home » Middle Ages The history of Japan - briefly about the main thing. Japan in the early modern era Japan in the modern era

The history of Japan - briefly about the main thing. Japan in the early modern era Japan in the modern era

World history: in 6 volumes. Volume 3: The World in the Early Modern Times Team of Authors

JAPAN IN THE 17TH CENTURY

JAPAN IN THE 17TH CENTURY

At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. there was a unification of the country, the era of "warring provinces" (1467-1590) (sengoku jidai) ended, and in the XVII century. the long-awaited peace came to the country. After the victory in 1590 over the powerful Hojo clan, the whole of Japan was actually under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (who replaced Oda Nobunaga as the “unifier” of the country). From now on, the lands either belonged to Hideyoshi, or were transferred to the princes who swore allegiance to him.

Many of the main characteristics of the Tokugawa era that followed Hideyoshi's rule were laid down already in the course of the reform activities of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Under him in 1582-1598. a land cadastre was drawn up throughout the country and the units of measurement of land area were unified. At the same time, the yield of any agricultural land was expressed in koku rice. Land measurement led to a significant increase in the officially registered land fund. The unification and ordering of land relations in the countryside was carried out. In the cadastral records, allotments of land were assigned to the peasants who worked them. As a result of compiling land inventories, wealthy peasants lost the right to collect rent (kajishi tokubun) from other peasants, which was included in the nengu (annual quitrent) paid to the landowner. Based on the cadastre data, the volume military service, which the landowning warriors were supposed to carry, and the profitability of the possessions of one or another daimyō was estimated.

Under Hideyoshi, measures were also taken to tighten class distinctions. In 1588, a decree was issued ordering the seizure of weapons from the peasants and strictly forbidding them to continue to own them. By decree of Hideyoshi in 1591, the population of the country was divided into three classes - samurai, peasants and townspeople. The transition of samurai or peasants to the estate of townspeople was forbidden, samurai could not change their master. Later, the class of townspeople was divided into two independent classes of merchants and artisans; this class structure (shi-no-ko-sho) persisted throughout the Tokugawa period. Samurai made up 5% of the population, peasants - about 80-90%, merchants and artisans - 8%, about 2% were pariahs - this ("untouchable", hereditary corporations that performed work that was considered unclean: slaughtering cattle, dressing leather and etc.) and quinine (literally, "non-humans", mainly criminals who could be forgiven and restored to their former status).

Samurai had the exclusive right to carry weapons and to have surnames (the rest of the Japanese received surnames only in the Meiji era, 1868-1911). For an insult inflicted by a representative of the non-samurai class, the warrior had the right to hack the offender on the spot. Marriage between members of different classes was strictly prohibited (the ban could be circumvented using the adoption procedure).

KOREAN APPROACH

Having subjugated all of Japan by 1591, Toyotomi Hideyoshi made plans to establish world domination: the capture of Korea, China, and then India. Hideyoshi demanded from the wang (ruler) of Korea to assist Japan in conquering China. But Wang refused to support the Japanese and let them through his territory to China. In 1591, Hideyoshi ordered to begin preparations for an invasion of Korea.

On May 23, 1592, Japanese troops (about 160 thousand people) landed in the port of Pusan. The very next day, Busan fell, and the Japanese began to advance towards the capital of Korea, Seoul. On June 12, Seoul was occupied without a fight, and on July 22, Pyongyang fell.

However, a partisan movement soon developed. At the same time, the Korean fleet began to operate very successfully, cutting off the sea communications of the Japanese. In addition, the Koreans received military support from China. On February 8, the Japanese left Pyongyang, and on April 18 - Seoul. They withdrew most of the troops from Korea, and lengthy negotiations began with China.

Hideyoshi's tough position (he demanded that the daughter of the Chinese emperor be married to the Japanese emperor, that almost half of the territory of Korea be transferred to Japan, etc.) and the arrogant tone would have made negotiations impossible if the Japanese negotiators had not forged Hideyoshi's letter to the Chinese emperor. In a fake, Hideyoshi respectfully asked the emperor to grant him the title of "wang".

