Romanticism - artistic direction, which was formed at the end of the 18th century, as a reaction to. Distinctive features of romanticism are attention to the personal traits of a person, naturalness and looseness, in about difference from classicism, where everything was subject to age-old traditions. Romantics spoke of classicism as a boring and faceless art and put emotionality and inspiration at the head of the new genre. This is a more free painting with a fresh look at all art. If earlier restraint and humility were dominant in painting, now these are powerful emotional images designed to evoke a vivid impression.
The favorite themes for Romantic painters were picturesque mountainous, expressive ruins. Here very often there is a dynamic composition, volume, large space, a rich spectrum of light, chiaroscuro. It is worth saying that the Pre-Raphaelites and the neo-Gothic style also belonged to romanticism.
salon art
Salon art - there is a common noun, which denotes the banality of performance, the lack of content of the work, or vice versa, excessive suggestiveness. Salon art also means imitation, copying of artistic values, works of world masters for commercial purposes.
Salon art, as a term and concept, appeared at the end of the 19th century with the support of the jury of the Paris Salon and recognition by the elite of society. In their opinion, visual external attractiveness, unpretentious and understandable to everyone showiness should be dominant in art. Simplicity and lightness were taken by many people, including the powerful of this world, for artistic value. Over time, when people gradually became enlightened and began to understand art more and more, salon art began to take on a bad color and began to mean undemanding taste, even rather bad taste, dependence on popular trends and fashion trends.
Salon art is designed for an artistically unprepared viewer and attracts him often with anti-artistic values, which are based only on the memorized rules of art for a conservative public. Bad tone in art appeals to the general public and aggressively imposes its point of view; simple and understandable is much better absorbed by people than the real, complex and high.
Reference service of the city of Kostanay. Here you will find everything from household appliances to overhaul services and much more.
Symbolism in art
Symbolism is a trend in art that appeared in France at the end of the 19th century. Symbolists opposed realism and tried to recreate thoughts and states of mind with the help of painting and literature. Symbolists often convey feelings of the otherworldly and unusual through their works. They often turn to the themes of religion and myths, death, the meaning of life, and so on.
Symbolist poets denied moralizing in art, they shocked with obvious obscenity. A. Rimbaud writes a sonnet Lice Seekers", previously Charles Baudelaire published a poem Carrion".
In real life, the decadents led a bohemian lifestyle, demonstrated immorality, flaunted licentiousness, believing that by creating a masterpiece in art, they would justify all their vices.
The decadents in English criticism included creativity Oscar Wilde (1854 - 1900)
Wilde is a master of paradoxes. A paradox is an opinion that contradicts the generally accepted. The paradox does not assert new truths, but casts doubt on trivial estimates.
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin. It is said that the most witty English writers are Irish. Swift, Shaw and Wilde are proof of this. After graduating from Oxford University, he became a professional writer. In addition to poetry, fairy tales and plays, Wilde gave lectures on home decoration and fashion, and edited the Women's World magazine. In 1884 he married, he had a devoted wife and two sons. Wilde professed the principles of dandyism: to surprise without being surprised, to despise the crowd, to shock the audience with an extravagant costume, to worship beauty, not to say anything banal. Oscar Wilde is a brilliant master of paradoxes. His judgments are always witty. Here are some of his paradoxes:
Only superficial people are destined to understand themselves;
The purpose of life is self-expression;
To love yourself is to have a lifelong romance;
The only thing I don't regret is my mistakes;
Democracy means the suppression of the people by the people in the name of the people;
In an examination, fools ask questions that wise men cannot answer...
The paradoxical plot of the novel The Picture of Dorian Grey» (1891). The young handsome man complains that he will grow old and become ugly, but in the portrait he will remain young. The portrait and the model are swapped. Dorian acquires eternal youth, and all his terrible life experience is imprinted on the portrait. Dorian becomes invulnerable and therefore unpunished. He kills the artist who painted the portrait, so that he does not find out the fatal secret, through his fault the actress, whom he was passionate about, dies. He brings grief to others, and his life becomes meaningless. When, many years later, he saw his portrait, a vile, evil old man was looking at him. Throwing himself at the portrait with a knife, Dorian killed himself.
