noted: the 60-70s and the 90s.

The first rise was characterized by the greatest growth in industries that had earlier switched to civilian labor, especially in the textile and sugar industries. The metallurgy of the Urals, previously based on serf labor, was in stagnation. The shift in the development of metallurgy began only in the second half of the 1970s. as the formation of Donbass.

The most important factor in industrial growth at that time was railway construction (the largest roads were to Nizhny Novgorod and Voronezh). Among other things, this became an incentive for the rise of engineering; already from the second half of the 70s, railways began to be provided with rolling stock of domestic production.

The industrial revolution that began in the middle of the century in a number of industries (primarily in the textile industry) in the main industries is completed by the end of the century.

Cities are growing rapidly, including new ones - especially Ivanovo-Voznesensk in the center and Rostov-on-Don in the south. But even according to the 1897 census, a little more than 1/10 of the population lived in cities.

The development of industry had a great regional specificity. 4 main industrial centers were formed: Center, St. Petersburg, Ural, South.

There is a formation of new classes - the workers and the bourgeoisie. By the end of the century there were 3 million industrial workers. One of the features of the Russian proletariat was its unprecedented high concentration in large enterprises. During this period, the position of the bulk of the workers, with the exception of a small group of highly skilled workers, was very difficult. As for entrepreneurs, it is necessary to note the emergence of a number of dynasties from among them (Bakhrushins, Morozovs, Mamontovs, Tretyakovs), who took measures to improve the lives of workers, gained fame as patrons, played an important role in the development of culture.

In the 80s. there was a slow development of industry due to the narrowness of the domestic market due to the poverty of the peasants. In conditions of stagnation, there is a particular deterioration in the situation of workers, primarily in the textile industry. It is no coincidence that it was at this time, in 1885, that the first mass action of workers in Russia took place - the Morozov strike (at the largest textile enterprise in the country - the Nikolskaya Morozov Manufactory).

New industrial boom 90s. was associated with an unprecedented stimulation of industry by the state, especially since 1892, when S. Witte became Minister of Finance. Support was provided through government orders, primarily in relation to military factories and railway construction (including the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891-1904).

Important sources of financing at that time were, first of all, grain exports in accordance with the formula “we will not finish eating, but we will take it out”. Under Witte, a wine monopoly and the widespread attraction of foreign capital were added to this, which was facilitated by the monetary reform of 1897 (the introduction of a convertible ruble).

As a result, an unprecedented industrial upsurge was ensured, during which modern large-scale industry was created. At that time, Russia had the highest growth rates in the world. In general, during the post-reform period, the volume of industrial production increased by 7 times. In terms of iron smelting, the country ranked fourth in the world. Russia has become an industrial-agrarian country. But the development of industry was characterized by sharp disproportions: the main investments were made in military production, there was an excessive share of heavy industry against the backdrop of backward agriculture and a narrow domestic market.

Agriculture. After 1861 and until the end of the century, two periods are distinguished in its development: 60-70s and 80-90s. For the first 20 years, the conditions for the development of agriculture were largely determined by the high prices for bread on the world market. Russia at that time occupied the first place in the world export of bread and during this period increased it by 3 times.

At this stage, two variants of capitalist development in agriculture emerged, to some extent localized and territorial. The "Prussian" path prevailed in the Center, characterized by slow capitalist evolution. Here for a long time semi-feudal exploitation was preserved, primarily in the form of a labor system. In the South (especially in Novorossia), the "American" version of the rapid development of capitalist relations prevailed - a large number of large farms ("economy") based on hired labor appeared.

At the same time, in the Center itself, there was a noticeable difference between the situation in the Chernozem region and in the Non-Chernozem region. In the first, it was relatively favorable, because ransom payments here were acceptable. Therefore, the redistribution of land in the community was rare, the attitude towards allotments as property was gradually formed, social stratification was going on. In the Non-Chernozem region, the situation was much worse due to excessively high redemption payments.

In the subsequent period, in the 80-90s, in the Non-Chernozem region, on the contrary, there was some improvement in the situation, because. otkhodnichestvo is getting more and more developed, many peasants found earnings in industry. In the Chernozem region, there is a sharp deterioration under the influence of two factors. Firstly, there is a huge increase in the peasant population (by 2 times in 40 years) due to a decrease in mortality under the influence of zemstvo medicine. As a result, there is a rapid crushing and grinding of peasant allotments. Secondly, since the late 70s. the world market is filled with cheap bread from America and Australia. As a result, there is a fall in the price of bread, as a result, the curtailment of landowners' plowing and a decrease in working off. The main source of income for landowners is the lease of land, which leads to an exorbitant increase in rent.

Therefore, in the Chernozem region, the main process is not the stratification of the peasantry, but the impoverishment (pauperization) of its bulk. In these difficult conditions, land redistributions are being revived in the community. To this in the early 90s. crop failure and famine were added in many places. The situation of the peasants did not change for the better for a long time, they accumulated despair and anger, a social explosion was brewing.

Counter-reforms. How did the ruling circles try to solve all these acute problems? Under Alexander III, the autocracy, frightened by the terror of the Narodnaya Volya, embarked on the path of reaction, a whole era of "counter-reforms" (80-90s) began.

In 1881, the "Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Protection" was adopted, which became the main document - the legal basis for intensifying repression. When it was introduced in any locality, the authorities could expel undesirable persons, refer court cases to military courts, suspend periodicals and close educational institutions. This document was valid until 1917, and some areas lived for decades under the regime of emergency management.

The government tried to solve the problems of the countryside by strengthening the landowners' control over the peasants. In 1889, zemstvo chiefs were introduced. They were appointed from local landlords and completely controlled the life of the village - they could cancel the decision of the village and volost meetings, arrest the headman or volost foreman. A series of laws were also passed to make it difficult to leave the community and family divisions.

In 1890, the zemstvo counter-reform was carried out: the property qualification for the nobles was lowered and the property qualification was increased for the townspeople, the zemstvo became a class, peasant vowels began to be appointed by the governor.

2. Internal policy of the Russian Empire in 1861-1900.

The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of a whole series of transformations, which in those years were called "great reforms". The main ones are: reforms of local self-government (zemstvo and city), judicial, military.

In 1864, zemstvo self-government was introduced (except for Siberia and a number of other regions where there were no landowners, who were assigned a dominant role in the zemstvo).

Zemstvos were created at the county and provincial level, but in the following years, a public struggle unfolded for the creation of a grassroots zemstvo unit at the volost level. The zemstvo included administrative bodies: provincial and district assemblies and executive councils.

Unlike the former bodies of estate self-government, the zemstvo had an all-estate character. Elections of zemstvo deputies (vowels) were held from three separate congresses (large landowners, city owners and peasants).

The landowners dominated in the zemstvos, but the "third element" - the zemstvo intelligentsia (teachers, doctors) - grew more and more. A whole generation of selfless workers has grown up, like the heroes of Chekhov's works.

Zemstvos were primarily engaged in economic affairs, and the main result of this was the creation of a system of schools and hospitals for the people. Gradually, they began to be included in politics - zemstvo liberalism becomes the main base of the liberal movement.

The assessment of the historical role of the Zemstvo is ambiguous. Revolutionary circles rated him very low as an appendage of the bureaucracy (Lenin: "Zemstvo is the fifth wheel in the cart of the Russian autocracy"). Now, on the contrary, this body is given high marks. An example of this is Solzhenitsyn, who considers the restoration of the Zemstvo an important prerequisite for the revival of modern Russia.

In 1870, a city self-government was also established, which in its structure and functions was similar to the Zemstvo.

It was the most progressive of all these reforms, based on the achievements of world jurisprudence. The judiciary, created according to the reform, unlike the old feudal court, had such features as non-estate, publicity, competitive nature of the process, independence from the administration (the most important guarantee of this is the irremovability of judges).

The district court became the main instance of the judicial system. Along with the judge, the most important role in the court was played by jurors, who were recruited from representatives of all estates by lot from all estates) delivered a verdict. It should be noted that the legal norms adopted at that time in Russia were of a very progressive nature, including common criminal law, which did not know the death penalty.

In addition to other judicial instances, the institution of justices of the peace was established to deal with petty cases.

In the conditions of post-reform Russia, the judicial and legal sphere was of great social importance, it became the most important means of democratic education. Famous judicial figures (Koni, Plevako) gained wide popularity.

However, the created judicial system was not of a universal nature: the estate volost court for peasants was preserved, which was guided by local customary law and could award corporal punishment (until 1904).

The initiator of the reform carried out in 1874 was the Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin, whose brother, Nikolai Milyutin, played a key role in the development of the peasant reform project.

The main thing was that instead of recruitment, universal military service was introduced (6 years in the army, 7 in the navy). After high school they served - 6 months, gymnasium - 1.5 years. These norms provided additional incentives for education.

3. Socio-political and opposition movement of 1861-1900.

In the second half of the 50s. there was a public upsurge, but after February 19, 1861, the pressure of the reactionaries intensified (this led to the resignation of N. Milyutin). At the same time, the opposition movement is becoming more and more divided into the liberal and revolutionary camps.

A vivid expression of the disengagement of the opposition movement was the fall of the role of the "Bell", which had previously been the ruler of thoughts. In the second half of the 60s. there is its decline and closure, complete loneliness of Herzen sets in, combining the features of liberalism and democracy.

In the first half of the 60s. the main manifestation of the liberal movement was a series of speeches by provincial noble assemblies (especially Tver and Moscow). Zemstvos are becoming the center of liberal activity.

Meanwhile, the offensive of the reaction is intensifying, the reason for which was the actions of the "extreme left". In the summer of 1862, a leaflet by student Zaichnevsky called "Young Russia" appeared calling for a "bloody revolution" and the introduction of communism. The famous St. Petersburg fires coincided with this, giving rise to rumors about nihilist arsonists. Taking advantage of this, the authorities arrested the leader of the revolutionary democracy N.G. Chernyshevsky and his chief collaborator in the Sovremennik magazine N. Serno-Solovyevich. In 1864, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to 7 years of hard labor.