Thanks to the forgery, negotiations have advanced significantly. But when Hideyoshi realized that none of his demands were fulfilled, and he himself was granted only a title, which meant recognition of Chinese vassalage, he became furious. The military campaign resumed in August 1597. The second campaign was even less successful, the Japanese did not reach Seoul, having met with a serious rebuff from the Korean-Chinese troops both on land and at sea. After the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, peace negotiations began again.

Japanese troops in Korea acted exceptionally brutally, massacring thousands of Koreans, including civilians. The peace treaty between Japan and Korea was concluded in 1609, the Japanese received the right to trade with Korea in the port of Pusan. Up until the 19th century. Korea remained the only country with which Japan established official diplomatic relations. True, embassies in Edo also arrived from the Ryukyu kingdom, located on the islands of the same name. But in fact, in 1609 Ryukyu was annexed to the Japanese principality of Satsuma, and only to maintain trade relations with China continued to be called a kingdom, recognizing itself as a vassal of China.

One of the most acute problems for the "unifiers" of Japan was the issue of legitimizing power. Neither Oda Nobunaga nor Toyotomi Hideyoshi received the title of "shogun"; formally, only the emperor could bestow it. Both "unifiers" used the imperial court to strengthen their positions, having received appointments to high positions. Nobunaga in 1578 was appointed Minister of the Right. Hideyoshi in 1585 took the highest court position kampaku (chancellor), and then became a taiko (regent under the emperor). A commoner by birth, Hideyoshi also had to resort to adoption by the ancient aristocratic Fujiwara family. True, the succession of power positions was not guaranteed.

Trying to solve this problem, Hideyoshi appointed his son Hideyori (1593–1615) as the heir, and until he came of age, a council of the five largest daimyo - Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616), Maeda Toshiie, Mori Terumoto, Kobayakawa Kagekatsu and Ukita Hideie. However, after the death of Hideyoshi, who died of illness in 1598, the daimyo entered into a struggle for power. By 1600, two coalitions had formed in the country: the western one, which recognized Hideyori as the legitimate successor, and the eastern one, headed by Tokugawa Ieyasu, which recognized Ieyasu as the hegemon. On October 21, 1600, at the Battle of Sekigahara (modern Gifu Prefecture), a 70,000-strong army led by Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated an 80,000-strong army of the western coalition. In 1603, by decree of Emperor Goyozei (1586–1611), Ieyasu was appointed shogun. During the winter campaign of 1614 and the summer campaign of 1615, Hideyori Castle was captured and burned, and he and his mother committed suicide.

Even before the decisive battle, Ieyasu took care of the genealogical substantiation of his claims to power, tracing his origin to the Genji (Minamoto) clan, the oldest and most influential of the military clans. A representative of this family, Minamoto Yoritomo, founded the first Kamakura shogunate in Japanese history (1192–1333). In 1605, Ieyasu handed over the position of shogun to his third son Hidetada (1579–1632), was appointed to the position of “kampaku” and the honorary title of “ogosho” (abdicated shogun) and formally retired, although in fact he retained all the threads of control in his hands . Ieyasu made sure to continue to follow a clear procedure for the transfer of power: the title of shogun was to pass to the eldest son in his family. The Tokugawa dynasty lasted from 1603 to 1867.

The beginning of the Tokugawa reign was marked by changes in foreign policy associated with a sharp tightening of attitudes towards Christians. In many respects, this policy was caused by fears of strengthening European influence due to further Christianization. Edicts against Christians began to be issued under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, but most of them were not executed. In 1612 and 1614 decrees were again issued to ban Christian preaching, the second of which ordered the missionaries to leave the country. Only a few preachers disobeyed this decree and remained in Japan.

JAPANESE VOYAGE TO THE "EAST"

In 1613, one of the Christian daimyo Date Masamune organized an embassy to the Pope and the "southern barbarians" (as Europeans were called in Japan). The Bakufu government at that time had not yet completely leaned towards the policy of isolationism. Therefore, it sent its people to participate in the journey. The embassy also had to negotiate with the Spaniards on the conclusion of a trade treaty. Date Masamune himself sought to establish direct trade relations with the New World.