Oscar Wilde tried to create an aesthetic utopia, a realm of beauty. But in the end, the novel, contrary to theory, showed that art without morality is impossible. Wilde himself was imprisoned by strict guardians of morality, where he wrote his confession “De profundis” (“From the depths I cry to Thee, Lord” - the beginning of Psalm 129). He repented in many ways, regretted his mistakes, argued that the cult of beauty is impossible in a mercantile society.
20th century: realism, modernism, postmodernism
Although realism began to be actively attacked at the end of the nineteenth century, it remains the leading trend in art and literature. This is due to the very nature visual arts, poetry, prose and dramaturgy. Whatever the views of the author, he is more or less focused on reality. Even in the case when a purely personal perception is defended in the work, and the author's creation is frankly subjective, one should not forget that the writer or painter is himself a particle of the real world.
Heinrich Mann (1871 - 1950) was born in the ancient Hanseatic city of Lübeck. Father, like grandfather, was elected to the post of senator. The Mann family was a grain wholesaler.
His literary debut was the novel " Promised land» (1900). drew caricatures of the Berlin nouveau riche who amassed huge capital through financial scams.
The following satirical novel is named by Heinrich Mann " Teacher Unrath» (1905). The surname of the gymnasium teacher of literature is Rat, but the gymnasium students, who fiercely hate their mentor, called him Unrat, adding a negative particle, so that the nickname began to mean “dung”, “impurities” and other abominations. In a provincial small town, the teacher is a prominent figure. He taught literature for many years, instilling a persistent hatred of all German classics and fear of the teacher.
Heinrich Mann was occupied with the paradoxical situation of how a nonentity becomes a tyrant by the will of circumstances. But the guardian of morality, in his old age, fell in love with a vulgar cafeteria singer, who agreed to become Frau Unrath. The gymnasium authorities could no longer turn a blind eye to the pranks of the apologist Schiller and Goethe and expelled him from the educational institution. But yesterday's guardian of morality becomes a molester of his former pupils in his own house, turned into a brothel. He died in America on March 12.
Thomas Mann(1875 - 1955). Author "Buddenbrooks"(1901) was recognized as a classic of German literature immediately after the publication of the novel, which was based on family traditions. T. Mann recreated the biography of four generations of the burgher clan.
Johann Buddenbrock Sr. made his fortune, like the Balzac father Goriot, during the Napoleonic wars, supplying the Prussian army with fodder and bread. A man of a skeptical mind, endowed with business acumen, he is successful in commerce and happy in his family. However, it is no coincidence that the novel has the subtitle "The Story of the Death of a Family", because alien shoots are found in the Buddenbrook family on their family tree.
The son of Johann Gotthold despised the family business, broke away from the clan, committed a misalliance, and besides, he squandered his part of the inheritance. This is the first blow to the Buddenbrooks, from which they will be able to recover, for Johann Buddenbrook Jr., whose children - Antonia and Thomas - were to become the central characters of the family chronicle, are carefully conducting business.
From childhood, Toni realized the responsibility to her family. She did not dare to marry for love, without the consent of her parents. Toni finds joy in obeying her parents' will, but twice she is destined to endure disappointment in her marriage. Charming Tony lived a life full of disappointments, obedience turned into a moral defeat.
Thomas Buddenbrook is a man of duty. He becomes the head of the company, since his brother Christian - a clown and a hypocrite - is not able to conduct business. For his father and grandfather, grain wholesale was a natural occupation, for Thomas it is a duty, he must force himself to engage in commerce. As soon as he was imbued with the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer, all his efforts to maintain the authority of the company were in vain.