The repressions led to further radicalization of the opposition youth, the creation of underground organizations, and the emergence of the idea of assassination of the king. Back in the early 60s. the first underground organization after the Decembrists "Land and Freedom" arose. It was headed by Serno-Solov'evich, but after his arrest, the student Utin played the most prominent role in it. Having lost hope for a peasant uprising, this organization dissolved itself in 1864.

But the Moscow branch of "Earth and Freedom" survived and became the basis for the organization created by Ishutin, a student at Moscow University. She tried to conduct propaganda among the peasants, and then they began to incline to terror (for this, the Hell group was created). In April 1866, Dmitry Karakozov, a member of the group, fired at the tsar on his own initiative.

After this, a more decisive turn to reaction takes place. Outwardly, the Minister of Education Tolstoy became the main conductor of this policy. In reality, the main role in strengthening the reaction was played by the head of the III department, the chief of the gendarmes, Shuvalov.

Late 60s-early 70s. there is a formation of a certain, relatively integral ideology of the revolutionary movement - populism (the name is associated with the main motive of their activity - "the return of debt to the people"). His predecessors are Herzen and Chernyshevsky. A number of key provisions were inherited from them: 1) revolution is the only way to improve the life of the people. 2) neglect of the struggle for the constitution and civil rights. 3) the idea of bypassing capitalism through the peasant community.

There were three ideological currents in populism:

Propaganda (founder - P. Lavrov, his main work - "Historical Letters");

Rebellious (leader - M. Bakunin, his main work "Statehood and anarchy");

Conspiratorial. Its ideologist was P. Tkachev, a member of the Nechaev organization (1869), and the main ideas came from him (the main thing is an underground organization with an iron organization and discipline). These ideas came to the fore in the late 70s.

In the early 1970s, for the first time, a wide association of revolutionary circles was created, which is sometimes called "Chaikovites" (after the name of one of the leaders). Most of the future leaders of populism came out of it. Among them was the later famous anarchist theorist Kropotkin.

In 1874, the largest action of revolutionary youth was undertaken, a desperate attempt to influence the peasants - "going to the people." Members of the movement were repressed, 770 people were arrested.

In 1876, the first large underground organization "Land and Freedom" was created (there were 150 people in it). The main task was propaganda for the preparation of the people's socialist revolution, while terror was conceived only as a means of self-defense.

In the second half of the 70s, a new social upsurge was observed, in particular under the influence of the Russian-Turkish war. There is an activation of the liberal movement, there have been a number of speeches demanding a constitution, an illegal zemstvo congress was held, an illegal "Zemsky Union" was created. There were even negotiations with the revolutionaries (they were asked to temporarily stop the terror), but the agreement did not take place.

Meanwhile, under the influence of government repressions in the organization "Land and Freedom", sentiments in favor of terror were growing more and more. They especially intensified after the case of Vera Zasulich (1877), which revealed public sympathy for terror. In 1879 there was a split in "Land and Freedom". Supporters of propaganda created the organization "Black Redistribution" headed by G. Plekhanov and V. Zasulich, while the majority joined the "Narodnaya Volya". It was a strictly centralized organization, headed by the Executive Committee (its leaders are Andrey Zhelyabov and Sofya Perovskaya). The main goal was a political coup, the establishment of a revolutionary government that would carry out socialist measures. The main means was terror, in fact, the main one was the "hunt" for the king.

The climax of the struggle took place in the late 70's - early 80's. After the explosion organized at the beginning of 1880 by Khalturin in the Winter Palace, there were certain fluctuations in power. Tolstoy was fired, General Loris-Melikov actually became the head of the government. He carried out the so-called "dictatorship of the heart", combining ruthless repression against terrorists and at the same time flirting with liberals. Vague plans were made to convene a representative assembly.

On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was assassinated, and soon after that, the authorities managed to defeat the "Narodnaya Volya". After that there was a decisive turn of the ruling circles towards reaction, counter-reforms.

4.Development of the labor movement in Russia. Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Party.

From the beginning of the new century, a social upsurge was indicated, which continued uninterruptedly until the first revolution. The general expectation of change intensified, the words from Maxim Gorky's "Song of the Petrel" became a symbol of the time, "Let the storm break stronger!"

The objective basis for the activation of the social movement was the acuteness of socio-economic contradictions. The public upsurge took place in two directions. On the one hand, the student, worker and peasant movement is activated. On the other hand, the liberal and radical intelligentsia is becoming more active, embarking on the path of creating appropriate political organizations.

The initiator of the public upsurge was the students, whose performances became more active from 1899. In response to the repressions (turning the rebellious students into soldiers) in 1901, student Karpovich shot the Minister of Education Bogolepov, which was the first in Russia in the 20th century. an act of "revolutionary terror".

The workers' movement is also activated, and then the peasant movement. On May 1, 1900, the country's first May Day demonstration took place in Kharkov. The year 1901 was marked by May Day demonstrations in a number of Russian cities, a clash between workers and police in St. Petersburg (“Obukhov defense”), a general strike in Rostov-on-Don with the participation of 30,000 people. 03 was marked by a general strike of workers in the South of Russia (200 thousand people). For 1900-1904 there were 600 peasant uprisings.

As for the politically formed opposition movement, two currents acted in it as before - revolutionary and liberal. Moreover, as before, the first was dominant, which was also manifested in the earlier emergence of revolutionary parties (Social Democrats and Socialist-Revolutionaries) in comparison with liberal ones. This was determined both by the weakness of the social base of liberalism and the repressive policy of tsarism, which pushed the opposition to extreme radicalism.

social democratic movement. The creation of a Marxist party was preceded by a certain period of the spread of Marxism in Russia. Back in 1883, former members of the "Black Redistribution", headed by Plekhanov, created the "Group for the Emancipation of Labor" in Geneva. Plekhanov launched a struggle against the ideology of the populists - in his work "Our Differences" he argued that Russia was following the path of capitalism. In the 80-90s. a number of Marxist circles arose in Russia itself (they were headed in St. Petersburg by Blagoev, then by Brusnev, in the Volga region by Fedoseev, in which young Vladimir Ulyanov, the future Lenin, got acquainted with Marxism in the early 1990s).

The main ideological task of the Marxists in the 90s. there was a struggle against liberal populism, which occupied social thought in the 80-90s. leading position. The main ideas of the liberal populists: a peaceful path of transformation, the possibility of bypassing capitalism, relying on "people's production." Their main organ is the magazine "Russian wealth", the main authors are Mikhailovsky, Vorontsov, Krivenko (the latter put forward the famous theory of "small deeds"). In 1894, Ulyanov's first major work, "What are the "friends of the people" and how do they fight against the Social Democrats?", which was directed against the liberal populists, was published.

In 1895, at the initiative of Ulyanov, the Marxist circles united in the "Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class." Among its leaders was the future leader of the Mensheviks, Julius Martov. Lenin considered this organization "the prototype of the workers' party", "the first attempt to combine Marxism with the workers' movement." However, soon the leadership of the union was arrested, Ulyanov was exiled to Siberia, in the village. Shushenskoye (1897-1900).

Meanwhile, the union continued to operate and in 1898, on its initiative, the 1st Congress of the RSDLP was held in Minsk with the participation of 9 people, which announced the creation of a Social Democratic Party. In reality, as before, within the Russian empire at that moment there was the only significant workers' organization - the Jewish association "Bund".

After the arrest and exile of radical Marxists like Ulyanov, the reformist-minded representatives of this ideological movement, the so-called "legal Marxists" (among them the future leaders of the Kadet party Struve and Bulgakov), gained significant influence. Economism was another reformist trend in social democracy at that time.

In 1900, Ulyanov went into exile, since 1901 his works have been signed with the pseudonym "Lenin". He begins to implement his plan for creating a "workers' party of a new type." The main tool for this was the newspaper Iskra (1990), created abroad in 1900, as a "collective propagandist and organizer", whose agents were sent to Russia. There was a formation of a layer of supporters of the Leninist direction in the Social Democracy - "Iskrists". In 1902, in Lenin's work "What is to be done?", where the concept of a "party of a new type" received the most fundamental justification. It provided for centralization, discipline, reliance on "professional revolutionaries", ideological intransigence, and the introduction of revolutionary ideology into the labor movement.

In 1903, the Second Congress of the RSDLP was held (in Brussels, then in London), which adopted its program and charter. At the congress, the Russian Social Democrats split into a more radical trend headed by Lenin and a moderate trend led by Martov. In the elections to the Central Committee of the party, the first won a majority and since then began to be called Bolsheviks, and the second Mensheviks.

5.Test.

Set the chronological sequence of events:

1) Accession of Astrakhan to Russia

2) The beginning of the Livonian War

3) Accession of Kazan to Russia

4) The final legal registration of serfdom

Answer: 3,1,2,4.

Conclusion.

Thus, by the end of the century, the results of Russia's economic development were contradictory. There was a significant growth in industry and at the same time the slow development of agriculture, the difficult situation of the main masses of the peasantry was preserved and aggravated. Under these conditions, the ruling circles did not find adequate ways to solve acute socio-economic problems. It can be said that the policy of counter-reforms, driving problems into the depths, made its "contribution" to the brewing of a revolutionary explosion at the beginning of the 20th century.

The "Great Reforms" became an important step towards the development of capitalism, familiarization with the highest achievements of civilization. However, the reforms were limited. The reforms did not touch the upper levels of power - the constitution and the parliament did not appear. The bulk of the population - the peasantry to a large extent continued to live in conditions of lack of rights and arbitrariness.