The idea of organizing an embassy was put forward by the Franciscan monk Louis Sotelo, who lived in Japan. At the expense of Date, the ship "Date Maru" was built. The embassy (180 people, including samurai, about 40 Portuguese and Spaniards, many merchants and sailors) led by Hasekura Tsunenaga became the second Japanese embassy to Europe (the first, also organized by Christian daimyo, sailed from Nagasaki in a westerly direction on a European ship in 80s of the 16th century). The third took place only after 200 years.

The ship "Date Maru" crossed the Pacific Ocean and came to Acapulco. Hasekura Tsunenaga and his men crossed Mexico and sailed to Europe on a Spanish ship. On the way, the embassy stopped in Cuba. In Europe, Hasekura Tsunenaga traveled to Spain, France and Italy. But the negotiations did not bring success, as the Europeans were concerned about the increasing persecution of Christians in Japan.

By the time the ambassadors returned to Japan in 1620, the situation in the country had changed for the worse. The new shogun Tokugawa Hidetada leaned more towards the policy of "isolationism" than his father. Perhaps the ban on trade with Spain and the severance of diplomatic relations in 1623-1624. were also called by the reports of the embassy participants, who described the Spanish policy in the New World.

A new wave of persecution of Christians led to mass executions in 1622 in Nagasaki and in 1623 in Edo. In the following years, the persecution of Christians continued, many were tortured, forcing them to renounce their faith. The execution of about 3 thousand Christians during this period is documented.

The last surge of Christian activity was the Simabara uprising of 1637–1638. (on the Shimabara Peninsula, Kyushu). The ranks of the rebels were peasants and fishermen, driven to despair by poverty, exorbitant taxes and crop failures in 1637, but most of them belonged to Christians and acted under Christian slogans. It is believed that the number of rebels numbered up to 37 thousand people. Frightened by the success of the rebels, the Bakufu mobilized more than a hundred thousand strong army against them. Almost all the rebels were destroyed (the deserted regions were forcibly settled by residents of different regions of the country), anti-Christian measures were even more tightened, a number of decrees of 1633-1639. the country was effectively closed.

From now on, the Japanese were forbidden to travel abroad under pain of death, all missionaries, as well as Portuguese merchants, were subject to expulsion. Since 1641, only the Dutch and Chinese have been granted the right to trade with Japan, and only in the port of Nagasaki. Foreigners could also sail to small ports in the principality of Satsuma and on the island of Tsushima (mainly trading with the Ryukyu and Korea, respectively). The Bakufu showed determination to consistently comply with the decrees to close the country - when in 1640 a Portuguese ship arrived in Nagasaki with 61 envoys asking to ease the ban on the Portuguese, they were all beheaded, and the crew, consisting of 13 Chinese, was released to Macau in order to report their fate. Despite the “closedness” of the country, its trade and cultural exchange with other countries was not completely stopped. Even in the 18th century part of the industry focused on foreign trade(including the production of silk fabrics in Kyoto) and raw materials imported from overseas. European knowledge (the so-called rangaku or "Dutch sciences") in the fields of mathematics, cartography, optics, medicine, and botany entered Japan through contacts with the Dutch in Nagasaki (although foreigners lived separately on a separate island and in a special quarter). Thanks to this, in 1671, for example, the "Comprehensive Map of a Myriad of Nations" was published - a map with drawings depicting residents of various countries (mainly Asian), and their ethnographic description.

The closure of Japan contributed to the onset of stability in the country, which spurred economic growth. During the period from 1600 to 1720, the area of sown land in the country increased by 82%. Thanks to technological and agricultural innovations, crop yields have also increased. The increase in productivity, the abolition of internal customs duties contributed to the development of trade and crafts. The growth of cities continued: Edo (modern Tokyo), a small village, which in 1590 Ieyasu made his headquarters, to late XVII in. became the largest city in the world with a population of about 1 million people, the population of the cities of Osaka and Kyoto caught up with the population of London and Paris.

Although the emperor and his court did not have any power in the country, the institution of imperial power was preserved, and the shoguns formally received a decree on their appointment from the emperors. The shoguns showed their patronage of the imperial household by paying for the repair and construction of the palaces and residences of the emperor and his court. Marriage ties were used to establish family contacts between the imperial family and the Tokugawa family. At the same time, the shogunate issued orders ordering the aristocracy to engage only in traditional arts and ceremonies, not to leave the palace complex, etc. Representatives of the aristocracy could not be appointed to either military or civilian positions in the bakufu administration.

