The concept of articulation. Speech apparatus. The phonetic structure of the English language Sound-letter analysis: what are consonant sounds

home » Geography The concept of articulation. Speech apparatus. The phonetic structure of the English language Sound-letter analysis: what are consonant sounds

Russian writing is sound, more precisely, phonemic (phonemic). This means that each basic sound of speech, or each phoneme, in the graphic system of the language has its own sign - its own grapheme.

The literacy teaching methodology, orienting students and teachers to sounds, takes into account the peculiarities of the Russian phonetic system.

It is very important for teaching literacy which sound units in the Russian language perform a semantic function (i.e., they are phonemes, “basic sounds”), and which ones do not perform such a function (variants of “basic sounds” - phonemes in weak positions).

There are 6 vowel phonemes in Russian: a, o, y, s, i, e - and 37 consonant phonemes: solid p, b, m, f, c, t, d, s, z, l, n, w, zh , r, r, k, x, z, soft n", b", m", f", e", ig", d", s", s", l", n", r", long w ", long w", h, and. The phonemes r, k, x appear in their soft variants only before the vowels e, i. Strong positions for vowel phonemes - are under stress, strong positions for consonant phonemes (except for and) - are in front of the vowels a, o, y, and (for paired voiced-deafness and hardness-softness, there are additional cases that are set out in the textbook "Modern Russian language"). The phoneme also stands before stressed vowels "In a strong position, in other cases it appears in a weak position (the so-called non-syllable and: mine - mine).

In weak positions, the phonemes act as options that do not sound distinctly enough (water - o? a?) or turning into the opposite in pairing (frost - at the end of c). It is easy to see that there are a lot of phonemes that appear in weak positions, i.e., sounding unclear, indistinct, in speech, and this cannot be ignored in teaching literacy.

IN modern school adopted the sound method of teaching literacy. Schoolchildren identify sounds, analyze them, synthesize them, and on this basis learn letters and the whole process of reading. In this work, it is necessary to take into account the features of the Russian graphic system, the features of the designation of sounds in writing. The following features of the graphic system of the Russian language are most important for the methodology of teaching literacy:

1. Russian graphics are based on the syllabic principle. It consists in the fact that a single letter (grapheme), as a rule, cannot be read, since it is read taking into account subsequent letters. For example, we cannot read the letter l, because, without seeing the next letter, we do not know whether it is hard or soft; but we read the two letters li or lu unmistakably: in the first case l is soft, in the second - l is hard.

If we see the letter c, then it seems to us that it should be read either as hard or soft. But there are cases when it is necessary to read with as sh - sewed; how u - count; how to wash.

The letter I, taken separately, we will read as ya (two sounds); but in combination with the preceding soft consonant, we read it as a: ball, row.

Since in Russian the sound content of a letter is found only in combination with other letters, then, consequently, letter-by-letter reading is impossible, it would constantly lead to errors in reading and to the need for corrections. Therefore, in teaching literacy, the principle of syllabic (positional) reading is adopted. From the very beginning of reading, students are guided by the syllable as a unit of reading. Those children who have received the skill of letter-by-letter reading as a result of home schooling are relearned at school.

Of course, it is not always possible to immediately achieve the reading of words in accordance with the norms of Russian orthoepy. So, his words that blue children do not immediately learn to read as [evo], [shto], [s "inv]. In such relatively difficult cases, a double reading is recommended: "spelling", and then - orthoepic.

In particularly difficult cases, even a letter-by-letter reading is allowed, for example, if a completely unfamiliar word is encountered. However, it should be followed by syllabic reading and whole word reading.

2. Most Russian consonants b, c, g, d, z, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x are both hard and soft and denote two sounds: frame, river.

The letters h, u are unambiguous: they always denote soft sounds, and the letters c, w, w are always hard sounds.

These features are taken into account in the methodology: children first get acquainted only with hard consonants, and later with soft ones. The sounds h, u, ts, zh are studied at relatively late stages of literacy1.

3. The sound b (middle language, always soft consonant) is indicated not only by the letter and, but also by the letters ё, i, e, yu, when they are at the absolute beginning of the word (tree - [yol] ka, Yasha - [ya] -sha ), after vowels in the middle of the word (mine - mo[ya], let's go - after [ye] hali) and after ъ or ъ (vyun - [in "dun", entrance-pode] zd).

The iotated vowels e, i, e, yu are read relatively late in literacy2, and children learn to read them more by guesswork than by theory. They recognize these letters both as e], [|a], [p], y], and as e, a, o, y after soft consonants (without transcription, of course).

4. The softness of consonants is indicated in Russian graphics in several ways: firstly, b (angle - coal), secondly, by subsequent vowels and, e, i, e, u (linden, Lena, soft, flax, Lyuba - [l "and] pa, [L" e] on, [m" a] gky, [l" he], [L" y] ba); thirdly, subsequent soft consonants: [p "es" n "b] . First-graders get acquainted with the first two ways of designating the softness of consonants without theory, practically; the third is not affected at all.

In syllabic reading, the distinction between soft and hard consonants does not cause difficulties for students. The most difficult case is with a soft consonant at the end of the word: horse - horse, angle - coal, and also inside the word: shaft - sluggish, small - crumpled, bed - lying, etc. To learn soft consonants, unlike hard ones, a comparative reading is used and an explanation of the meaning of words that differ only in the softness or hardness of one consonant (cases when hardness-softness acts in a semantic function).

5. The sounds of the Russian language in words are in strong and weak positions. So, for vowels, a strong position is stressed, a weak position is unstressed. Regardless of the strong or weak position, the sound (more precisely, the phoneme) is denoted by the same letter. The discrepancy between the sound and the letter in weak positions must be taken into account in the methodology: at first they try to avoid words with unstressed vowels, with voiced and deaf consonants at the end and in the middle of the word - these spelling difficulties are introduced gradually, comparing weak positions with strong ones (frost - frost, home - house).

A serious difficulty for children is the multivariance of sounds. When extracting sounds from a word, we never get exactly the same sound as it was in the word. It is only approximately similar to the sound in the word, where it is influenced by subsequent and previous sounds (sha, sho, shu).

The child must catch the general sound of all variants of the same sound. For this, words with the sound being studied are selected so that it stands in different positions and combinations with other sounds (hut, good, noise).

When teaching literacy, one should, if possible, avoid the sound-letter analysis of such words, where the law of the absolute end of the word operates (a nail is a guest, a breast is sadness, etc.), the law of assimilation by the sonority-deafness of consonants (compress - [zh]t, count - [sh]t, later - after [same], etc.), where consonant combinations are simplified, or there are unpronounceable consonants (sad - “sad”, heart - “heart”, sun - “sun”, etc. .). Children will get acquainted with such phenomena of Russian phonetics later; for example, with unpronounceable consonants - in class II.

6. It should not be forgotten that all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in four versions: printed and written, uppercase and lowercase.

First-graders learn capital letters as a "signal" of the beginning of a sentence and as a sign of proper names (the simplest cases). Capital letters differ from lowercase letters not only in size, but often also in style.

For normal reading, it is also necessary to learn some punctograms - a period, question and exclamation marks, a comma, a colon, a dash.