Evaluation of these events is very difficult. Soviet historians, in accordance with the statements of Lenin, characterized the social movement of the 60-70s. as "the second - raznochinsk stage of the liberation movement." Revolutionary populism was highly valued, and revolutionary terror was recognized as natural. Now, following Vekhi, many authors write about the irresponsible intelligentsia, which thwarted the reforms with their terror. In reality, we can talk about a complex relationship: repression caused opposition, and the actions of the revolutionaries, in turn, pushed the government to react. The predominance of the revolutionary trend in the opposition movement, the weakness of liberalism, were not accidental. In many respects, they were explained by the lack of a mass social base among the liberals in the face of the bourgeoisie, the main support of this trend was a relatively small group of liberal nobles.

Addition.

In the period of 60-70s handicrafts developed most intensively. Their growth rates were very high. An example is the statistical data on the Perm province - one of the most dynamically developing regions of the country. If for 1855-1865. in the west of the Middle Urals, 533 new handicraft establishments arose, then in the next decade there were already 1339 of them created, in the period 1875-1885. the number of new handicraft farms has already amounted to 2652 thousand. in 30 years their number has increased five times.

In the 1960s, manufactory production began to develop intensively. Numerous factories and factories are being built in the European part of Russia, primarily in Moscow and the Moscow region, Donbass, the Volga region and the St. Petersburg region. Metallurgy is developing most intensively. The Urals becomes the center of mining and metallurgical production. Of the 290 thousand tons of pig iron obtained in Russia in 1865, 232 thousand tons were smelted by the Ural plants, they also produced 161 thousand tons of iron and steel out of 187 thousand tons received in the whole country.

At the turn of the 70s, the construction of metallurgical plants began in the south of Russia. In the pre-reform period, only three small metallurgical enterprises worked there on imported or local ores. At the end of the 1960s, a plant was built in Lisichansk and the Petrovsky plant in the Lugansk mining district was reconstructed. In 1872, the Yuzovsky Metallurgical Plant was put into operation.

By the beginning of the 1980s, along with handicrafts that continued to develop, factory production was becoming increasingly important. An important feature of its formation was the gradual transition from manual to mechanized labor. Machine technologies have received the greatest development in the manufacturing industries. The enterprises of the metalworking industry, which had 24.8% of all engines and concentrated 77.5% of all workers, provided 86.3% of the total production of the industry.

In the process of industrial and economic development, the country's economy faced a number of serious difficulties and contradictions. The rapidly increasing volumes of transportation of factory products outpaced the transport possibilities. So, the Ural metal and products from it were sent from the Ural state-owned factories by caravans of barges in the summer-autumn period along the Chusovaya, Belaya Kama and Volga rivers and only then were reloaded into the cars of the Ural, Samara-Zlatoust and other railways. Large deficit in vehicles also experienced the industrial south of the country.

The task of creating the railway network as soon as possible has grown into a major national problem. The development of steam transport was put at the forefront of state policy, it became the basis of the industrial and economic strategy of the last 25th anniversary of the 19th century. - the second stage of industrialization.

Railway construction had a huge impact on the development of agriculture and industry. In Russia, which has a vast territory and diverse, widely separated economic regions, railways were of exceptional importance for expanding the domestic market and for strengthening the country's trade ties with the world market.

Railway construction became a powerful factor in the development of industry, as it presented a huge demand for metal (rails, wagons, steam locomotives), for fuel, for consumer goods for a whole army of construction workers. For the construction of railways, large capitals were required, and for this purpose many joint-stock companies arose, which "gave ... an impetus to the concentration of capital ..."

The railway network in Russia from 1861 to 1881 grew from 1.6 thousand km to 23.1 thousand km. "Rivalry with European powers forced the Russian autocracy ... to create a wide network of railways ...".

The first railways connected Moscow as the economic center of the country with a number of important regions and cities (Kursk, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod,

Yaroslavl and others); then a connection is established between the center and port cities

(Odessa, Riga). The construction of roads in the Urals (Perm -

Ekaterinburg).

Water steam transport has grown significantly: the number of steamboats on the rivers increased from 399 in 1860 to 1200 in 1881. Accordingly, the freight turnover of rail and steamship transport and the transportation of passengers are growing.

In view of the special significance of the transport issue, the main burden of its solution was assumed by the state. The laying of railways was financed mainly from the treasury, at the expense of general budget revenues, the share of private capital of shareholders was insignificant. Only during the first decade of the era of reforms (1861-1870) about 2.5 billion rubles were invested in railway construction. In the future, the volume of investment in the industry continued to grow and by the end of the 19th century. reached the maximum. From 1891 to 1903, 5.5 billion rubles were allocated for industrial and, above all, railway construction, which was 25% more than investments for the previous 32 years. The main ideologist of the priority financing of transport programs was S. Yu. Witte, who held the post of Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903.

Large capital investments ensured the rapid development of railways. If in 1860 the construction length of the railway network in Russia was 1626 km, then in 1870 it increased to 10,731 km, in 1880 this figure reached 22,865 km. During the industrial boom of the 90s, more than 2.5 thousand km were built annually. From 1893 to 1902, 27 thousand km of railways came into operation, and their total length exceeded 55 thousand km. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began, which was basically completed at the beginning of the 20th century.

The country's breakthrough in railway construction gave a powerful impetus to the growth of production in other industries. The need of the railway industry for metal, coal and rolling stock stimulated the development of mechanical engineering, mining, metallurgy, and energy.

By the beginning of the 20th century, 17 new plants were put into operation in the Donbass and Krivoy Rog, including such large ones as the Dneprovsky, Druzhkovsky and metallurgical plants of the Donetsk-Yuryevsky Society. At the same time, Kharkov, Lugansk and Nikolaev mechanical plants were built in the south of Russia.

Rapid development at the end of the XIX century. industry and railway construction caused a rapid increase in the number of workers in the country. If in 1865 in the European part of Russia 706 thousand people were employed in production and in the field of transport construction, then in 1879 this figure increased to 1179 thousand, in 1890 it amounted to 1432 thousand and finally in 1900 - 2208 thousand people. Thus, for the period 1865-1900. The number of workers in European Russia more than tripled. The population during this time increased by 1.5 times.

At the same time, the industrial construction of Russia also experienced considerable difficulties, including: insufficient development of the domestic market, lack of scientific and engineering personnel, the land-patriarchal mentality of the population, and a negative attitude towards the industrialization of large landowners. In the depths of the country's industrial breakthrough at the end of the 19th century, the prerequisites for the emergence of a deep industrial and economic crisis at the beginning of the 20th century, which developed into a protracted depression of 1903-1908, were secretly ripening.

List of used literature

1.I.S.Kuznetsov. Lectures on the history of Russia. Novosibirsk: 2002. 182p.

2. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia

IX - early XX century / Comp.: S.V. Mironenko. - M.: Politizdat, 1991.- 367 p.

3. History of Russia from antiquity to the present day: A guide for applicants

universities / I.V. Volkova, M.M. Gorinov, A. A. Gorsky and others; Ed. M.N. Zuev.

M. : Vyssh. school, 1996. - 639 p.

4. World History: A textbook for universities / Edited by G.B. Polyak, A.N.

Markova. - M.: UNITI, 2001.- 496 p.

5. A.P. Derevyanko, N.A. Shabelnikova. History of Russia since ancient times

before early XXI century, Moscow 2002

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The raznochintsy identified the peasants as the main driving force of the revolution

In the 19th century, trips to Europe by educated Russian people were not uncommon. They returned with the conviction of more high degree civilization of the West in comparison with Russia. Sorrowful thoughts about this have always been present in the minds of the advanced part of the Russian intelligentsia, but they manifested themselves with particular force after the defeat in the Crimean War, the change in the way the country was ruled from the rigidly authoritarian - Nicholas I to the relatively liberal - by his son Emperor Alexander II, carried out by him, as it seemed to many - insufficient, half-hearted
The fermentation of minds was also facilitated by the entry onto the public stage of a new stratum - raznochintsy (from a combination of the words "different ranks"). The children of deacons, rural priests, merchants, and petty officials who managed to get an education and thus “get out into the people” knew the life of the common people better than the nobles, so the need to reorganize Russian reality was obvious to them. However, they did not have a clear, realistic plan for transformations.

Social movements of post-reform Russia

conservative

- church, faith, monarchy, patriarchy, nationalism - the foundations of the state.
: M. N. Katkov - publicist, publisher, editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper, D. A. Tolstoy - since May 1882, Minister of the Interior and chief of gendarmes, K. P. Pobedonostsev - lawyer, publicist, chief prosecutor of the Synod

liberal

— constitutional monarchy, glasnost, rule of law, independence of church and state, individual rights
: B. N. Chicherin - lawyer, philosopher, historian; K. D. Kavelin - jurist, psychologist, sociologist, publicist; S. A. Muromtsev — jurist, one of the founders of constitutional law in Russia, sociologist, publicist

revolutionary

- building socialism in Russia, bypassing capitalism; a revolution based on the peasantry, led by a revolutionary party; overthrow of the autocracy; full allocation of land to the peasants.
: A. I. Herzen - writer, publicist, philosopher; N. G. Chernyshevsky - writer, philosopher, publicist; brothers A. and N. Serno-Solovyevich, V. S. Kurochkin - poet, journalist, translator

Revolutionary organizations of Russia in the late 60s - early 80s of the XIX century