Thomas Buddenbrook, like the author's father, was married to a beautiful Latin American musician. The only son of Thomas and Gerda was named after his great-grandfather and grandfather Johann. His home name is Ganno. He is the last of his kind and intuitively feels it. Deprived of the will to live, he lives in the world of his dreams and music. A common childhood illness turned out to be fatal for him, because in his nature there is no reserve of vitality.
Thomas Mann noted that "Buddenbrooks" were created in the tradition of naturalism. He believed that the family, like a living organism, arises, develops and fades away. The historical reason for the disappearance of the Buddenbrooks into oblivion is that the burgher estate is being supplanted by the bourgeois class, whose aggressiveness the patriarchal Buddenbrooks cannot resist.
An equally important reason for the death of the family, according to Thomas Mann, was that artists, musicians, artists, philosophers, alien to pragmatism, incapable of commerce and financial transactions, were born in the bowels of the Buddenbrooks. Characteristically, the risky project that Thomas Buddenbrock tried to implement leads to the collapse of the company just on the eve of its anniversary.
Thomas Mann in the novels "Clown"(1897), " Tristan" ( 1901), " Death in Venice"(1913) worried about the internal confrontation of the restless artist and the respectable burgher. He contrasted the public and family virtues of a law-abiding burgher with a bohemian genius, who is alien to pragmatism, serving art. Was it not revenge that overtook him in Venice for deliberate seclusion from the diversity of life?
Bertolt Brecht (1898 - 1955)- an outstanding German playwright, drama theorist, director, prose writer and poet. He studied at the University of Munich, studied literature and philosophy, and then medicine. In 1918 he was drafted into the army, served as a nurse in one of the hospitals in Augsburg. The politically active young man was elected a member of the soldiers' council. In 1919 - 1923 he resumed his studies at the University of Munich.
"The Threepenny Opera""(1928) was a triumphant success. He took advantage of the plot of "The Beggar's Opera" by the English playwright John Gay, written two hundred years ago. Brecht brought to the stage the inhabitants of the bottom of London and the robbers, the beggars and the representatives of the most ancient profession, not for the viewer to lament their plight, which forced them to embark on a disastrous path. Brecht's scum are just as much business as the representatives of the City of London. They have their own firms, their business is flourishing. Begging is as much a profession as playing the stock market. The author put an equal sign between the world of criminal and respectable.
The most important principle of Brechtian art is "alienation". Familiar life and literary collisions appear in Brecht's epic plays always from an unexpected perspective. This was supposed to stimulate the thought of the viewer or reader.
The pinnacle of Brecht's dramaturgy was the drama " Life of Galileo"(first edition 1939, second - 1946). The hero of the play, the great scientist Galileo Galilei, frightened by the Inquisition, renounces his discovery. The essence of the drama lies in the dialogue between Galileo and his student Andrea Sarti. The student throws an accusation at the teacher: "Unfortunate is the country that has no heroes." The teacher retorts: “No! Unfortunate is the country that needs heroes.” The discovery of Galileo, which turned the whole solar system, liberated the Renaissance personality, freeing man from divine guardianship. But freedom is dangerous, and Galileo himself was the first to realize this. The great thinker, as Brecht portrays him, is greedy, cunning, cowardly.
The play "The Life of Galileo" unfolds not only the tragedy of the great astronomer and mathematician, but also the tragedy of all mankind as a whole. Galileo as an inventor and scientist turned out to be purely human moral character below your opening.
Erich Maria Remarque (1898 - 1970) as a seventeen-year-old boy, immediately after graduating from high school, he went to the front, where he was wounded five times. After the war, he briefly taught in the provinces, then moved to Berlin. At the time of the most severe inflation, one had to take on any job. Then these professions - a teacher, a race car driver, an organist in the church of a psychiatric hospital, a worker in a cemetery granite workshop, a journalist - he transferred to his heroes. Remarque, who returned from the war, wrote the novel " All Quiet on the Western Front, stunning in its veracity. The author spoke in it not just as an eyewitness to what happened, but as a participant and victim.