Of no small importance for solving methodological issues is syllable division. A syllable, from the point of view of education, is several sounds (or one sound) pronounced with one expiratory push. In the syllable, the vowel sound stands out as its basis with its greatest sonority (during the pronunciation of the syllable, the vowel plays the role of a “mouth opener”, and the consonants play the role of “mouth closeers”). Syllables are open type sg (consonant + vowel) - ma, closed type gs - am, and type sgs - poppy, as well as these same types with a confluence of consonants: ssg - three, ssg - stro and some others. The difficulty of syllables depends on their structure: the easiest syllables for students are considered to be syllables like sg and gs.

Both reading and writing are complex processes. An adult, experienced reader does not notice the elementary actions that make up the process and writing of reading or writing, since these actions are automated; but a child learning to read or write does not yet merge all elementary actions into one complex one; for him, each element appears as an independent action, often very difficult, requiring great efforts not only of will, intellectual, but even physical.

It is impossible to teach literacy to schoolchildren without presenting reading and writing in the elements that make up these actions. Let's take a look at these elements.

Reading. An experienced reader does not stop his gaze on every letter and even on every word: 2-3 words immediately fall into his “reading field”, fixed by a brief stop of the eyes. It has been established that the reader's gaze moves along the line in jerks, stopping on the line 3-4 times. Awareness of the text occurs during stops. The number of stops depends not only on the experience of the reader, but also on the difficulty of the text.

An experienced reader grasps words by their general appearance. With the help of a tachistoscope, it was found that an experienced reader reads long and short familiar words almost at the same speed. But if an unfamiliar word is encountered, then he is forced to read by syllables or even by letters, and sometimes, returning his gaze to the beginning of the word, reread it again. Although an experienced reader does not need an auditory analyzer and prefers to read to himself, he often reads a difficult word aloud (or at least “speaks” without sound), since he lacks only a visual analyzer for perception.

An experienced reader does not need to read aloud: quiet reading proceeds 1.5-2 times faster than loud reading, understanding of the text turns out to be even higher, since when reading quietly, the reader has the opportunity to “run” the text much ahead with his eyes, return to individual places of what he read, reread them ( work on readable text).

For the technique and for the consciousness of reading, context plays an important role.

What is the difference between the process of reading for a beginner to learn to read and write?

a) The “reading field” of a novice reader covers only one letter in order to “recognize” it, often he compares it with others; reading a letter arouses in him a natural desire to immediately pronounce a sound, but the teacher requires him to pronounce a whole syllable - therefore, he has to read at least one more letter, keeping the previous one in memory, he must merge two or three sounds. And here for many children lie considerable difficulties.

After all, to read a word, it is not enough to reproduce the sounds that make it up. The process of reading proceeds slowly, since in order to read a word, it is necessary to perform as many acts of perception and recognition as there are letters in the word, and besides, you still need to merge sounds into syllables, and syllables into words.

b) The eyes of a novice reader often lose a line, as he has to go back, reread letters, syllables. His gaze is not yet accustomed to moving strictly parallel to the lines. This difficulty gradually disappears as the scope of the student's attention expands, and he perceives at once a whole syllable or a whole word.

c) A beginner to read does not always easily understand the meaning of what he has read. Great attention is paid to the technical side of reading, to each elementary action, and by the time the word is read and pronounced, the student does not have time to realize it. Understanding the meaning is torn off from reading, "recognition" of the word does not occur simultaneously with its reading, but after. The school pays great attention to the consciousness of reading. It is enhanced by pictures, questions and explanations of the teacher, visual aids; promotes awareness reading aloud: auditory stimulus supports the visual perception of the word and helps to understand its meaning. And yet, poor reading awareness is one of the main difficulties in teaching literacy.

d) It is typical for an inexperienced reader to guess a word either by the first syllable, or by a picture, or by context. However, attempts to guess the words, although they lead to errors in reading, indicate that the student seeks to read consciously. (Guesses are also characteristic of an experienced reader, but his guesses rarely lead to errors.) Errors caused by guesses are corrected by immediate reading by syllables, sound-letter analysis and synthesis.

The greatest difficulty in teaching reading is the difficulty of sound fusion: children pronounce individual sounds, but they cannot get a syllable. It is necessary to consider the physiological basis of this difficulty.

Speech organs (tongue, lips, palate, lower jaw, lungs, vocal cords) when pronouncing each sound, taken separately, are in the position of excursion (exit from immobility); excerpts and recursions.

When two sounds are pronounced together, in a syllable, the recursion of the first sound merges with the excursion of the second. Consequently, to overcome the difficulties of sound fusion, it is necessary that the child pronounce the second sound without allowing recursion on the first sound; schematically it looks like this:

The main and, in fact, the only effective way to overcome the difficulty of sound fusion is syllabic reading. Setting the syllable as the unit of reading can minimize the difficulty of sound fusion.

As you can see, the process of reading for a first grader is a complex, very difficult process, the elements of which are not only very loosely interconnected, but also carry independent, their own difficulties. Overcoming them and merging all the elements into a complex action require great volitional efforts and a significant amount of attention, its stability.

The key to success in learning is the development in the child of such important cognitive processes like perception, memory, thinking and speech.

Such an organization of learning, in which each student is included in an active, largely independent cognitive activity, will develop the speed and accuracy of perception, stability, duration and breadth of attention, the volume and readiness of memory, flexibility, logic and abstractness of thinking, complexity, richness, variety and correctness of speech.

The development of a student is possible only in activity. So, to be attentive in relation to the subject means to be active in relation to it: “What we call the organization of the student’s attention is, first of all, the organization of the specific processes of his educational activity”1.

In the modern Soviet school, the sound analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy has been adopted. Special studies and experience show that children coming to grade 1, especially from kindergarten, in your own way mental development ready for the perception of individual sounds, and for analysis and synthesis as mental actions.

During the period of learning to read and write, great attention is paid to the development of phonemic hearing, that is, the ability to distinguish between individual sounds in a speech stream, to distinguish sounds from words, from syllables. Students must “recognize” phonemes (basic sounds) not only in strong, but also in weak positions, to distinguish between phoneme sound variants.

By the age of two, a child has elementary phonemic hearing: he is able to distinguish words that are similar in sound composition, except for one sound (mother and Masha). But at school, the requirements for phonemic hearing are very high: schoolchildren are trained in decomposing words into sounds, in isolating a sound from combinations with various other sounds, etc.

Phonemic hearing is necessary not only for successful learning, but also for developing a spelling skill: in Russian, a huge number of spellings is associated with the need to correlate a letter with a phoneme in a weak position (Russian spelling is sometimes called phonemic).

The development of phonemic hearing also requires a highly developed auditory apparatus. Therefore, during the period of literacy training, it is necessary to carry out various auditory exercises (development of auditory perceptions).

The basis of teaching both reading and writing is the speech of the children themselves, the level of its development by the time they enter school.

Letter. A long experience has formed a skill, automatism of writing in a literate adult. An adult rarely pays attention to the inscription and connection of letters, to spelling, he even adheres to lines automatically and transfers words, almost without thinking about observing the rules. His focus is on content and partly on style and punctuation. Moreover, he does not think about how to hold a pen, how to put paper, etc. The position of his hands and landing have long been established. In other words, he does not have to expend conscious effort on the graphic, technical side of writing.