"Great Russian" (proclamation)- in St. Petersburg in June, September and October 1861, three issues were published and one more issue in 1863. They required the transfer to the peasants without redemption of all the land that they used under serfdom, the complete separation of Poland, a constitution, and individual freedom. The hope of carrying out reforms in life was assigned to the king. The author of the proclamations remains unknown.
"Land and freedom" (1861-1864). tasks: to completely transfer the land to the peasants, the overthrow of the autocracy, the convening of the Zemsky Sobor to determine the form of democracy. Self-destructed from the fact that the hopes for an all-Russian peasant revolt in 1863 did not materialize
Revolutionary circle of N. A. Ishutin (1863-1866). Tasks: by organizing various workshops on an artel basis, an attempt to convince the people of the advantages of socialist production; demands for government reforms leading to socialism, and in the absence of reforms, a popular revolution. After a member of the organization D.V. Karakozov made an attempt on Alexander II in April 1866, the circle was defeated
"Smorgon Academy" (1867–1868) headed by P. N. Tkachev. Tasks: the creation of a secret centralized and conspiratorial revolutionary organization, the seizure of power and the establishment of the dictatorship of the "revolutionary minority". With the arrest of Tkachev, the society ceased to exist.
"Ruble Society" (1867-1868) headed by G. A. Lopatin and F. V. Volkhovsky. Tasks: revolutionary propaganda among the peasants. In 1868 most of the members of the society were arrested.
"People's massacre" (1869-1870) headed by S. G. Nechaev. Tasks: unification of local peasant uprisings into an all-Russian uprising with the aim of absolute destruction political system Russia. Destroyed after the murder by Nechaev of one of the ordinary members of society, suspected of betrayal
Society of "Chaikovites" (1869-1874), by the name of one of the members of the society N.V. Tchaikovsky. The tasks are propaganda, educational: distribution among the people of legally published books by leading authors and printing of prohibited books and brochures. In 1874, the police arrested many members of the society

According to V. I. Lenin - 1861 - 1895 - the second period of the liberation movement in Russia, called raznochinsk or revolutionary-democratic. Wider circles of educated people, the intelligentsia, entered the struggle, “the circle of fighters has become wider, their connection with the people is closer” (Lenin “In Memory of Herzen”)

With the end of the Crimean War and the death of Nicholas I, in an atmosphere of increased liberal sentiment, general dissatisfaction with the state of the press, the “era of censorship terror” came to an end. In 1855, the government of Alexander II ceased the activities of the Buturlin Committee. The most reactionary censors were removed. In 1857, the government created a committee to develop a new censorship charter, introduced only in 1865. According to the new law, the capital's periodicals and books with more than ten printed sheets for Russian and twenty printed sheets for translated publications were exempted from preliminary censorship. Spiritual, theatrical and foreign preliminary censorship was upheld. As part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Main Directorate for Press Affairs was formed. The Minister of the Interior received the right to issue "warnings" to editors for the "harmful" direction of articles. After three warnings, the publication was suspended for up to ten months (by the decision of the Senate) or completely closed. Publishers of a "harmful" direction were punished with a fine, confiscation and arrest of books, and were brought to court. Since 1872, cases of confiscation of publications began to be considered administratively by the Committee of Ministers. By a law of June 16, 1873, the Minister of the Interior was given the right to suspend the publication of any publication that touches on matters of national importance, the discussion of which "for reasons of the higher government would be found inconvenient."

A number of new restrictive measures introduced an additional law on the press in 1882. A special meeting of the four ministers; Internal Affairs, Public Education, Justice and the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod - received the right to stop the publication of any press organ if its "harmful" direction was discovered. It could deprive the publisher and editor of the right to work in the field of printing, require the disclosure of pseudonyms and surnames of the authors of anonymous articles. Works containing socialist and communist ideas, criticizing the monarchical form of government, the church, written in a materialistic spirit, were subjected to persecution.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861, which was the result of a crisis in the feudal-serf system, accelerated the development of capitalism in the country. In the 1860s there were large publishing, printing and bookselling enterprises, powerful financially. The development of science and technology, the successes of natural science and medicine, and the ever-increasing differentiation of knowledge led to the emergence, along with large universal bookselling and publishing firms, of a number of no less solid specialized enterprises that concentrated their attention on publishing books in two or three, mostly related, branches of knowledge.

Major publishing houses and booksellers. The bulk of books were released to the book market by the largest universal publishing houses headed by M. O. Wolf, A. S. Suvorin, A. F. Marx, I. D. Sytin. Having arisen at the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, these firms significantly pressed, and then completely ousted, many old publishing houses and bookselling enterprises (Glazunovs, Bazunovs, Isakovs, etc.).

A major Petersburg publisher and bookseller in the second half of the 19th century. was M. O. Wolf. Coming from the family of a Warsaw doctor, Wolf young years decided to devote himself to the book business. At the age of 15, he entered the Warsaw shop of A.E. Glucksberg as an apprentice, and then improved himself in France and Germany, working in well-known firms of Bossange, Engelman, Brockhaus. After returning to Poland, he served in Lvov, Krakow, Vilna, dealing mainly with the sale of publications of the Polish fiction.

In the early 1850s Wolf moved to St. Petersburg and became a clerk in the bookstore of Ya. A. Isakov, who sold foreign books. Soon, however, he separated and started his own business. In 1856, Wolf acquired a printing house, and in 1878, the well-known type foundry of E. Revillon.

The pre-reform revival of Russian society contributed to the success of the new book enterprise. Wolf's bookstore had an extensive assortment of domestic and foreign books, here you could buy any foreign novelty. Wolf tried to keep abreast of all new trends in science, literature, and art. In an effort to expand the book business, he began publishing books.

The publishing house of M. O. Wolf had a universal character. Given the popularity of the natural sciences, he publishes "The Doctrine of the Origin of Species" by C. Darwin, popular natural science books by M. Faraday, J. Moleschott. At the end of the 1870s. he began to issue a multi-volume edition "Picturesque Russia". The lavishly printed edition consisted of 20 books and was completed in the 1900s. Outstanding figures of science and art - P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, G. N. Potanin, N. I. Kostomarov, V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko - took part in editing the "Picturesque Russia". Rural readers were addressed to Wolff's "Pocket Household Library", which compiled four series of "instructions and manuals on agriculture and home economics" of 20 volumes each.

Fiction took a significant place in Wolf's book production. The “Library of famous writers” series, which consisted of the works of A. F. Pisemsky, A. Melnikov-Pechersky, N. S. Leskov, I. I. Lazhechnikov, N. I. Gnedich, P. D. Boborykin, M. N. Zagoskin, V. I. Dahl, was especially popular. Wolf's merit is the publication of the first posthumous collected works of the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz (1882). Wolf's publishing house became famous for the release of children's books, which he printed in the form of gift editions, as was customary in foreign practice. In the publication of children's books, Wolf collaborated with some of the German and French publishers, with the Parisian firm of P. J. Etzel. For better distribution of children's literature, Wolf published numerous series: "Golden Library", "Green Library", "Pink Library", "Russian Library", "Young Reader's Library", "Moral Novels for Youth", "Our Library", etc. Wolf, often for the first time, published many works included in the "golden fund" of children's classics - "The Adventures of Gulliver", "Robinson Crusoe", "Tales of 1001 Nights", "The Prince and the Pauper", "Uncle Tom's Cabin", novels, short stories, fairy tales by X. K. Andersen, J. Verne, V. Scott, C. Perrot, V. Hugo, Mine Reed, F. Cooper and others. Much has been done by the Wolf publishing house to familiarize the Russian reader with the works of Russian children's literature - M. B. Chistyakov, A. E. Razin, V. I. Lapin, A. K. Gippius, S. M. Mak arova. The works of the children's writer L. A. Charskaya, popular before the revolution, were widely published.

In the popular science series, Wolf introduced young readers to the classic works of M. Faraday, S. Smiles, D. Livingston. In 1876, he began publishing a monthly children's magazine, Sincere Word. One of the first Wolf began to produce expensive, richly illustrated large-format editions: Goethe's Faust, Dante's The Divine Comedy, Art Galleries of Europe, Thought after Thought. Wolf founded a number of journals: "Nature and Agriculture", "Foreign Bulletin". Shortly before Wolf's death, his publishing house was transformed into a share partnership, which lasted until 1918 ("M.O. Wolf's Partnership"),

Since 1897, Izvestia of bookstores of the M.O. Wolf Association was published regularly. The journal published extensive information about the book trade, the history of the book and book business, a chronicle, letters from readers.

The fate of another major St. Petersburg publisher and bookseller, A.F. Marx, is connected with M. O. Wolf. He was born in Stettin, the son of a manufacturer. Like Wolf, from his youth he was addicted to reading, to the book. After leaving the school, A.F. Marx entered as a clerk in one of the book firms in Wismar, then worked for two years in Berlin, from where he returned to Stettin.

In 1859, Marx arrived in St. Petersburg to set up a German department in the bookstore of F. A. Bitepage. After working here for 5 years, he then moved to Wolf. In 1865, Marx begins independent activity. At the end of 1869, he secured the right to publish a weekly illustrated magazine "for family reading" - "Niva". The magazine was intended for an educated public - the urban intelligentsia, officials, teachers, doctors, wealthy merchants, provincial landowners. Most of all, readers were attracted by photo correspondence about the most important events in the world and reproductions from paintings by prominent artists: I. A. Aivazovsky, V. V. Vereshchagin, I. E. Repin, and others. Art reproductions were also issued in the form of “awards” to the magazine. In 1879, the Ministry of the Interior allowed Marx to issue free prizes for the Niva in the form of books, paintings, photographs, portraits, calendars, etc. This was a new thing in the practice of Russian book publishing. The idea of applications for the "Niva" justified itself. Subscription to the journal increased sharply, reaching an unprecedented figure for its time - 250,000 copies.

The case got bigger and bigger. A.F. Marx acquired his own printing house - the largest at that time.

As appendices to Niva, Marx published the complete works of M. V. Lomonosov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. S. Griboedov, N. V. Gogol, G. P. Danilevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, G. I. Uspensky, I. A. Goncharov. The works of foreign authors were also published in this series: Molière, E. Rostand, G. Heine, M. Maeterlinck, O. Wilde: Marx published collected works and outside the series - A. A. Fet, A. N. Pleshcheev, A. K. Tolstoy, K. M. Stanyukovich, Ya. P. Polonsky and others.