Young people who found themselves at the front lived resisting the authorities, defending their right to exist on this earth. They were turned into like cattle. Deprived of normal living conditions, they are only concerned with eating more satisfyingly and sleeping longer until they are sent to the front line. If the stomachs are full of grub, then everything is fine. But these seemingly dehumanized, accustomed to everything soldiers remain human. Paul Bäumer almost always says "we" when telling his story. He does not separate himself from his former classmates.
Remarque showed the war from the trench. He contrasted the traditional battle romance with the truth of an ordinary honest person who is forced to kill in order not to be killed. Remarque said this most clearly in the episode where main character Paul Bäumer, without hesitation, kills a French soldier with a knife, and then spends painful hours next to the corpse, when Bäumer, against his will, already perceives an unknown enemy soldier as loved one, his peer. Paul Bäumer himself will be killed on one of the last days of the war. And a faceless phrase will appear in the front-line reports: "All Quiet on the Western Front."
Books about those who did not return from the front or returned physically and spiritually crippled began to be called the literature of the “lost generation”. Remarque's books are on a par with the novels of E . Hemingway "Goodbye", weapon" and "Death of a Hero"". These writers showed the spiritual and physical drama of young people sent to the front by the rulers.
In 1933, the Nazis threw their books into the fire. Remarque moved to America in 1939. "Three comrades" (1939) were written during the period of wanderings. Although the text does not contain the words "fascism" or "Nazism", the novel predicted a sad future for the "lost generation".
In the twenties and thirties, the word "comrade" on different languages denoted a comrade in the party and class struggle. Remarque returned the word "comrade" to its original meaning. Robert Lokamp, on behalf of whom the story is being told, has two friends: Otto Kestner and Gottfried Lenz. They are the three friends. They have a common car workshop, in which they restore cars that miraculously did not end up in a landfill.
They will not give offense to a person who is next to them, and even more so a comrade. Remarque's tough guys are alien to global humanism, they are just decent and strong people and their help is always concrete. The heroes of the "lost generation" are restrained and ironic with a woman, their sensuality is ahead of their feelings. In "Three Comrades", and in other books by Remarque, passion grows gradually, and at some point the hero realizes that love is the greatest value, that only for this it is worth living. However, Remarque's happiness is doomed to be short.
Remarque's novels Love thy neighbor" (1940) and "Arc de Triomphe”(1946) is the misadventures of fugitives who miraculously escaped from the clutches of the Gestapo.
The protagonist of the novel "A Time to Live and a Time to Die"(1954) vacationer Graeber in the spring of forty-five comes to his native city on a visit, but he cannot find either his home or the street familiar from childhood - everything is in ruins. The parents probably died during the bombing. There is a brief flash of passion. He convinces Elizabeth to marry him, because he knows for sure that he will die, so let her at least receive a widow's pension. The hero lost faith in the Nazi ideology, he is preparing to go over to the side of the Russians. But at this decisive moment, he dies from a partisan bullet. Remarque sought to say that the one who, at the time of historical cataclysms, finds himself between the opposing forces is doomed. Political antagonism kills the thinking person.
When they say about modernism, invariably name the names of prominent writers of the twentieth century. Marcel Proust (1871 - 1922), Franz Kafka (1883 - 1924) each in their own way changed the idea of the world, man and literature. Unlike realist writers who knew their characters thoroughly, the heroes of their novels for the authors themselves are a mysterious riddle that they are trying to decipher together with the reader. As a result, the text of the novel is like an unfinished sketch, fundamentally associative, chaotic, as if born in the presence of the reader.
The main motive of the multi-volume epic M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time" (1913 - 1927) is human memory. Marcel - the hero's name is like the author - is doomed to seclusion due to illness. He tries in the process of writing to live life anew. These are memoirs about oneself and those around, because they are imprinted in memory with some trifles and details.
Franz Kafka wrote his own myths. He acted as a myth-maker, the texts of his works are an original cipher, which is not so easy to unravel.