The possessions of the shoguns were located in 47 of the 68 provinces and accounted for about one-sixth of all cultivated land in the country, concentrating mainly in the eastern regions of Honshu. The shogunate also received a significant part of the income by controlling the largest cities - Edo, Osaka, Sakai, Kyoto, Fushimi, Nara and Nagasaki. In addition, the shogunate had a monopoly on the development of silver and copper mines.

The possessions of the daimyo - principalities (khan) - occupied three-quarters of the entire territory of the archipelago. During the Tokugawa era, there were about 260 principalities at the same time. However, the daimyo occupied a subordinate position in relation to the bakufu. Such a system of political administration in historiography was called "bakuhan" (bakufu + khan), it took shape during the reign of the first three shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, that is, not earlier than the 30-40s of the 17th century. Most of the daimyo advanced in the service of the Tokugawa house. Only in rare cases did the representatives of the clans that arose before the appearance of Oda Nobunaga on the historical arena managed to maintain the position of daimyō. All daimyo were divided into three groups. They headed the hierarchy of shimpan-daimyo (houses related to the Tokugawa family; there were 23 of them). Then came the fudai daimyo (“hereditary daimyo”, allies of the Tokugawa in the battle of Sekigahara, by the end of the 18th century there were 145 of them). Then tozama-daimyo ("external daimyo", former opponents of Ieyasu, there were 98 of them). Most of the possessions of the fudai daimyo were located in the Kanto region, not far from Edo. The possessions of the tozama daimyo were concentrated mainly to the west of Osaka or on the outskirts of the archipelago. In terms of their economic potential, tozama daimyo often surpassed fudai daimyo, but they were politically powerless, since they did not have the right to hold positions in the shogunate apparatus.

Japanese helmet and sword. 17th century Chinese Museum, Genoa © Photo Scala, Florence

A significant part of the Bakufu officials were hatamoto and gokenin - direct vassals of the shoguns. There were about 5,200 Hatamoto people, some of them were owners of feudal estates, and some received rice, hatamoto had the right to a personal audience with the shogun. Gokenin (about 2 thousand people) mainly received payments in rice and did not have the right to a personal audience with the shogun. The shoguns were never sole rulers, decisions were made collectively. Although the degree of personal involvement of the first three Tokugawa shoguns in public administration was high and then decreased.

Important affairs of a national scale (control of the imperial court, control of the daimyo, foreign policy, defense, taxation, etc.) and the development of a general course of government were in charge of the Senior State Councilors (roju), whose number ranged from four to six. Roju were appointed from among the fudai daimyo of the highest status (i.e., those with the highest income in rice equivalent). Junior state advisers (wakadoshiyori, from three to five people), appointed from among the fudai daimyo of a lower rank, were in charge of more private aspects of government - the affairs of the vassals of the Tokugawa house, appointments to positions in the administrative apparatus, rank promotions, military affairs, etc. The most important departments that were subordinate to the roju were the Financial Administration (kanjo bugyo), the Office of Shinto and Buddhist Temples (jisha bugyo), and the Administration of Edo City (Edo-machi bugyo). A candidate for a position in the shogunal apparatus had to have a fixed annual income, since officials paid their assistants from their own funds. In some cases, the bakufu paid additional funds to officials if their income did not match the position received.

The governance system of the Tokugawa shoguns was the model for the principalities. At the beginning of the reign of each shogun (or upon entering into the rights of governing the principality), daimyo took an oath of allegiance. In return, they received an investiture for the administration of the principality, sealed with the personal seal of the shogun.

Daimyos could be transferred from one principality to another, as punishment for serious offenses, their possessions could be confiscated by the bakufu. Under the first five shoguns, about half of all taxable land in the country changed hands. In the future, the hereditary principle in the principalities becomes the leading one, the shogunate intervened in the rarest cases.