The book publishing business of A.F. Marx had a universal character. He published books on natural science, art, geographical atlases, large-format gift editions - Dead Souls by N.V. Gogol (1900), Milton's Paradise Lost and Regained (1878), Goethe's Lis Patrikeevich (1901), Art History by P. P. Gnedich, etc. By increasing the circulation of publications, Marx had the opportunity to reduce prices on books and thus successfully competed with other publishers and booksellers.

The writer L. Andreev wrote that the publication of Niva and the appendices to the journal gave A.F. Marx the right "to eternal gratitude from the Russian people." After the death of Marx, according to his will, the publishing house was transformed into a joint-stock company "Association of Publishing and Printing of A.F. Marx". In 1917, the A.F. Marx Association ceased to exist, but for some time books with this brand continued to be stereotypically published by Soviet publishing houses - the literary and publishing department of the People's Commissariat of Education and Gosizdat.

In 1877, a new printing house appeared in St. Petersburg. Its owner A. S. Suvorin ordered a printing press from Paris, it was supposed to expand the business widely. A native of the family of a “peasant-one-palace”, A.S. Suvorin, after graduating from the cadet corps, taught at the gymnasium in the city of Bobrov and at the same time began to appear in print with correspondence from provincial life. After moving to St. Petersburg, he became acquainted with liberal-democratic circles, collaborated in the journal Sovremennik and St. Petersburg Vedomosti. In February 1876, Suvorin bought the Novoye Vremya newspaper, founded back in 1867, but which did not bring income to the former publisher. In the hands of Suvorin, the newspaper became famous, its circulation increased, and it began to bring income to Suvorin. Suvorin put his newspaper enterprise on a grand scale. He was one of the first to introduce illustrations into his newspaper, equip the printing house with rotary machines, and start photozincography. In the 1880s already hundreds of workers served the printing house, a special school for printing apprenticeship was opened at it.

Having become the owner of a large capitalist enterprise, Suvorin expanded his book publishing activities. In the 1880s he set about publishing the public domain series "The Cheap Library", with which his prosperity as a publisher is associated. These were books of a small format, unusual for the then reader, in hard calico or cardboard bindings with paper pasting, multi-colored. They were inexpensive and were printed in large numbers for those times. Their content was the works of classical writers: Russian, European and ancient. The series was a huge success. Until January 1, 1900, 4 million copies of the "Cheap Series" were printed. At the same time, 300 of the 450 book titles published by Suvorin fell on this series.

Suvorin undertook the publication of several more series: Cheap Scientific Library, New Library, a series of historical memoirs about Russia. Suvorin's illustrated gift editions - "Dresden Gallery", "London Gallery", "Imperial Hermitage", "Rembrandt", "Anthony van Dyck", "Historical Portrait Gallery", "Hellas and Rome", "History of Peter the Great" and others were successful. Suvorin's reference publications - "All Moscow", "All Russia", "All Petersburg" should be noted.

Suvorin opened his first bookstore in 1877. At the beginning of the 20th century. he already had six large bookstores in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Odessa, Saratov. Rostov-on-Don. Suvorin also owned a special counterparty "New Time" for the sale of printed works on Russian railways.

In 1912, on the basis of the Suvorin book business, the Novoye Vremya joint-stock company arose, which was controlled by the Volga-Kama Commercial Bank.

In the mid 1870s. the activity of the largest publisher of the pre-revolutionary era, ID Sytin, begins. A native of peasants who did not receive any education, Sytin worked as a child in the bookstore of the Moscow lubok P. N. Sharapov. In 1876, he opened his own lithograph and began to print popular prints. In the 1880s Sytin becomes the largest publisher of popular print books in Russia. In huge quantities, he published robbery-fairytale, religious and heroic popular prints. Peasant book-carriers, the so-called "ofeni", carried Sytin's books, calendars and pictures to the most isolated corners of Russia. Lubok editions of Sytin served as an excellent advertisement for the publishing house, paved the way to the village for his other books.

At the same time, Sytin followed the mood and demands of an educated society and issues for the intelligentsia engaged in self-education, the series "Library for Self-Education". Sympathizing with the aspirations of the progressive intelligentsia to give the people a good book, Sytin took upon himself the distribution of the publications of Posrednik, a publishing house founded by L. N. Tolstoy and V. G. Chertkov to combat popular print books. Using the familiar and accessible form of a popular print book, Sytin was able to convey to the peasant reader the works of L. N. Tolstoy, N. S. Leskov, V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko. In the 1890s Sytin took over the publication of a series of folk books called Pravda, which was prepared by well-known figures in public education V. V. Iskul and V. P. Vakhterov. Sytin also collaborated with the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee, the Kharkov Society for the Propagation of Literacy, and the Association of Librarians. Of great cultural and educational significance was the release by Sytin of cheap collected works of A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy and other classic writers.

Sytin also published scientific books, and from the mid-1890s. - textbooks in all branches of knowledge. Among the publications, a significant place is occupied by children's books, gift editions, "Military Encyclopedia" (18 volumes), "Patriotic War and Russian Society, 1812-1912" (7 volumes), "Children's Encyclopedia" in 10 volumes. Sytin published many calendars of various types - tear-off, thematic, desktop, the annual circulation of which amounted to tens of millions of copies. In the mid 90s. 19th century Sytin's enterprise was turned into the "Partnership of Printing, Publishing and Book Trade". The company's turnover exceeded 1 million rubles a year.

Since 1900, Sytin became the publisher of the large liberal-bourgeois newspaper Russkoye Slovo, a number of magazines - Vokrug Sveta, Prosveshchenie, Uchitel, etc. As an appendix to the Vokrug Sveta magazine, from 1911 monthly illustrated collections On Land and Sea devoted to travel, adventure and fantasy were published (since 1916 - Adventure Journal "). Sytin's publications were cheap, which contributed to their wide distribution. Contemporaries highly appreciated the activities of Sytin, releasing in 1916 the anniversary collection "Half a century for the book", containing articles and reviews of writers, scientists, cultural figures about I. D. Sytin and his publications. After 1917, Sytin's printing houses were nationalized. Sytin himself continued to cooperate in the Soviet publishing business, was a consultant to the State Publishing House of the RSFSR.

In the 60s. 19th century Petersburg, the first specialized publishing houses and bookstores began to appear. In 1861, the book firm of K. L. Ricker, a native of Germany, was opened. Having devoted himself to commercial and industrial activities at the request of his father, the young man thoroughly studied book business in the firm of his uncle A. Ricker. Then he improved in Prague with G. Kleinberg, with the Choir in Zurich, with Leben in Vienna. In 1858, he was invited as an experienced businessman by the St. Petersburg bookseller A. Münks, the owner (since 1853) of the foreign book trade, one of the first to enter into direct relations with foreign firms. In 1861, due to illness, Münks handed over the business to K. L. Ricker, who soon expanded it significantly.

Selling books, Ricker simultaneously launched a book publishing activity. He paid special attention to the publication of books and journals on medicine. Many prominent specialists were involved in the translation of books. Its first publication was a medical journal in German. There were also published: "Calendars for doctors of all departments", "Pharmaceutical Journal" (1879-1885), "Bulletin of Clinical and Forensic Psychiatry and Neuropathology" (1883-1885), "Proceedings of the Society of Russian Doctors in St. Petersburg" (1882-1885).

Gradually, Ricker expanded the subject of publications - he began to publish literature on natural science, agriculture, technology, and literary criticism. The Bulletin of Horticulture, Fruit Growing and Horticulture (1882-1885) was published. Ricker published works on medicine and natural and technical sciences at a high scientific level and in careful printing execution. In 1900, at the World Exhibition in Paris, Ricker's company was awarded a gold medal. After the death of C. L. Ricker, the firm continued to operate under the direction of his wife, O. A. Ricker. Over the 50 years of its existence, the company has released about 900 book titles.

In 1872, A.F. Devrien settled in St. Petersburg. A Swiss by birth, Devrien studied book production in Mannheim, Paris (with Ashette) and in London with Trubner. Devrien's publications on agriculture, natural science and geography gained wide popularity. They were distinguished by a high scientific level and thoroughness of printing. Devrian's publications were intended for agricultural specialists, students and teachers of universities and higher educational institutions.

Among Devrien's numerous publications, a special place is occupied by the Complete Encyclopedia of Russian Agriculture in 11 volumes (1900-1912) and the multi-volume work Russia. Complete geographical description our Fatherland. Desk and travel book”, published under the general editorship of Academician P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

Devrien's publishing house paid great attention to the release of popular science literature and books of a reference and encyclopedic nature in various branches of knowledge. Among gymnasium youth, the Travel series was a success, consisting of books about outstanding Russian and European travelers: N. M. Przhevalsky, G. E. and M. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, G. N. Potanin, F. Nansen and others.

In 1884, a bookstore by V. S. Ettinger was opened in St. Petersburg. The son of a doctor, he published the popular Guide to Topographic Anatomy by I. Girtl as a young man. Ettinger's systematic publishing activity began in 1884 with the publication of the journal "Practical Medicine", a series of manuals and monographs on all major issues of medicine. Ettinger was able to lower the cost of medical literature for his subscribers. The medical world received, thanks to his efforts, a relatively cheap scientific book. In 1891, Ettinger undertook the publication of a translation of the "Real Encyclopedia of Medical Sciences" by Professor of Nervous Diseases in Berlin A. Eulenburg. The translation was supplemented with original articles, the publication was completed in 1898 and amounted to 21 volumes. For 20 years, from 1891, Ettinger published the Medical Calendar, which was in great demand. The publishing house also published medical atlases and a series of popular science books on hygiene issues. The capital work "Russian Surgery" was published in separate issues. Ettinger's periodicals became famous - "Yearbook of Practical Medicine" (since 1901 - "Doctor's Newspaper"), the journal "Therapy", etc. The publishing house had its own printing house and a bookbinding workshop. The business of W. S. Ettinger was succeeded by his son F. W. Ettinger (died 1916). The publishing house existed until 1929 (under the name "Practical Medicine"), continuing to publish special journals and works of the largest physicians (V. L. Oppel, V. P. Osipov, etc.).