The process of writing with a first-grader proceeds in a completely different way. This process breaks up for him into many independent actions. He must take care of himself in order to properly hold the pen, put down the notebook. When learning to write a letter, the student must remember its shape, elements, place it on a line in a notebook, taking into account the line, remember how the pen will move along the line. If he writes a whole word, in addition to that, he must remember how one letter connects to another, and calculate whether the word will fit in a line. He must remember how to sit without bringing the eye of the notebook closer. The child is not yet accustomed to performing these tasks, so all these actions require conscious effort from him. This not only slows down the pace of writing, but also exhausts the child mentally and physically. When a first-grader writes, his whole body tenses up, especially the muscles of the hand and forearm. This is due to the need for special physical exercises during the lesson.

Let's see how the student writes. The pen (more precisely, a ballpoint pen) moves slowly, uncertainly, shudders over the paper; having written a letter, the student breaks away and examines it, compares it with the sample, sometimes corrects it. Hand movements are often accompanied by movements of the head or tongue.

Checking the student's notebooks, we will make sure that the same letter is written differently in different cases. This is a consequence of insufficient skill, fatigue. Rewriting letters and words for students is not a mechanical process, but a conscious activity. The student writes a letter, putting a lot of volitional effort into his work.

Russian writing is sound, more precisely, phonemic (phonemic). This means that each basic sound of speech, or each phoneme, in the graphic system of the language has its own sign - its own grapheme.

The literacy teaching methodology, orienting students and teachers to sounds, takes into account the peculiarities of the Russian phonetic system.

The modern school has adopted the sound method of teaching literacy. Schoolchildren identify sounds, analyze them, synthesize them, and on this basis learn letters and the whole process of reading. In this work, it is necessary to take into account the features of the Russian graphic system, the features of the designation of sounds in writing. The following features of the graphic system of the Russian language are most important for the methodology of teaching literacy:

If we see the letter c, then it seems to us that it should be read either as hard or soft. But there are cases when it is necessary to read with as sh - sewed; how u - count; how to wash.

The letter I, taken separately, we will read as ya (two sounds); but in combination with the preceding soft consonant, we read it as a: ball, row.

2. Most Russian consonants b, c, g, d, z, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x are both hard and soft and denote two sounds: frame, river.

The letters h, u are unambiguous: they always denote soft sounds, and the letters c, w, w are always hard sounds.

6. It should not be forgotten that all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in four versions: printed and written, uppercase and lowercase.

For normal reading, it is also necessary to learn some punctograms - a period, question and exclamation marks, a comma, a colon, a dash.

Of no small importance for solving methodological issues is syllable division. A syllable, from the point of view of education, is several sounds (or one sound) pronounced with one expiratory push. In the syllable, the vowel sound stands out as its basis with its greatest sonority (during the pronunciation of the syllable, the vowel plays the role of a “mouth opener”, and the consonants play the role of “mouth closeers”). Syllables are open type sg (consonant + vowel) - ma, closed type gs - am, and type sgs - poppy, as well as the same types with a confluence of consonants: ssg - three, ssg - stro and some others. The difficulty of syllables depends on their structure: the easiest syllables for students are considered to be syllables like sg and gs.

It is impossible to teach literacy to schoolchildren without presenting reading and writing in the elements that make up these actions. Let's take a look at these elements.

For the technique and for the consciousness of reading, context plays an important role.

What is the difference between the process of reading for a beginner to learn to read and write?

Speech organs (tongue, lips, palate, lower jaw, lungs, vocal cords) when pronouncing each sound, taken separately, are in the position of excursion (exit from immobility); excerpts and recursions.

The main and, in fact, the only effective way to overcome the difficulty of sound fusion is syllabic reading. Setting the syllable as the unit of reading can minimize the difficulty of sound fusion.

The key to success in learning is the development in the child of such important cognitive processes as perception, memory, thinking and speech.

In the modern Soviet school, the sound analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy has been adopted. Special studies and experience show that children coming to grade 1, especially from kindergarten, are mentally ready both for the perception of individual sounds and for analysis and synthesis as mental actions.

The basis of teaching both reading and writing is the speech of the children themselves, the level of its development by the time they enter school.

Tasks

1. Write down the main concepts encountered in the chapter (literacy, literacy, literacy teaching methodology, reading, writing, etc.) and try to define these concepts.

2. Prepare an oral presentation on the topic "Russian graphic system and its features."

3. Analyze from the point of view of psychology and physiology the process of reading an experienced adult reader. (On my own example.)

Form start

End of form

COMPARATIVE AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LITERACY TEACHING METHODS (BY HISTORICAL EXAMPLES)

Literacy education is the most ancient branch of native language methodology. His story is complex and instructive. The most outstanding teachers of the past: K. D. Ushinsky, L. N. Tolstoy, V. P. Vakhterov and many others - actively responded to the burning problems of letter writing. Elementary literacy, that is, the ability to read and write, is the key to mass education; but for centuries it has also been an insurmountable obstacle on the way of the masses of the people to the light of knowledge.

Today in the Soviet school it takes a little more than three months to acquire literacy. But just a century ago, schoolchildren crammed letters and "warehouses" for two years, and even then not everyone achieved success.

Today, the Soviet method of teaching literacy solves the following questions: how to form the skills of reading and writing, while at the same time providing a high developmental potential for learning? How to make the process of mastering literacy interesting, entertaining, creative, how to turn it into a continuous series of discoveries for the student? How to connect the task of developing elementary reading and writing skills with the tasks of preparing for the assimilation of grammar, spelling, phonetics, without violating the requirements of accessibility, systematicity and scientific character? Today, such tasks as further reduction of the time spent on the passage of the "Primer" are not removed either.

Disputes over the methods of teaching literacy do not subside. No sooner had the discussion in the journal Sovetskaya Pedagogika subsided in 1963-1964 than the dispute over primers flared up again (magazines " Primary School"and" Soviet Pedagogy ", 1969-1974). All this means that today, as well as a hundred years ago, the initial stage of children's education attracts the close, ardent attention of teachers and scientific educators. In such a situation, every teacher needs to know well how the Russian science of teaching literacy - primer writing - developed.

Until the end of the 18th century, during the period when dogmatic teaching methods dominated school practice, the so-called letter-subjunctive method was used, based on the mechanical memorization of letters, their names, syllables and words. The training began with memorizing the names of all the letters of the alphabet: az, beeches, verb, good, hedgehog ... people, thoughts, etc. Then syllables were memorized: beeches - az - ba, verb - az - ha, az - verb - ag , beeches - rtsy - az - bra, etc., more than 400 syllables in total (synthesis). Syllables were formed that did not always really exist in the language, in isolation from living speech: there was, as it were, the preparation of formal reading material.

Only after that did the reading begin by syllables (“in warehouses”): the students, naming each letter by its full name, added syllables, and then combined these syllables into words. Here is how, for example, the word grass was read: firmly - rtsy - az - tra; lead - az - va; grass. All this took less than a year. In the 19th century the names of the letters were simplified (for example, instead of "beeches" - "be"), but the essence of the technique remained the same.

The training was completed by reading "on top", that is, whole words, without naming letters and syllables. One more year was spent on such reading. They turned to writing only in the third year of study. The literal method is dogmatic, aimed at mechanical cramming. Although the authors of the best primers tried to enliven the teaching of literacy with illustrations and entertaining materials (for example, Karion Istomin's Primer, published in 1694, gave words and pictures for each letter, as well as moralizing verses), the teaching was painful, uninteresting and fully justified proverb "The root of learning is bitter."