Many restrictions were imposed on the activities of daimyo: without the permission of the bakufu, they could neither repair nor rebuild their castles (since 1615, daimyo could own only one fortress), nor marry; they were required to report suspicious activities of their neighbors and were forbidden from harboring criminals involved in anti-government activities. In 1615, Ieyasu compiled the "Code for military houses" ("Buke shohatto"), 13 articles of which contained recommendations for the administration of principalities. Subsequently, changes and additions were made to the code. Since the time of Ieyasu, the codex has been read before the daimyo during the inauguration ceremony of a new shogun. An effective way to control the daimyo was the hostage system (sankin kotai), originally applied to the tozama daimyo, and from 1642 extended to the fudai daimyo. One year the princes with their families were supposed to spend in the capital of Edo, and the next year they could return to their principality, leaving, however, their family in Edo.

Daimyos had the right to issue laws, collect taxes, mint coins (the monopoly on coinage, which was in circulation throughout the country, belonged to the shogunate, but within individual principalities their own banknotes could also be used), the exercise of judicial functions.

If in the era of the "warring provinces" most of the soldiers received from their master an estate with the rights to manage and collect taxes, in which they lived, then by the end of the 17th century. such a system, called the jizamurai system (jizamurai or goshi, rural samurai), survived only in 40 principalities (about 17% of the total number of principalities). In most cases, the samurai received a salary in rice and lived in the residence of their daimyo, which made them completely dependent on rice rations and served as one of the factors in the growth of cities and the development of the domestic market.

From 1633, the bakufu periodically sent inspectors (junkenshi) to the daimyō's domain to conduct inspections. The daimyo also had to regularly provide accounting documentation - population censuses, reports on judicial activities, etc. In 1644, it was ordered to provide the bakufu with detailed maps of the principalities indicating land productivity. The daimyo were obliged to assist the bakufu in the implementation of numerous projects for the construction of fortresses, residences, palaces, etc., providing material and human resources. The residence of the Tokugawa shoguns and the government - the castle in Edo, the reconstruction of the destroyed Osaka castle, the construction of the Nikko temple complex, where the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty Ieyasu was revered, and many other projects were carried out at the expense of the principalities. Depending on the profitability, the principalities were also required to maintain a fixed number of military forces.

Despite their small size, the principalities had numerous administrative apparatus. So, in the principalities of Sakura and Owari, there were about 150 posts. The total administrative apparatus of all the principalities may have reached the figure of 350 thousand officials. Already by the middle of the XVII century. the most important positions in most principalities were filled by the heads of a limited number of clans. Usually, 80% of the principality's income came from land tax, the average rate of which was about 30% of the crop, but in some principalities it reached 70–80%.

In 1632, the shogunate drew up separate charters for hatamoto and gokenin - "Shoshi hatto", in 1655 charters for Buddhist priests were created, numerous regulations also regulated the activities of artisans and merchants. A single set of criminal laws did not exist until 1742, when the “Code of a Hundred Articles” (“Osadamegaki Hyakkajo”) was compiled. However, the laws were not widely publicized, but, on the contrary, were kept as secret internal instructions intended for officials whose duty it was to administer justice. At the same time, specific decrees and orders were widely publicized: posted on bulletin boards, publicly read.

Although the principalities had the right to make their own laws, they mostly copied the laws of the bakufu or followed Chinese patterns mainly from the Ming Dynasty. In general, the ideals of unquestioning obedience and devotion to their master that prevailed among the samurai, as well as the ideas of obedience to the authorities and the need to follow the ideals of thrift, cultivated among the peasant and urban population, made it possible to achieve a high degree of manageability and were in this respect much more effective than criminal legislation.

By the beginning of the XVIII century. mainly in central Japan, areas appeared that specialized in cash crops - cotton (it was brought from Korea at the end of the 16th century, in the 17th century cotton clothing became widespread among commoners), tobacco (it was brought to Japan by the Spaniards at the end of the 16th century), indigo and others. Not a single principality was completely self-sufficient.

Most of the cities arose around castles (castle towns, jokamachi), i.e., first of all, they were political centers, usually with a population of 10-30 thousand people. But large port cities (Hakata, Sakai, Nagasaki) also grew. The largest city in the country was its administrative center - Edo, the core of whose inhabitants were samurai. Kyoto retained its importance as a cultural capital, and was also famous for the production and dyeing of silk fabrics. The city of Osaka was the largest wholesale center and the main market of the country.