By 1879, the beginning of the book publishing activity of V. A. Berezovsky, who created the first specialized publishing house and book trade in military literature in Russia, dates back. The son of an officer and himself a military man, Berezovsky, on the instructions of the military ministry, began issuing new charters and instructions, and in 1881 - textbooks for privates and non-commissioned officers. In order to expand the literacy and education of soldiers, in 1882 Berezovsky began publishing the series "Library for Soldiers' Reading". In 1886, Berezovsky retired to devote himself entirely to the book business. His special merit is the publication of works by prominent Russian military figures: M. I. Dragomirov, A. K. Puzyrevsky, D. F. Maslovsky, N. P. Mikhnichev, A. E. Berezhansky, G. A. Leer. Berezovsky attached great importance to the publication of books on military psychology and pedagogy; a significant place among his book production was occupied by military history literature. He published the "Encyclopedia of Military and Naval Sciences" edited by G. A. Leer, "Atlas of the Battles of the 19th Century", series "Soldier's Library". In 1886, Berezovsky began publishing the Firm's Office List and Book Store, which in 1889 was transformed into the Scout military biographical magazine. The military-bibliographic magazine Vestovoy was also published (1894-1918).

Berezovsky's book warehouse offered a wide range of books for the army, where officers of all military branches, military doctors, military units, headquarters and institutions, military educational institutions found everything they needed. This was facilitated by Berezovsky's annual catalogs of the availability of publications in stock.

In 1882, I. N. Knebel's bookstore was opened in Moscow (together with P. F. Grossman). Having received a higher education in the humanities in Vienna, Knebel founded the first specialized publishing house in Russia on fine arts. Beginning in 1895, he published a multi-volume "History of Russian Art" edited by AD. Grabar, monographs about artists, tone and color reproductions of paintings ("Tretyakov Gallery", "Paintings of Contemporary Artists", etc.). Knebel's children's editions were widely known. In total, he published about 400 publications.

PI Yurgenson specialized in publishing and selling sheet music and musical literature. He published 29 thousand titles of music. Russian composers P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. A. Balakirev, A. G. Rubinstein, A. S. Arensky maintained close relations with the publishing house of Jurgenson. For the first time in Russia he published the complete works of L. Beethoven, F. Mendelssohn, F. Chopin, R. Schumann. Thanks to Jurgenson, the first specialized music salons were opened in large cities of Russia. The publishing house of P.I. Jurgenson had its own branch in Leipzig. After the death of P.I. Yurgenson, his son B.P. Yurgenson (1868-1935) continued the business.

A native of Germany, A. A. Kaspari launched publishing activities in 1870, starting with the release of mass calendars. In 1886, he purchased the Rodina magazine. Having become rich, Caspari opened three bookstores, started a printing house. He published fiction: a series of two-volume books "Cheap Library of Classics" and "Library of Novels", illustrated luxury editions ("Faust" by Goethe with illustrations by G. Dore). He also published numerous supplements to his journals and the "World History of Caspari" - cheap and profusely illustrated. Cheap editions of Caspari were designed for undemanding tastes.

A well-known Petersburg publisher and bookseller of the second half of the 19th century. was N. P. Karbasnikov. Starting with the service in the bookstores of N. A. Serno-Solovyevich and A. A. Cherkesov, in the late 1860s. N. P. Karbasnikov entered the firm of N. O. Fen as a clerk, which sold textbooks for secondary and elementary schools, but already in the early 1870s. founded his own business. He mainly specialized in the publication of educational and pedagogical literature, fiction and books on the history of literature, and he published mainly books that had already been published in the first edition in Russia or abroad. Karbasnikov's textbooks were popular and often reprinted, because. they were distinguished by good printing performance and were sold at affordable prices. Karbasnikov published the magazines "Book News" (1879-1883) and "Leaf of Book Announcements" (1886-1909).

The first bookstore Karbasnikov opened in 1878 in St. Petersburg, then in Moscow, Warsaw and Vilna. He was also a commissioner of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow and Warsaw Universities and one of the founders of the Russian Society of Publishers and Booksellers. In 1908, the partnership “N. P. Karbasnikov", which published the monthly magazine "Among the Books" (1913-1917).

By the 60s. 19th century refers to the beginning of the publishing activities of organizations created to guide the education of the people. They made an attempt to publish books for the people and thus fight against popular publications.

In 1860, the partnership "Public Benefit" arose in St. Petersburg. It published public books on various branches of knowledge, "if only these works would meet the main task: to serve for the common good, for the enlightenment of the people." The partnership set as its goal to publish books "for reading by the common people and in relation to their understanding." However, the books of the publishing house differed in different reader orientation, there were varying degrees of difficulty - natural science publications, solid historical works, books for youth. A special section was made up of books "for children and the people" - works by writers and teachers, written "in relation to the understanding" of the people, whose level of consciousness was erroneously equated to that of a child. The publishing activity of "Public Good" lasted 35 years, until 1895.

By 1861, the beginning of the activity of the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee dates back. The Committee's program was based on the project "Societies for the Propagation of Literacy", compiled by I. S. Turgenev. Particular attention was paid to the publication of books for popular reading. According to Turgenev, they had to be "numerous, as cheap as possible, available everywhere and to everyone." The program developed by the Committee stated: “The Committee issues different books for popular reading, manuals and flyers, sending out to those who wish to rural schools at a price that they will cost the Society, and in some cases free of charge. The first members of the Committee were L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, historian P. V. Pavlov, teachers I. I. Paulson, A. N. Strannolyubsky and others. Under the Committee, a “Commission of Experts” was formed for the approval of books - the first bibliographic organization in Russia, which included teacher and bibliographer F. G. Tol, I. I. Paulson and V. A. Zolotarev, writer A. F. Pogossky.

The first 20 years of the Committee's activities were limited mainly to sending books to schools and libraries, compiling a list of books for public reading. During this time, 16 books were published, intended for reading leaders and novice teachers.

In the mid 80s. 19th century new young forces came to the Committee, representatives of the radical intelligentsia - the brothers F. F. and S. F. Oldenburg, A. M. Kalmykova, N. A. Rubakin, and others. In 1880, a special publishing commission was created. Since then, the publishing activity of the Committee has become systematic. When releasing “folk publications”, works by Russian and foreign writers, the Committee paid special attention to the publication of books that showed “difficult pictures” of the life of ordinary people, “unequal struggle of people higher development with painful, oppressive conditions of their activity. The Literacy Committee distributed its publications through its book warehouse. In the late 1890s - early 1900s. were published "The Life of Animals" by A. E. Brem, "The History of Russia from Ancient Times" by S. M. Solovyov, "The History of the French Revolution" by Louis Blanc. Three illustrated editions of the book by the French geographer E. Reclus "Earth and People" were undertaken.

In recent years, the Committee has published the "Philosophical Library", which includes the works of Aristotle, Rousseau, Kuno Fischer, GV Plekhanov. The "Historical Library", "Library of Public Issues" were published. Fairy tales by L. N. Tolstoy and V. M. Garshin were published for children.

The Posrednik publishing house, organized in 1884 by L. N. Tolstoy and V. G. Chertkov, joined the publication of the book for the people. Since 1897, I. I. Gorbunov-Posadov became the head of the publishing house. Having entered into an agreement with I. D. Sytin, according to which the latter was obliged to print and distribute editions of the Intermediary at a cheap price (from 1 to 5 kopecks), Tolstoy and Chertkov ensured that the book of the Intermediary reached the broad masses of the people. These publications preached mainly the moral and ethical views of Leo Tolstoy, his doctrine of non-resistance to evil by violence. The works of N. S. Leskov, V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko, M. Gorky, books of foreign writers at the choice of L. N. Tolstoy (G. Toro, R. Emerson, etc.) were published. Since 1898, the Library for Children and Youth series has been published. The books were designed with drawings by I. E. Repin, N. N. Ge, V. I. Surikov, A. D. Kivshenko. Posrednik also published books for peasants on agriculture, medicine, hygiene, and childcare. The publishing house existed until 1935.

The distribution of useful and reasonable books among the people, as well as counteracting speculation and the distribution of popular publications, was aimed at the publishing house "People's Library", which arose in 1885, owned by V. N. Marakuev. In an effort to expand the knowledge of the peasants, Marakuev published not only the works of Russian writers, but also foreign ones - H. K. Andersen, C. Dickens, E. Ozheshko, G. Flaubert, W. Shakespeare, as well as books on agriculture. Marakuev made a common mistake for the then intelligentsia, not making a difference between children's and "folk" reading.

Moscow publishers P. N. Sharapov, A. V. Morozov, E. A. Gubanov were engaged in publishing and selling popular books. They opened bookshops and warehouses in many cities and at fairs. I. A. Golyshev's factory of popular lithographed publications in Mstera was famous. More than 3,000 prints per day were printed here, and 500,000 copies were published annually. popular prints and 20 thousand divination tables. The so-called "servant" literature, such as "Guide to the choice of wives", "Practical lessons in playing cards and not losing", etc., which was published by the same publishing houses, was designed for petty-bourgeois tastes. The undemanding reader was offered reworkings of works of classical literature. Under the title "The Terrible Beauty, or Three Nights at the Coffin", an unrecognizably altered story by N.V. Gogol "Viy" was published. The story of A. Melnikov-Pechersky "In the Forests" was in the same form under the "intriguing" title "A Cave in the Forest, or the Corpse of a Dead Man", etc.