The disadvantage of the method was that it did not rely on sounds, on sounding speech, did not require a continuous reading of the syllable (recall that the syllabic principle operates in the system of Russian graphics). The complex name of the letter made it difficult to perceive a readable sound: the verb is r. Texts, as a rule, were difficult: they did not take into account the child's psyche. Immediately after studying the syllables, the children read texts of religious and moral content. The letter was cut off from reading.

The needs of mass education prompted the search for new, easier methods of teaching literacy, ways to save time, and speed up learning. The subjunctive method is being replaced by other, mainly sound, methods focused on the analytical, synthetic and analytical-synthetic activity of students. The creators of new methods sought, firstly, to rely on the achievements of linguistic science, in particular phonetics, and secondly, to provide not only facilitated and accelerated learning, but also to give it a conscious, developing character. In essence, the 19th century in letter writing was an arena for the struggle of new methods designed for conscious learning, with the inert, mechanical traditions of the letter-subjunctive method.

Depending on which language unit is taken as the initial one when teaching elementary reading (letter, sound, syllable, whole word - ideogram), and on what type of student activity (analysis, synthesis) is the leading one, literacy teaching methods can be classified into according to the following table:

<ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: ИЗОБРАЖЕНИЕ ИСПОРЧЕНО>

The literal method has been preserved in family teaching for a long time, perhaps to the present day. This is evidenced by an extremely interesting recollection of Oleg Koshevoy in A. Fadeev's Young Guard: “I see your fingers with slightly thickened joints in the primer, and I repeat after you: be-a-ba, woman.”

The letter-subjunctive method already familiar to us is a pronounced literal synthetic method (learning letters, combining them into syllables and then into words).

It is not difficult to imagine that a letter analytic is possible - according to this method, training should begin with the selection of individual letters from the written word. However, such a method has not been developed in Russia: far from all methods that are possible, based on this table, have become widespread in Russia.

The most widespread both in the West and in Russia are sound synthetic, analytical, and, finally, analytical-synthetic methods of teaching literacy. In the new, sound methods, a significant role is assigned to the children themselves: they extract sounds from words, add words from them, that is, they analyze and synthesize.

In the 40s of the XIX century. in Russia, the analytical sound method was popular: in the West it was called the "Jacotot method", in Russia - the "Zolotov method".

According to this method, the students divided the sentence into words, the words into syllables, and the syllables were decomposed into sounds (in the oral version) and into letters (in the written version). As you know, such work is carried out even today: teaching literacy begins with it.

However, the traditions of the dogmatic period of the development of the school also affected this, sound analytical method: syllables, word styles, letter combinations were memorized; as a result of repeated reading of the same words and sentences, they also learned by heart. The sound analysis of a word began after the children visually memorized the outline of this word. It would seem that according to the sound method, one should rely primarily on auditory work, develop the ability to hear sounds in a spoken word (phonemic hearing); but visual exercises predominated in Zolotov's methodology.

Despite the shortcomings, the analytical sound method was a significant step forward from the dogmatic methodology, the result of a creative search for new, more advanced, mentally developing ways of teaching literacy.

An example of a synthetic sound method is very common in Western Europe in the 19th century. method created by G. Stefani (Germany). In Russia, this method was developed and promoted by Nikolai Alexandrovich Korf (1834-1883). Having arisen in the conditions of the most acute struggle between the old, subjunctive and new methods, the Korf method naturally inherited a lot from him, but still the most essential - "where to start?" - was new: literacy training began with the study of individual sounds, and then - the corresponding letters. When a certain number of sounds and letters accumulated, synthetic exercises began: children merged sounds into syllables, made syllables and words from letters. Then new sounds were assimilated, etc. Reading by this method is the naming of a series of sounds denoted by letters (such reading is called letter-by-letter in our time). The syllable was not a unit of reading, and hence the difficulties of sound fusion, sometimes completely insurmountable.

The method of N. A. Korf was close to the literal subjunctive - the usual mass of teaching, and this not only ensured its wide distribution in Russia, but also contributed to the rebirth of the literal subjunctive method itself, since even adherents of the latter began to introduce into the usual methodology - work on the sounds of speech.

In 1875 Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy's "New ABC" was published, compiled according to the "auditory" method. In works on the history of letter writing, Tolstoy's method is usually called syllabic-auditory, since L. N. Tolstoy paid great attention to syllabic work: the decomposition of syllables into sounds, the combination of sounds into syllables, the reading of syllables, their pronunciation. The speech hearing of children developed. The texts were composed in such a way that the difficulty of reading syllables and words increased gradually. Thus, “the entire first part of the ABC is composed of words that do not come out of two syllables and six letters”1.

The method of L. N. Tolstoy, after all, was not purely syllabic: he had to combine, according to the author's intention, the best that was in various areas of literacy teaching methodology. He introduced pre-letter exercises in decomposing words into sounds, paid much attention to auditory perceptions and articulation exercises (speech-motor); applied simultaneous teaching of writing - introduced the printing of letters, words, and even writing down words from dictation from the very first literacy lessons; achieved conscious reading: all the texts compiled by him were not only accessible, but close and interesting to peasant children.

L. N. Tolstoy assumed that his "ABC" would be used by teachers teaching literacy in various systems, he focused on texts for reading, created an excellent example of the first book for reading.

Among the numerous primers and alphabets that appeared in the 19th century. (mainly in the first half of the century), there were also syllabic ones (designed for learning using the syllabic method). However, the syllabic methods used in the Russian school, strictly speaking, were not purely syllabic: the syllable did not become a unit of reading from the very beginning. First, the students memorized all the letters of the alphabet, then they memorized the syllables, with increasing difficulty: ba, va, ga ... - and read the words consisting of such syllables; then: bra, vra - and again read the words containing the studied syllables, etc.

Sound analysis and synthesis was not carried out, they began to teach writing only after mastering the skill of reading.

Reinforced syllabic work, in comparison with letter composition, was a step forward, since auditory and speech-motor exercises take place in it, reading itself becomes closer to natural, syllabic reading, gradualness in increasing the difficulty of what is read is elementarily observed.

However, syllabic methods in the form in which they were used in the 19th century were aggravated by shortcomings inherited from the letter-subjunctive method: the mechanical memorization of letters and a huge number of syllables, sometimes artificial, meaningless (vzgra, vzgru, etc.), the addition of words from learned elements. Reading texts are prayers, commandments, religious and moral teachings.

The positive influence of syllabic methods on subsequent, mainly sound, consists in the introduction of syllabic tables and exercises.

The fact that the syllabic principle operates in Russian graphics (one single letter, as a rule, cannot be read correctly) would seem to speak in favor of the syllabic method of teaching reading. However, until now, the historical experience of the Russian school has shown that syllabic reading is more successfully carried out within the framework of the sound method (for example, the sound analytical-synthetic method used in the school of our days) than when teaching by the syllabic method.

Searches and disputes by the middle of the 19th century. led most primers to the conclusion that, firstly, sound methods have advantages over alphabetic ones, since they are more consistent with the sound nature of speech; secondly, analytical work (not just synthesis!) ensures the best mental development; thirdly, it is impossible to put up with separate teaching of reading and writing, as well as reading texts incomprehensible to children.

Naturally, in such an environment, sound analytic-synthetic methods could not but appear. It is the sound analytic-synthetic method, in its various variants and modifications, that has not only become the most widespread in Russia, but has also stood the test of time: it has served the school almost continuously for more than 100 years and gives good results.