City government was also built on the basis of the class principle: the affairs of merchants and artisans, on the one hand, and the affairs of the samurai, on the other, were handled by various administrative bodies. The magistrates (mashi bugyo) who headed the city administration were appointed by the bakufu. In Edo, Kyoto, Osaka, in view of the importance of these cities, daimyo or direct vassals of the shogun were appointed to the position of mother bugyo.

Hisikawa Moronobu. Beauty and youth. Second half of the 17th century National Museum, Tokyo

One of the important consequences of the emergence of large cities was the flourishing of urban culture, called the "culture of the Genroku era" (Genroku is the motto of the reign of Emperor Higashiyama from 1688 to 1704, but the term "Genroku culture" covers the period from 1680 to 1709, the reign of Fifth Shogun Tsunayoshi). In theatrical art, this is the heyday of the puppet theater ningyo joruri and kabuki theater, the performances of which were addressed primarily to the townspeople. The success of puppet theater and kabuki theater is largely due to the work of the great Japanese playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725). In literature, this is the time of the appearance of such iconic figures as the novelist, a merchant by origin Ihara Saikaku (1642–1693), who created a gallery of portraits of townspeople (merchants, rake and courtesans, petty servants), and poet Matsuo Basho (1644–1644–1644–1644– 1694), one of the founders of the three-line haiku genre, which is now famous all over the world. Ukiyo-e engravings (literally, “pictures of the transient world”) appeared in painting. The main themes of the engraving were images of geishas and portraits of kabuki theater actors.

The Tokugawa period saw the rise of urban printing. Previously, the centers of book printing were Buddhist monasteries, which published exclusively Confucian classics, Chinese poetry and Buddhist literature. During the Companies in Korea 1592–1598 the Japanese got acquainted with the technology of movable type. Letters and printing presses were brought to Japan, and from 1601 works of Japanese literature began to be published by printing for the first time. Printing turned out to be a profitable business, but publishers soon returned to woodcut printing to cut costs. By 1720, there were about 200 publishing houses in Kyoto alone. In addition to the Chinese and Buddhist classics, as well as Japanese classical literature, popular literature begins to be published, written in simple language, that is, written in the alphabet (Japanese "kana") with minimal use of hieroglyphics - kana-zoshi literature. It included a wide range of genres - novels, stories about the supernatural, ethical instructions, applied literature (guides, letters, instructions in the art of the tea ceremony and flower arrangement).

The political ideals that prevailed in the country did not always correspond to economic and social reality. Formally, the social status of merchants and artisans was considered lower than that of peasants, but in fact some merchants were richer than princes, and tax rates in cities were much lower than in the countryside. However, although the standards of exploitation of the peasants were extremely cruel, the general standard of living during the Tokugawa period increased, as did the population of the country - from 15–17 million in 1600 to 31 million 300 thousand in 1721.

At the same time, the territory also increased, including both the Ryukyu Islands (formally remaining under the double vassalage of China and Japan), and territories in the North. Daimyō Matsumae, a small Japanese principality in southern Hokkaido, who recognized themselves as vassals of the Tokugawa in 1604, received permission from the shogun to develop trade in furs and marine products with the "kingdom of Ezo", inhabited by Ainu communities. (The Ainu were considered the descendants of the "barbarians" Emishi - the autochthonous population of the Japanese Islands, pushed to the far North. Their territory included most of Hokkaido, Sakhalin and the Kuriles.) In 1669, the struggle of the Ainu clans with each other began in Hokkaido, which grew into an uprising against Matsumae (called the "Sakusainu rebellion" after its leader, 1669–1672). After the suppression of the uprising by the troops of the shogunate, the situation of the Ainu worsened significantly, although formally only the South of the island continued to obey the shogunate.

The management system created at the beginning of the era proved its efficiency and stability, provided opportunities for economic development, albeit limited ones. The policy of the country throughout the Tokugawa period was determined by the highest representatives of the military class, large landowners, which was natural within the framework of the agrarian society that Japan then remained.

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