The life misfortune of Franz Kafka was that he found himself between nations, classes, cultures, religions. Being a Jew by nationality, he had little in common with the Jewish religious community. The commercial interests of his father were alien to him: the son of a merchant, he became a bourgeois official, and this, of course, was not his vocation. As part of his official duties, he came into daily contact with the workers, but sympathy for them could not overcome the dividing distance. The native language of the writer was German, which inevitably separated him from the Czech population of Prague. Among the Germans and Austrians close to the imperial government, he could not and did not want to become his own. The disease - a severe form of tuberculosis - increased the alienation. For these reasons, Kafka lived, as it were, in a solitary ghetto. This is largely the source of the author's predilection for introspection. He hated his loneliness, tormented and suffered from the fact that he was unsociable and unloved, but he could not part with the usual painful loneliness. For him, it was the only way to exist and main theme creativity.
"Process"- the central book of F. Kafka, which he started in 1914. In the "Process" the world is a closed space, the building is erected, and all its corridors and dead ends are passed by the hero. The test of the mind, feelings and conscience ended in defeat. The artistic vision and the author's logic acquire here an all-encompassing completeness, although, of course, this universality is imaginary.
“Someone, apparently, slandered Josef K., because, having done nothing wrong, he was arrested,” - this was the beginning of the process. “The process has begun,” a well-known politician will say later, not suspecting that he is quoting Kafka. Josef K., a major bank official, was arrested on his thirtieth birthday, the guards appeared at his bed as soon as he woke up. Everything is extraordinary about this arrest and the trial that followed. The arrested person is not presented with any charges, they do not even try to create the appearance of guilt. But at the same time, innocence is denied in principle. After the act of arrest, the accused is left free, or rather, the beginning of the process should not interfere with leading a normal life and performing daily duties. This is permissible, because the law is omnipotent, and "guilt itself attracts justice."
Josef K. draws himself into the realm of a mysterious and incomprehensible law. It's a paradox, but an attempt at justification becomes an admission of guilt. During the year there is a violent destruction of personality. In the struggle of Josef K. with the instigators and organizers of the process, a fatal outcome is inevitable. During the trial, as the lawyer explains, "the stake is on the accused himself", but the very beginning of the process strikes a person from the inside, paralyzes his strength, makes him subject to the court.
The core of Franz Kafka's short stories is the rejection of man from people. "Transformation" (1914)- the most famous story of F. Kafka. Painful thoughts about one's own fate and the fate of compatriots and contemporaries spilled out here into a pessimistic, frightening narrative. The first meeting with the executive disciplined salesman Gregor Samza occurs when two extraordinary events happened. Gregor, due to the fact that he overslept, missed the train on his next business trip, so now an inevitable terrible dressing is expected. But where the second is worse. A modest young man, a loving son and brother, a diligent employee of the company turned into an arthropod monster. How, why he turned into an insect, the author does not explain, the ominous metamorphosis is not motivated by Kafka: it happened. It remains to be accepted and follow the consequences of what happened. With regard to neglect of official duties, retribution here is coming immediately. A trifling delay is enough for the manager to appear himself to clarify the reasons and reprimand. The hero of Kafka is among the "little people", he is akin to Bashmachkin or Makar Devushkin. Worries, downtroddenness, confusion, meager joys show that the hero is somewhere at the bottom of the hierarchical ladder. The transformation into an insect is a metaphor for his socio-psychological state.
In 1924 André Breton (1896 - 1966) published "Manifesto of Surrealism”, the main provisions of which boiled down to the following: the embodiment of the subconscious, dreams, as the subject of the image, miracles and accidents as plot-forming. The aphorism of A. Breton, who declared that art begins when a sewing machine meets an umbrella on the operating table, was widely circulated.
Surrealist theorists favored the visual arts over the verbal ones. The poet, on the other hand, was required to compose without thinking, when a wave of dreams and hallucinations comes over him, which he is called upon to register, without introducing anything from himself. Painting and literature expressed the "collective unconscious". The theoretical postulate found its expression in the joint composition of poetry and prose, for example, the cycle of poems "Slow down the progress of work" (1930), written jointly by P. Eluard, A. Breton and R. Shar.