In Western Europe, the sound analytical-synthetic method was developed in the 19th century. Greser, A. Diesterweg, Vogel; in Russia it was first introduced by Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870); the most famous successors of the work of K. D. Ushinsky, the authors of primers and guides to them - D. I. Tikhomirov (1844-1915), V. P. Vakhterov (1853-1924), V. A. Flerov (1860-1919), A. V. Yankovskaya (1883-1964), S. P. Redozubov (1891-1957).

The “Native Word” by K. D. Ushinsky, which included his “ABC”, as well as the “Guide to Teaching in the “Native Word”, was published in 1864 and gained wide popularity and recognition. K. D. Ushinsky called his method the method of writing and reading. He convincingly proved that it is impossible to separate writing from reading. He believed that writing, based on sound analysis, should go ahead of reading (hence the name of the method). According to the "ABC" by K. D. Ushinsky, children first get acquainted with the handwritten font and only after 10-15 lessons are introduced printed letters. But even then the new letter, after studying the sound, is first given in written form.

K. D. Ushinsky in his methodology combined analysis and synthesis, introduced a system of analytical and synthetic exercises with sounds, syllables and words. In his system, analysis and synthesis are inseparable and support each other.

The advantage of his technique was that he relied on living speech. Literacy education is connected with the development of speech (“the gift of speech”) of students. From the very first lessons, children work with folk proverbs, with riddles; readable texts available to children. For sound analysis, sentences and words taken from the speech of the students themselves are used.

K. D. Ushinsky considered (and repeatedly emphasized) its developing character as the advantage of his methodology. Indeed, analytical-synthetic exercises, constant attention to the development of speech, attention to conscious reading, conversations, the connection between writing and reading - all this created a consistent system for developing the mental abilities of schoolchildren. The sound analytic-synthetic method thus represents a huge step forward in the struggle for mass education. It completely overcomes the dogmatism of the literal subjunctive method. If we use the periodization of M. N. Skatkin, then the sound analytical-synthetic method can be attributed to explanatory and illustrative methods, and to the best of them, to those that require high activity of the children themselves in the learning process. It contains some elements research method which is only fully developed today.

The entire pedagogical system of K. D. Ushinsky was aimed at the comprehensive development of the child, at the development of his thinking and speech, and the method of teaching literacy developed by him was the first link in his system. Therefore, in the recommendations of K. D. Ushinsky, a huge place belongs to observations (both of the surrounding life and of the phenomena of language, speech), conversations, and stories of the students themselves. Teaching at school for a child did not begin with memorizing the names of letters alien to him or unfamiliar patterns of printed words, but with an analysis of the living speech of the

children, from the decomposition of familiar, familiar words into syllables and sounds. K. D. Ushinsky introduced dozens of methods of sound work into school practice, which are still used today, he gave psychological and pedagogical justifications to all these methods.

However, not all the innovations introduced by him satisfied his followers and successors - the method was improved.

In The Native Word, K. D. Ushinsky abandoned the alphabetical order of studying sounds and letters; first, the children learned eight vowels, including iotated ones, then consonants, with soft consonants being studied along with hard ones.

BBK 81.432.1-923.2

INTRODUCTION

Given teaching aid intended for students daily form teaching non-linguistic specialties of all faculties of higher educational institutions and is designed for those who have sufficiently mastered the grammatical material provided for by the secondary school curriculum.

Its goal is to systematize, improve and give deeper knowledge of a multifunctional orientation in grammar. in English.

The educational publication in a simple and accessible form in Russian sets out the basic rules of the normative grammar of the English language and provides numerous exercises that are diverse in form and content. A significant place is given to creative exercises that develop the skills of using grammatical structures in oral speech. The sequence of exercises within each section is determined by the stages of skills formation and the degree of complexity.

The proposed teaching aid is compiled using accessible vocabulary, which does not burden the perception of grammatical phenomena, and its repetition contributes to memorization and expansion of students' vocabulary.

Grammar exercises are focused on:

- recognition in the text or utterance of a particular grammatical phenomenon, to highlight its distinctive features;

- the use in oral and written speech of various grammatical phenomena that correspond to the literary norms of the English language;

– elimination of interlingual interference (translation from Russian into English and from English into Russian);

- understanding the grammatical structure of the written text, contributing to the general perception and identification of its storyline.

BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS

The concept of sound and written forms of language

Language arose and exists as a means of communication between people, primarily in sound, oral form. The letter is only a conditional display of the sound form of the language. Therefore, it is necessary, first of all, to master its sound form, its phonetic structure, i.e. system of sounds, word stress and intonation. The study of the phonetic structure of a language phonetics.

In English, there is a large discrepancy between the sound and letter composition of the word, since the English spelling has not changed for a very long time, while the sound form of the language has undergone significant changes. This discrepancy between the pronunciation and spelling of a word in English is also explained by the fact that there are 44 sounds in English, and the Latin alphabet, which is used in the language, has only 26 letters. Therefore, the same letter in different positions can be read as several different sounds. Here is what native speakers themselves say about this: "We write Manchester, read Liverpool".

Differences in the phonetic structure of the English language

from the phonetic structure of the Russian language

The English language, unlike Russian (as, by the way, unlike most European languages), is characterized by an unusually rich system of vowel sounds. Thus, native speakers of the Russian language, who are accustomed to pronouncing and distinguishing only 6 vowels in speech, naturally experience great difficulties in pronouncing and recognizing 20 English vowels in sounding speech. Some of these sounds sound almost the same to the untrained ear, which leads to a confusion of the meanings of the words.

For example: bad - bad; bed - bed

beer - beer; be - to be

1) In Russian there is no division of vowels into long and short. There are long and short vowels in English, and replacing a short sound with a long one, or vice versa, can lead to confusion between the meanings of words.

For example: eat - eat, eat (verb)

it - he, she, it (pronoun)

2) Among English vowels, in addition to vowels that sound the same throughout, there are diphthongs, i.e. vowels consisting of two elements pronounced within one syllable.

For example: type ; plate

3) The pronunciation of English consonants also has its own characteristics compared to Russian consonants. English voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants are never stunned, i.e. are not replaced by their corresponding voiceless consonants.

Stunning of English voiced consonants at the end of a word can lead to a shift in the meanings of words, as well as the replacement of a consonant with a voiceless sound in a Russian word.

For example: eyes - eyes; if you stun and pronounce this word like, then you get the word ice - ice.

4) English consonants are pronounced firmly before any vowel. In Russian, before some vowels, for example, before the vowel [and], softening occurs. Compare the sound [t] (in Russian) in the words tyn and silence. In order to avoid softening, it is necessary to monitor the position of the tongue: the tongue should take a curved position, forming a "spoon".

5) Most words in Russian have certain, clearly defined endings (inflections). In English, the number of inflections is small, while inflections mainly consist of consonants, which makes them difficult to perceive by ear and requires accuracy in pronunciation.

6) In Russian, polysyllabic words predominate, mostly with an open syllable (that is, ending in a vowel).

For example: ve-ro-yat-but; grammar

In English, we observe a large number of monosyllabic words with a clear predominance of closed syllables, i.e. ending in a consonant.