In the early 1860s A. F. Bazunov started publishing. The book trade of the Bazunovs was founded in Moscow in 1810; in 1835, F. V. Bazunov acquired a bookstore in St. Petersburg. His son A.F. Bazunov significantly expanded and strengthened the business. He became a commissioner of the Academy of Sciences and a number of ministries and departments. As a publisher, he became famous for publishing works by Russian and foreign writers. The “Library of Modern Writers” series included works by F. M. Dostoevsky, G. I. Uspensky, N. V. Uspensky, N. S. Leskov, A. S. Chuzhbinsky and others. “Notes from the Dead House” and “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky, the works of G. Heine edited by P. I. Weinberg were published as separate editions. Attempts to reconcile the commercial direction with the social usefulness of publications were unsuccessful, as a result, Bazunov went bankrupt, his publications that did not sell out and the literary rights he acquired were transferred to Wolf.

To liberal booksellers and publishers of the second half of the 19th century. refers to K. T. Soldatenkov, a major Moscow industrialist and patron of the arts. A decisive role in Soldatenkov's biography was played by his close relationship with members of the Moscow circle of progressive intelligentsia, headed by Professor T. N. Granovsky. He especially became close to a member of the circle, N. X. Ketcher. In 1856, the son of the actor M. S. Shchepkin, N. M. Shchepkin, together with a group of liberals (N. V. Stankevich, P. V. Annenkov and N. Kh. Ketcher), formed a partnership for the publication and distribution of books. Soldatenkov also joined the Association. In fact, he was in charge of the publishing house N. X. Ketcher, who determined the choice of books for publication, edited them. Soldatenkov and Shchepkin contributed to the publication of the works of Russian democratic poets: N. A. Nekrasov, A. V. Koltsov, N. P. Ogarev, A. I. Polezhaev. The most valuable publication was the 12-volume collected works of V. G. Belinsky.

In 1862, after the split of the Moscow circle, Shchepkin left the publishing house, and it completely became the property of Soldatenkov, who from that time, while maintaining the cultural and educational direction of the publishing house, focused on the publication of multi-volume scientific works on history, history of literature, pedagogy, logic. Among these works are the following: “General History” by G. Weber translated by N. G. Chernyshevsky, “General History” edited by E. Lavisse and A. Rambo, “Roman History” by T. Mommsen; books by T. N. Granovsky, I. E. Zabelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky; monuments of world classics - Iliad, Gulistan by Saadi, Dramatic Works by W. Shakespeare and many others. It should be noted the series "Library of Economists", in which the works of D. Smith, D. Riccardo, J. P. Sismondi and others were published. Soldatenkov's publications were inexpensive and were publicly available.

In the 1860s in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities, so-called "ideological" bookstores and publishing houses, printing houses began to appear, the owners of which were often participants in the liberation movement, members of secret societies and used the book trade and publishing for revolutionary educational purposes.

Of considerable interest is the book trade, organized at the end of 1861 in St. Petersburg by N. A. Serno-Solovyevich. A nobleman by birth, a court adviser, he draws close to the advanced circles of St. Petersburg, together with N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. A. Sleptsov and others, organizes the secret society "Land and Freedom". In the interests of spreading advanced ideas in Russian society, it was decided to open a large bookstore in St. Petersburg. Serno-Solov'evich undertook this. The employees of the store were members of the "Earth and Freedom" A. A. Sleptsov, A. A. Richter, P. I. Aprelev, A. N. Engelgardt - the wife of an artillery officer, a member of a secret society. A library-reading room was opened at the store on Nevsky Prospekt. Metropolitan students, officers, writers willingly came here. It was a genuine “students' headquarters,” recalled N. Ya. Nikoladze, a student of the university. “Here we had the opportunity to have everything we wanted ... Here you could find out all the political and literary news that did not appear in print, see almost all the celebrities, and often get to know them.”

The store distributed the works of V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky, outstanding Russian and European thinkers, sociologists, philosophers, economists, historians, naturalists, and fiction writers. Here you could get the forbidden works of A. I. Herzen, the “free Russian press”.

Serno-Solovyevich opened a joint book trade with the Kharkov bookseller and publisher N. P. Ballin, a socialist by conviction. Ballin's book trade was universal. Particular attention was paid to the wide dissemination of natural science literature, the works of Russian and Ukrainian progressive writers, to familiarize the Russian reader with the latest achievements in natural science, chemistry, physics, and geology.

It should also be noted that Serno-Solov'evich's store was connected with the progressive Moscow bookseller A. F. Cherenin. The subject matter of the books published by Cherenin is typical of the democratic book business of the 1860s. These are mainly natural and social sciences. In 1866, he published a "Collection of information on the book and literary business." In 1865-1866. Cherenin published the critical and bibliographic journal Knizhnik, a kind of mouthpiece for the democratic book business of the 1960s. 19th century

Serno-Solov'evich's book publishing activities also served propaganda purposes. He published in Russia and abroad the works of the poet M. L. Mikhailov, a collection of works by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, “Collection of stories in prose and verse”, “World History” by F. Schlosser (edited by N. G. Chernyshevsky), “History of the 19th century” by G. G. Gervinus and others. and activities. The bookstore that belonged to him passed into the hands of A. A. Cherkesov, who led him in the same direction. Cherkesov's bookstore published books on natural science, medicine and social sciences, among them: E. Becher's "Working Question" with the appendix "Charter of the International Workers' Association" written by K. Marx, "Collected Works" by A. P. Radishchev (edited by P. A. Efremov). Cherkesov's bookstore widely popularized K. Marx's "Capital" for sale in the publication of N. P. Polyakov.

The bookselling enterprises of E. P. Pechatkin, N. L. Tiblen, I. O. Bakst and other "ideological" booksellers and publishers of the sixties, associated with the advanced social movement, had a similar character.

Tiblen produced mainly natural-science and philosophical literature. In 1862, he published the first complete edition of A. S. Griboyedov’s Woe from Wit with illustrations by M. S. Bashilov. Tiblen also published "Collections of works of new writers" (1868) and the progressive magazine "Modern Review".

Bakst published works on history, philosophy, works of fiction. He paid special attention to the publication of essays on the revolutionary movements in the West. Propaganda brochures for the people of I. A. Khudyakov (“Russian Book”, “Stories about Ancient People”) were printed in his printing house.

The son of the stationery manufacturer P. A. Pechatkin - E. P. Pechatkin was an active participant in the social movement of the sixties. Together with his brother V.P. Pechatkin, he had a bookstore and a bookbinding workshop. Pechatkin's publishing activity was of a progressive nature - he collaborated in the publication of the book by the underground organization of I. A. Khudyakov. He published Khudyakov’s “Self-Tutorial for Beginners to Learn to Read and Write”, “Essays and Stories” by G. I. Uspensky, “Collected Works” by G. Spencer, “Remarkable Criminal Cases. Verbatim reports, compiled by S. N. Tkacheva and others.

In the mid 1860s. N. P. Polyakov, “a man of a nihilistic direction, who lived in a circle of people who remained, according to his contemporaries, after Chernyshevsky, and who shared his views,” began book-selling and publishing activities. Polyakov was closely associated with a group of democratically minded publishers and booksellers - Tiblen, Neklyudov, Pechatkin, Evdokimov, Kozhanchikov. Together with Tiblen and Pechatkin, he founded in 1865 the Russian Book Trade, which existed until 1875. At the same time, he was engaged in publishing activities. Basically, Polyakov published books on social issues that interested progressive Russian society (works by N. A. Dobrolyubov, P. L. Lavrov, A. P. Shchapov, V. V. Bervi-Flerovsky). He was associated with the populist circle "Chaikovites" and published books, by mutual agreement, for propaganda purposes. He published the works of F. Lassalle, T. Hobbes, Voltaire, D. Diderot. In 1869, Polyakov published a book by N. Flerovsky (V. V. Bervi-Flerovsky) “The Condition of the Working Class in Russia”, which received an approving review from K. Marx. He also owns the publication of the first Russian translation of Capital (1872). Constant confiscations, fines, lawsuits undermined the material base of the publishing house, and in 1873 it was forced to stop its activities.

The bookseller and publisher D. E. Kozhanchikov (1821-1877) was closely associated with many leading figures of his time. In the early sixties, Kozhanchikov's bookstore was, according to contemporaries, “the most brilliant of all St. Petersburg stores. He enjoyed not only the sympathy of the entire educated public of new views, but almost the entire literary press of that time was grouped around him. Kozhanchikov also had bookstores in Kazan, Kharkov, Odessa and Warsaw. The bookselling and book publishing activity of Kozhanchikov was distinguished by an opposition to the government direction. His publications were dominated by books of a historical nature, works of progressive fiction. He published works by N. I. Kostomarov, F. I. Buslaev, A. Tocqueville, a number of ethnographic collections, books on the split of the church. From the works of fiction - the works of I. S. Turgenev, A. I. Ostrovsky, I. A. Goncharov, "Kobzar" by T. G. Shevchenko. In 1875, the bookstores of Cherkesov and Kozhanchikov were merged, and a collective administration was established.

Among the booksellers and publishers who began their activities in the 60s. XIX century, stands out F. F. Pavlenkov. According to N. A. Rubakin, “Pavlenkov was one of those fanatical publishers who made it their task to create a book in order to create a cadre of deeply honest ... creators of the new system, the struggle against the old system.” After graduating from the cadet corps and the Mikhailovsky Artillery Academy, Pavlenkov resigned in 1866 and took up publishing. He acquires (together with MP Nadein) a bookstore in St. Petersburg that belonged to the liberal journalist and publisher P. A. Gaideburov. Under the sign "Bookshop for out-of-towners" it began to function in March 1867. Having published a number of books of an educational nature, Pavlenkov in 1866 undertook the publication of the works of the democratic critic D. I. Pisarev. In 1868, Pavlenkov was arrested and exiled to Vyatka. Here he continues to publish books, publishes the collection "Vyatka Forget-Me-Not", which had a revealing character.