For example: was; get; mind; cat

7) In general English pronunciation(both vowels and consonants) are distinguished by high tension and active work of the organs of speech, the rigidity of the ways of the tongue ("spoon") and lips (slightly stretched). This creates a characteristic English accent. As for the Russian pronunciation, it is characterized by a much greater lethargy and relaxation of the organs of speech.

Phonetics. Sound as the basic unit of phonetics. Types of phonetics.

PHONETICS. PHONETIC STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE

LECTURE #8

1. Phonetics. Sound as the basic unit of phonetics. Types of phonetics.

2. The concept of articulation. Speech apparatus.

3. Phonetic articulation of the speech flow. Segment and super-segment units:

4. Vowels and consonants of the Russian language.

5. The concept of position. Strong and weak positions of sounds.

6. Phonetic processes.

7. Interaction of sounds in a speech stream. Positional and combinatorial changes of sounds.

Phonetics(from Greek phōnētikos - sound, voice, phōnē - sound) - a branch of linguistics that studies the sound means of language. Those. F. studies the sound structure of the language - the inventory of sounds, their system, sound. laws, as well as the rules for combining sounds in a word and a flow of speech. In addition to speech sounds, F. studies such sound phenomena as syllable, stress, and intonation.

Speech sounds- a complex phenomenon, a fact at the same time physical, physiological, mental.

The combination of all three facts makes the sound of speech a fact of language, i.e. phoneme.

This gives rise to 3 phonetic disciplines: acoustics of speech, physiology of speech, phonology.

The general theory of sound deals with the section of physics - acoustics, - which considers sound as a result of oscillatory movements of the r.-l. bodies in c.-l. environment.

Acoustics distinguishes in sound the following main features:

Altitude (frequency of oscillations per second),

Strength (intensity),

Duration (duration of sound vibrations),

Timbre (color of sound).

Allocate general and private F.

F. general- a section of linguistics that studies theoretical questions of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of a syllable, the relationship of the sound side of a language to its grammatical system, using the material of various languages.

IN private F. all these problems are considered in relation to this particular language.

F. historical / diachronic- a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language in its historical development.

F. descriptive- a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a particular language in a synchronous plan.

F. experimental- the study of sounds using instrumental research methods.

Articulation(Latin articulare - articulate) - the work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production and pronunciation of sounds.

Each sound has 3 articulation bases:

- seizure (excursion; the transition of the organs of speech from a calm state to a position required by a pronunciation sound),

- excerpt(preservation of the position of the organs for pronouncing sounds),

- indent (recursion; the output of the organs of speech and the position of the shutter speed or the start of the articulation of the next sound).

speech apparatus- a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech.

In the speech apparatus, 3 main parts can be distinguished:

1) respiratory organs (lower floor: lungs, bronchi, trachea);

3) supraglottic cavities (upper floor: pharynx, mouth, nose) - organs located above the larynx.

All organs of speech are divided into active and passive.

Active organs of speech mobile and perform the main work during articulation: vocal cords, back wall of the pharynx (pharynx), palatine curtain, tongue and lips.

Passive organs of speech they are motionless and perform auxiliary work during articulation: the hard palate, alveoli and teeth, sometimes the back wall of the pharynx (pharynx) plays a passive role.

3. Phonetic articulation of the speech flow. Segment and super-segment units.

Phonetic units of the speech flow - text, phrase, beat, words, syllables, sounds.

Text- the largest unit (excerpt, story, dialogue).

Phrase- a segment of speech, united by a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between two rather long pauses.

The phrase is divided into smaller units - speech tacts, or syntagmas. speech beat, or phonetic syntagma(from Greek syntagma, literally - built together, connected) - an intonation-semantic unity that expresses one concept in one context and in a given situation and can consist of one word, a group of words and even a whole sentence. N-r, Where / where the rock used to be, / lay a pile of rubble- 3 syntagmas; All is well at the factory.- 1 syntagma. The boundaries between measures are indicated by a single vertical line.

A speech tact may consist of one or more phonetic words. phonetic word- a segment of a sound chain, united by one verbal stress, i.e. this is an independent word together with unstressed auxiliary words and particles adjoining it. And in the grove it's half dark- words 4, phonetic words - 2.

Words that lose their stress and adjoin the front of the next word - proclitics (did not sleep, at home, three years), unstressed words adjoining behind - enclitics (I would go, who is it, I know, you).

A phonetic word is divided into syllables. Syllable acts as the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, consisting of one or more sounds combined into a phonetic whole.

Sound, syllable, phonetic word, phonetic syntagma, phrase- different segments segments of the speech stream. Such linear segments (segments) are called segment units.

Supersegment units- phonetic phenomena that are layered on a linear chain of segment units, built on top of it, in a broad sense, include all the accent and melodic characteristics of speech; in the narrow - stress and intonation.

stress. There are verbal and phrasal U.

verbal W.- the selection of one of the syllables in the composition of the word by various phonetic means. Ways to highlight the stressed syllable: 1) the strength (intensity) of articulation (power, dynamic); 2) longitude, duration of pronunciation (quantitative, quantitative); 3) change in tone (tonic, melodic, musical).

phrasal U.- the selection of one word as part of a speech tact (syntagma) or a syntagma as part of a phrase by various combinations of phonetic means: melody, intensity, duration.

Intonation(lat. intonare - to pronounce loudly) - the rhythmic-melodic side of speech (melody, rhythm, intensity, tempo, timbre, phrasal and logical stress), which serves in the sentence as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring. The following types of I. are distinguished: I. interrogative, exclamatory, ascending, two-peak, complete, vocative, imperative, final, logical, descending, one-peak, I. enumeration, etc.

Phonetics - the science of the sound side of human speech. This is one of the main sections of linguistics (linguistics).

In phonetics, the following sections are distinguished:

1) phonetics proper, which studies the sounds of speech from the point of view of their articulatory-acoustic properties and features, as well as the phonetic articulation of speech;

2) phonology, which studies the functional side of speech sounds, phonemes and their system;

3) orthoepy, studying the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation;

4) graphics that introduce the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds;

5) spelling, which explores the basic principles of Russian spelling and fixes a set of rules that determine the spelling of words.

Phonetic system is determined not only by its physical properties, but above all by the relationship between its constituent elements (for the first time this principle in relation to the linguistic description was formulated by F. de Saussure). Everything in language and speech is subordinated to one task: to serve as a means of transmitting information. Therefore, the function of speech sounds - the minimum units of phonetics - is to create speech, form words, distinguish words, create rhythm (stress) and form intonation, with the help of which whole sentences (utterances) are distinguished. It is this ability of speech sounds - to be a carrier of information (i.e. to create language units and distinguish these units) - that underlies any system for describing sounds for each language (its phonetic and phonological systems). Based on how, what parameters of sounds, in terms of their articulation, are involved in distinguishing language units, each sound of a language can be represented by its own set (complex) of articulatory characteristics. Despite the endless variety of languages that function in human society and the variety of speech sounds in these languages, the phonetic system of any of them uses several basic articulatory oppositions (such properties common to all languages of the world are called language universals), namely:

method of articulation: the presence or absence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream (it is the method of articulation that separates the class of consonant, or consonant, sounds from vowels, or vocal sounds);

the degree of participation in the production of voice sounds (tones) - this is how consonant sounds differ, which are the same in the way and place of articulation; in addition, according to the degree of participation in the production of sounds of the vocal source (vocal cords), a special class of consonant sounds is distinguished, which is called sonants;

the place of articulation of sounds (or the articulatory focus of sound), due to which consonant sounds are distinguished, which are the same both in the method of articulation and in the participation of the voice;

the formation by the articulatory organs of special resonating cavities in the articulatory tract, which are used to vary the sound and form a system of vowel sounds.

All phonetic units of the language- phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.

Phrase- the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase is not always the same as a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, the same phenomenon is still considered from different points of view. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.

Intonation- a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), force sound (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses, the general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagmas.

Syntagma- a combination of two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I in the evening. See you tomorrow evening. In these sentences, syntagmas are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term "syntagma" is understood by scientists in different ways. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, delimits the syntagma from the speech tact as an intonation-shaped semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence

speech beat - part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by intonation of incompleteness (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / bow to the fatherland / in Russian / at the feet. (D. Kedrin).

phonetic word- part of a speech measure (if the phrase is divided into measures) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical sense of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. most often significant words stand out in separate measures. Since some words do not carry stress, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, service parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be in an unstressed position:. Words that do not have stress and are adjacent to other words are called clitics. Depending on what place they occupy in relation to the stressed word, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. Proclitics are unstressed words that stand in front of the stressed one to which they adjoin:, enclitics are unstressed words that stand after the stressed one to which they adjoin:,. Functional words usually act as proclitics and enclitics, however, a significant word can also turn out to be an enclitic, when a preposition or a particle takes on the stress: by ´ water [by´ vodu].

Syllable- a part of a measure or a phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a combination of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see the section "Symbol division. Types of syllables").

Sound- the smallest unit of speech uttered in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit that is distinguished by the successive division of speech.

speech apparatus is a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech.

The lower floor of the speech apparatus consists of the respiratory organs: lungs, bronchi and trachea (windpipe). Here an air jet arises, which participates in the formation of vibrations that create sound, and transmits these vibrations to the external environment.

The middle floor of the speech apparatus- larynx. It consists of cartilage, between which two muscular films are stretched - the vocal cords. During normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and air flows freely through the larynx. The same position of the vocal cords when pronouncing deaf consonants. If the vocal cords are close and tense, then when air passes through a narrow gap between them, they tremble. So there is a voice involved in the formation of vowels and voiced consonants.

The upper floor of the speech apparatus - organs located above the larynx. The pharynx adjoins the larynx directly. Its upper part is called the nasopharynx. The pharyngeal cavity passes into two cavities - oral and nasal, which are separated by the palate. The front, bony part of it is called the hard palate, the back, muscular part is called the soft palate. Together with the small uvula, the soft palate is called the velum of the palate. If the palatine curtain is raised, then air goes through the mouth. This is how oral sounds are formed. If the palatine curtain is down, then the air goes through the nose. This is how nasal sounds are formed.

To describe various vowels introduce two characteristics - row and rise.
Horizontal shifts of the tongue correspond to the concept of a series of vowels, vertical shifts of the tongue are associated with the concept of the rise of vowels. Therefore, each vowel can be assigned to one of the three rises - upper, middle or lower, and simultaneously to one of the three rows - front, middle or back.

Consonants, an obstruction in the oral cavity is certainly involved in their formation. The shape of the obstruction can be different: the tongue can completely block the exit of air from the mouth, forming a bridge with the teeth or with the palate, or it can create a blockage, leaving only a narrow gap for the exit of air. Therefore, all consonants are divided according to the method of formation into stop (for example: p, t, g) and slotted (for example: s, x, f). There are also intermediate sounds that combine features of both stop and fricative sounds. These are affricates (h, c).
So, the method of formation is the first sign in the articulation characteristic of consonants.
The second important feature is the place where the noise barrier is formed.

According to the active speech organ, consonants can be labial and lingual (anterior, middle and posterior lingual), according to the passive - labial, dental, palatine (anterior, middle and posterior palatine). The third sign is the division of consonants into voiced (for example: g, w, b) and deaf (k, w, p). They can be formed with or without participation of the voice.
And finally, fourthly, consonants can be hard and soft.

Syntagmatic articulation speech flow as a process of dividing the speech flow into minimal semantic units is associated with the reflection in the sound of the structural and semantic components of the text and usually occurs in areas of weakening of the linear-grammatical connections of words. However, the intonational segmentation of the text may vary. The features of syntagmatic articulation are largely determined by the factor of visual perception of the text: the coincidence of intonational boundaries with punctuation marks is interpreted by researchers as the main syntagmatic articulation, and the division into syntagmas within the syntactic group is additional, due to the subjective attitude of the speaker.

Phrase articulation. The phrase corresponds to a statement that is relatively complete in meaning. A phrase and a sentence are not the same thing. A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a syntactic one. Their borders may not match. For example: The winds subsided meekly//, bright light calls me home. One sentence contains two phrases. The phrase is divided into speech syntagmas, or measures.

The main units of the sound material shell of the language are linear or segmental and non-linear or supersegmental units.

Segment language units are sounds, syllables, phonetic words. They are called so because they are located in speech one after the other: you cannot immediately, at the same time, pronounce two sounds.

Supersegment units of language are stress, intonation.

Their main difference from sounds is that they do not exist separately from the material shells of language units, they characterize these material shells as a whole, as if built on top of them. Therefore, supersegmental units cannot be pronounced separately. They, like sounds, are involved in distinguishing words and sentences.

Coarticulation can be defined as the influence of phonetic context on the articulation of speech sounds. The term "coarticulation" is used as a general name for processes denoting the influence of the articulation of neighboring sounds. In a narrower sense, coarticulation proper, assimilation and accommodation are distinguished.

Coarticulation itself is understood as the process of combining the articulatory gestures of neighboring sounds.

The effect of the articulation of a consonant on a consonant is called assimilation, and a vowel into a consonant - accommodation.

SYLLABLE- a sound or a combination of sounds united by a wave of sonority, that is, the degree of sonority (publicity). There are 4 theories of the syllable: expiratory, sonorous, tension, dynamic.

Theory of sonority. (Moscow Phonological School, R.I. Avanesov) examines the syllable through the acoustic properties of speech - described in the textbook. According to this theory, the syllable is a wave of sonority; combining sounds in ascending order around the reference sound with the greatest degree of sonority. Sounds are assigned a sonority index: noisy deaf -1, noisy voiced - 2, sonorous - 3, vowel - 4.

stress- selection by any acoustic means of one of the components of speech.

The first feature Russian accent is that it free , that is, not attached to a specific syllable in a word. It can also fall on the first syllable ( will, city), and on the second ( freedom, nature), and on the third ( milk, young) etc. This accent is also called various places .

The second feature mobility , that is, the ability to change its place depending on the form of the word.

For example: understand - understood - understood; sister - sisters; wall - no wall.

The third feature Russian accent is his variability , which is expressed in the fact that over time, the stress changes its place in the word and a new pronunciation variant appears. For example, they used to say: cemetery, passport, epigraph, air, music, ghost.

Stress performs various functions in the language. Common to all types and types of stress is the culminating function - ensuring the integrity and separateness of the word by prosodic centralization of its syllable-sound structure (highlighting the prosodic center of the word). Free and limited stress is able to perform a significative function, distinguishing, in addition to grammatical forms, also lexemes and lexical-semantic variants of words (cf. castle - castle). Associated (especially fixed) stress performs a delimitative (delimiting) function, marking the boundaries of words. An accent of any type can also perform an expressive function, being an element intonation phrases and correlating with pragmatic meanings (cf. Pragmatics).