Pavlenkov was able to engage in regular publishing activities only from the beginning of the 80s. 19th century after returning from exile to Petersburg. He carried out many valuable educational series, published collected works of Russian writers, a lot of books on various fields of knowledge. One of Pavlenkov's most popular undertakings is the Life of Remarkable People series, published since 1899. This was the first such publication in Russia. The series consisted of books that were small in size and volume, modestly designed, each of which contained a biography of some outstanding figure in science, history, literature, and art. Prominent scientists, writers, teachers, publicists took part in compiling the biography. During the life of the publisher, 200 biographies were printed, with a circulation of over 1.5 million copies.

Pavlenkov laid the foundation for the publication of cheap one-volume works by classical writers. The “Illustrated Pushkin Library”, “Illustrated Lermontov Library” were publicly accessible. Pavlenkov called his “favorite brainchild” the Encyclopedic Dictionary compiled by him and published for the first time in 1899. Constantly increasing the circulation of publications, Pavlenkov sought to reduce their cost. This he achieved by the skillful organization of the publishing house, by reducing the cost of typesetting and designing publications. Before his death, he bequeathed the bulk of the money received from the liquidation of the company to be used to open free public reading rooms in the poorest places (villages, towns). In total, 2018 "Pavlenkovsky" reading rooms were opened, some of them continue to exist in our time.

Pavlenkov's successors, his friends and assistants N. A. Rozental, V. D. Cherkasov and V. I. Yakovenko continued publishing for some time. In 1905 they published the first collected works of A. I. Herzen in Russia.

Among the liberal-democratic publishers of the second half of the XIX century. belongs to L. F. Panteleev. A member of the student movement of the sixties, a member of the Land and Freedom, he was convicted and exiled in 1864. Its first editions appear in 1877. In the 30 years before the termination of his work in 1907, Panteleev published over 250 books. The main core of his publications was scientific literature. His publications on the natural sciences, books on sociology, history, logic, psychology, and philosophy enjoyed great popularity. He published works by leading Russian scientists - I. M. Sechenov, A. N. Beketov, V. A. Manasein, F. F. Erisman, M. M. Kovalevsky, a four-volume collection of works by N. A. Dobrolyubov and others. Among the translated publications were released: ancient authors - Socrates, Apuleius, Tacitus; thinkers of the Renaissance and Enlightenment - B. Spinoza, C. Montesquieu, B. Pascal; representatives of the scientific thought of modern times - L. Morgan, D. Rnkcardo, W. Wundt, G. Maspero, T. Huxley, D. Maxwell; writers - A. Lessage, A. Mitskevich and others. Panteleev's publishing activity was of an oppositional nature. In 1907, in connection with the onset of reaction, he decided to stop it. The material part of the publishing house was transferred to the Literary Fund.

"Free Russian Press" and illegal printing houses. In the 50s. 19th century the Russian foreign "free press" was born, the beginning of which was laid by the outstanding writer A. I. Herzen. In 1853, the Free Russian Printing House was founded in London. She worked here until 1865, and then Herzen transferred her to Geneva. Herzen's assistant was his friend and like-minded poet N. P. Ogarev. The Free Russian Printing House printed the Polar Star collections, the Kolokol newspaper, various supplements to them, as well as the works of the Decembrists, A. N. Radishchev, revolutionary appeals that were intended for Russia, banned in Russia. The influence of these publications was great, even the top government officials were forced to listen to them. At this time, other emigrant printing houses also worked abroad - in London, Bern, Geneva, Leipzig. Their products also came to Russia and were distributed by revolutionary youth. Emigrant publications were persecuted, destroyed, the police and the gendarmerie subjected to repression the distributors of this literature, its active readers.

In the late 50s - early 60s. 19th century the first illegal publications appear inside Russia. They were issued by the Moscow Free Printing House; St. Petersburg secret printing houses - Velikorus, Pocket Printing House, printing house of the Land and Freedom Society. Their organizers were revolutionary-minded students, officers, and journalists. Underground leaflets were distributed in Kazan, Perm, Kyiv and other Russian cities. A number of proclamations were issued by a secret organization operating in the troops of the Russian army located in the western regions of the country.

In the early 70s. 19th century secret book printing was launched by revolutionary populist circles - "Tchaikovtsy", "Dolgushintsy", P. N. Myshkin. The activities of illegal printing houses became especially intense in the mid-1870s, when a mass movement of young people “to the people” began to propagate socialist ideas and call the peasants to revolt. It was at this time that the bulk of populist propaganda pamphlets and leaflets appeared. A significant part of the "literature for the people" was published abroad. Propaganda pamphlets were mostly written in the form of fairy tales, stories and religious teachings in a special "folk" language. Most publications had fictitious imprints and censored approval notes. The most significant illegal populist printing houses were; "Free Russian Printing House", "Petersburg Free Printing House", printing houses of secret societies "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". There were so-called "flying" printing houses, which were transferred from place to place for the purpose of secrecy.

Attempts to conduct printed propaganda were made by the first workers' organizations that arose in the 1870s: the South Russian Union of Workers and the Northern Union of Russian Workers. In the 1880s the first Russian Marxist, social-democratic organizations arise. The Emancipation of Labor group, headed by G. V. Plekhanov, launched publishing activities in Geneva. Inside Russia, the publication of Marxist literature was established by the Society of Translators and Publishers at Moscow University, the Party of Russian Social Democrats group under the leadership of D. Blagoev, and the Marxist circle of N. E. Fedoseev in Kazan.

A new stage in the history of illegal printing begins in the 1890s. and is associated with the activities of the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. The Soyuz printed and distributed leaflets and brochures of a political propaganda nature. For this, manual duplicators were used - a hectograph and a mimeograph. In 1895-1896. there was a rather large illegal printing house of the Soyuz, called Lakhtinskaya (at the location near St. Petersburg).

Subjects and types of publications. Public upsurge in the 60s. 19th century affected both the overall growth of printed matter (in terms of circulation and titles) and the change in the subject matter of published literature. Although among the books published in the capitals, as before, a large place was occupied by textbooks, books of religious content, light fiction, there is still an increase in publications of serious socio-economic and natural science literature. The works of N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev, N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, leading Russian scientists N. I. Pirogov, D. I. Mendeleev, K. D. Ushinsky, A. P. Shchapov, N. I. Kostomarov, P. V. Pavlov, and others are published in separate editions. The publishing houses publish the works of Western European thinkers-economists, philosophers, sociologists, and natural scientists - C. Darwin, T. G. Huxley, C. Lyell, C. Focht, J. Moleschott, G. J. Bockl, F. Schlosser, G. G. Gervinus, D. S. Mill, whose work met with a sympathetic response in an advanced society. The publication of books on agriculture and technology increased somewhat.

A feature of the raznochinny democratic reader of the 1860-1870s. was the inclusion in the reading circle of illegal publications, the works of Herzen and Ogarev, publications of the Free Russian Printing House - "Polar Star", "Bells", etc. Revolutionary populism of the 1870s. developed an active illegal publishing activity. Some "ideological" publishers, as indicated, were associated with populist organizations and published books in agreement with the latter.

In the 1870-1880s, in connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of public publications for the people, for those engaged in self-education, increased. But at the same time, the publication of lubok books continued to grow, especially in Moscow.

By the end of the century, the share of translated literature had significantly decreased: up to 9% of the total book production in Russia, while at the beginning of the 19th century. translated literature accounted for half of all books published in Russian. The industrial boom of the late 1880s - early 1890s, the revolutionary movement of the working class, the activities of the first Marxist, Social Democratic organizations contributed to the growth in the production of books and other printed works, had a noticeable impact on the change in the book assortment. The following figures testify to the growth of book production: in 1887, 7,366 editions were published, in 1880 - 8,638, and in 1895 - 11,548, and their circulation almost doubled (18,540 thousand copies in 1887 and 35,512 thousand copies in 1895). Intensive growth in circulation of book production continues in the second half of the 1890s, reaching 56,331 thousand copies by 1901, while the number of titles decreased to 10,318.

Book layout. The mechanization of the printing process, the improvement of printing forms with the help of photomechanics determined the nature of the design of the book in the second half of the 19th century. If, on the one hand, there is a reduction in the cost of publications, the quality of paper and binding of mass printed products deteriorates, the standardization of typographic techniques increases and a book with cheap Western clichés becomes widespread, then, on the other hand, a “luxurious” gift book arises, some publications are characterized by typographic sophistication (curly intricate letters, a miniature book).

In a book from the 1860s Wood engraving is re-emerging. An outstanding master of this genre was E. I. Hohenfelden, who created a number of excellent engravings for the "Works of Derzhavin" in the publication of the Academy of Sciences. The artist A. A. Seryakov specialized in the field of tone engraving. Interesting engravings for the works of Russian writers were created by artists A. I. Lebedev M. S. Bashilov. In the 1880s the name of N. N. Karazin becomes known, who was the first Russian artist to work on wood with a brush. Known for his illustrations for gift editions of M. O. Wolf (“Native Echoes”, “Thought after Thought”), for the works of Russian writers. His work enjoyed European fame.

Since the 1860s the release of illustrated art albums is increasing. One of the most significant phenomena of book graphics is the "Album of Gogol's types" by the artist P. M. Boklevsky (1881).

In the 1890s phototype becomes widespread. In the technique of phototype, an illustrated collection of "Works" by M. Yu. Lermontov was published, released in 1891 by the Moscow publishing house of I. P. Kushnarev with illustrations by I. E. Repin, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Shishkin, I. K. Aivazovsky, V. D. Polenov, M. A. Vrubel and other outstanding painters and graphic artists.

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