The functions of stress, the structure of accent paradigms and their history are studied in accentology.

phonetic word, or rhythm group- an independent word together with auxiliary words adjacent to it that do not have their own stress, in other words, clitics for which an independent word acts pivotal. It is characterized by the presence of a single verbal stress, which can fall both on an independent and on a function word.

From the point of view of phonetics, a phonetic word is a group of syllables united by one stress. The stressed syllable combines syllables within a word due to the fact that the characteristics of the vowels of unstressed syllables (quality, intensity, duration) depend on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. Inside the phonetic word, the same phonetic patterns operate: assimilation, dissimilation, - as inside any word.

According to the definition, a phonetic word may not be the same as an orthographic word or a word as a unit in a dictionary.

clitic- a word (for example, a pronoun or a particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not make up a syllable (for example, prepositions in, to, from). Clitics can join the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Roman pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or word forms of any part of speech (such are Russian particles the same, whether); the latter are called transcategorical.

Unstressed word forms in the composition of a phonetic word can be both before the stressed word form (proclitics) and after it (enclitics). In some cases, the stressed word form may be "surrounded" by clitics - to the shore.

INTONATION as a supersegmental unit in a broad sense, this is a change in the main tone when pronouncing a particular unit of language - a sound, syllable, word, phrase, sentence. Intonation in this sense can be ascending (acute, rising), ascending-descending, descending (falling, falling, circumflex).

This is a set of all supersegmental means of the language (actual intonation, stress, etc.):
1) melodic, i.e. movement of tone in a phrase,
2) different types of stress,
3) pauses, i.e. breaks of varying duration in sound, 4) the timbre of the voice, which plays an important role, especially in the emotional coloring of speech.

Intonation in the narrow sense is the rhythmic-melodic coloring of a syntagma or a sentence as a whole. The pronunciation of a language unit with one or another intonation, or the intonation design of an utterance, is called intonation.

Intonema- a unit of intonation, an intonation model formed with the help of intonation elements and having a certain meaning.

An intooneme can be compared with an intonational sign that helps to identify intonation-semantic segments in speech.

The study of the intonation of individual sentences leads to the conclusion that there are narrative, interrogative, reciprocal, enumerative, exclamatory, etc. intonations. Comparison of sounding sentences of different syntactic structure shows that seven types of intonation structures (IC) can be distinguished in the Russian language. When the direction and tone levels are similar, the duration of the centers of the IC is used as distinguishing features, or the increase in the word stress of the center as a result of a greater tension in the articulation of the vowel, which enhances the distinctness of the timbre, or the bowing of the vocal cords at the end of the vowel center, perceived as a sharp break in the sound.

In the flow of speech, each type of IC is represented by a number of implementations: neutral, characterizing one or another type of IC when expressing semantic relations, and modal, having some structural feature designed to express the subjective, emotional attitude of the speaker to what is being expressed. The type of IC in all the variety of its implementations, the movement of the center of the IC, the division of the speech flow (syntagmatic division) are the main intonational means of the Russian language.

There are seven types of intonation structures (IC) that have phonological significance:

IC-1 is observed when expressing completeness in declarative sentences: Anna is standing on a bridge. Natasha is singing. IK-1 is characterized by a decrease in tone on the percussive part.
SG-2 is implemented in a question with interrogative words: Who drinks juice? How does Natasha sing? With IK-2, the stress part is pronounced with a slight increase in tone.
SG-3 is typical for a question without an interrogative word: Is this Anton? Her name is Natasha? This intonation is characterized by a significant increase in tone on the shock part.
IK-4 is an interrogative intonation, but with a comparative conjunction a: And you? And this? On the stressed part, the tone rises, continuing on unstressed syllables.
IC-5 is implemented when expressing evaluation in sentences with pronominal words: What a day it is! On the percussion part - an increase in tone.
IC-6, like IC-5, is realized when expressing evaluation in sentences with pronominal words: What a delicious juice! The rise in tone occurs on the percussive part and continues on the trans-tonic part.
IK-7 is used when expressing completeness in declarative sentences, but the stress part, unlike IK-1, is emotionally colored: And Anton is standing on the bridge.

To record sounding speech in science, phonetic transcription is used. Transcription(in linguistics) - a set of special signs, with the help of which all the subtleties of pronunciation are transmitted. It is necessary, when transcribing the words of a literary language, to know the norms of pronunciation well, to monitor the correctness of articulation. Unlike orthographic writing, in transcription, the letter-sign always corresponds to one sound and each sound is indicated by the same letter. When transcribing, certain rules should be taken into account:

1. Sounds are represented by lowercase letters. Capital letters are not used, including in words that are always capitalized.

2. In addition to letters, other special characters are used in transcription.

3. Stressed vowels (sounds of a strong position) are indicated by the letters a - [a], e, e - [e], and - [i], [s], o - [o], y - [y], s - [s]. Unstressed (weakened) a, o, e are denoted differently.

4. All vowels in a strong position are indicated by an accent mark, including in monosyllabic words, since each phonetic word has an accent. In compound words, there may be more than one stress, for example, in the word two-story stressed are two syllables, the first and third.

5. The transcribed sound is enclosed in square brackets; if a word is transcribed, it is enclosed entirely in square brackets; The same rule applies to whole measures.

6. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles that do not have an independent stress and are part of phonetic words, as well as significant words pronounced in the flow of speech without a pause between them, are written in transcription either together with the subsequent or preceding word, or are connected to it with an arc.

7. The softness of consonants is indicated by the softness sign at the top right of the letter sign (this is how the softness of the sound [t] in the word [tiger], the sound [s] in the word [fso]) was shown. Traditionally, the softness of unpaired consonants in terms of hardness-softness [h], is noted. Softness is not noted only in the palatal (absolutely soft) sound [j] and its variety [th].

8. The length of consonant sounds is indicated by a horizontal line above the sound.

9. To indicate an intra-phrase pause in transcription, the sign ║ is used, the measures are separated by the sign I. To indicate a smaller pause, a vertical dashed line is used.

10. In place of unstressed vowels a and o in the first pre-stressed syllable (in position I), after solid consonants, a weakened sound is pronounced, intermediate between [o] and [a], denoted by the sign.

11. At the beginning of a word, vowels [a] and [o] in a weakened position, no matter how many syllables they are removed from a strong syllable, receive the same meaning and are indicated by the same reduced soundas in the first pre-stressed syllable after hard consonants, i.e. this is also the first position.

12. Stressed and unstressed sounds [and], [y], [s] in transcription are written in the same way as in spelling, although in the second position they are pronounced shorter.].

13. In the first pre-stressed syllable, that is, in the first position, in place of the letters a, o, e after soft consonants, a sound appears, the middle between [i] and [e], indicated by the sign [ie].

14. In all unstressed syllables after a solid consonant, except for the first pre-stressed and absolute beginning of a word, and in stressed syllables, i.e. in the second position, [a], [o], [e] change both qualitatively and quantitatively, that is, a weakened (reduced) sound appears, which is indicated by the sign [b] - ep.

15. In all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed, and all stressed syllables, i.e. in the second position, in place of the letters i, e, after soft consonants, a weakened (reduced) sound appears, denoted by the sign [b] - er.

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