During the occupation of Paris by the German Nazis, French culture experienced an extraordinary flowering. The novels by J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus. Their plays are staged on the most prestigious French stages. During the war years, pilot Antoine de Saint-Exupery composes the fairy tale "The Little Prince". Continues to compose crime stories about the investigations of Commissioner Maigret Georges Simenon. What is the reason for such an intensive flowering of French art? The explanation of the phenomenon is obvious: all figures of French culture were associated with the resistance movement. Fighting the fascist regime imposed on the French, writers and journalists, painters and theater workers defended national values, fought to preserve the humanistic traditions of French democracy.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 - 1980) gained fame in the circles of the French intelligentsia as a philosopher and prose writer in the pre-war years, during the period of the struggle against fascism, he became one of the pillars of the Resistance, the ideologist of the left-wing intelligentsia, who adopted the concept of existentialism, developed and promoted by him in journalism, dramaturgy and prose.
The main pathos of existentialism as a philosophy of existence is designed to help the individual overcome the despair of being alone and make the right choice for himself. By abolishing the idea of a creator God, Sartre and his associates gave man the freedom to be himself. But freedom, the existentialists emphasize, is above all responsibility. What is a person? This is a lump of plasma in the universe. However, you should always act as if the eyes of the world are fixed on you. “For existentialists,” Sartre instructed, “a person cannot be defined because initially he is nothing. He becomes a man only later, and such a man as he makes himself. One of the key concepts of existentialism is choice. Throughout his existence, a person chooses himself, those close to him and antagonists. Everyone has the freedom of choice, because a person is condemned to be free, he is responsible for all his accomplishments. One of the objectives of the literature in this regard is to warn against wrong choices.
Sartre's hero is anti-bourgeois. He does not accept bourgeois values and the very way of life of the middle class. This is stated in the novel Nausea" ( 1938). His hero Antoine Roquentin is the exact opposite of the characters of Balzac or Stendhal. He does not seek to make a career. As a petty rentier, he is well off, as an intellectual, he satisfies his ambitions by doing biographical research on the Marquis Rollebon, who became one of the victims of the Jacobins. Studying the sources in the library, he from time to time makes forays into a provincial town, where respectable inhabitants make him sick with their arrogance and mediocrity. His communication with people always takes place on a tangent: having come into contact with a casual acquaintance, colleague, lover or lover, he immediately hurries to recoil away. For Sartre's hero, freedom is synonymous with loneliness.
in the story "Herostratus" from the same collection, Sartre focuses on the character to whom the definition of "none" is most suitable. He, like the hero of Camus's novel "The Outsider", written a little later, is a stranger among people. He has no contact with neighbors, colleagues and women. Alienation turns into hatred. Armed with a revolver, he shoots random passers-by on the street, asserting himself through violence. The modern Herostratus believes that the crime he committed will glorify him at least for a while.
In an allegorical play flies”, written on the plot of Aeschylus' Oresteia, the son of Agamemnon must free the inhabitants of Argos from hordes of biting flies. Punishment was sent down to the inhabitants of Argos for the murder of the king. They were resigned to both crime and punishment. The inhabitants of Argos are passive, they do not care, freedom or oppression, they got used to the flies, which perform the grotesque role of Erinyes in the play. Orestes is an avenger, Orestes is a liberator, but Orestes' heroism is yet another bloody violence.
AT post-war years in Paris, in Rome, in London and Moscow, Sartre's philosophical dramas "Only the Truth", "The Respectful Slut", "The Hermits from Altona" were staged. Sartre created problematic and topical dramas. " Recluses from Altona”, which was filmed by the Italian director Vittorio de Sica, was especially popular in the 60s.
Its action takes place in the Hamburg suburb of Altona in the Gerlach family, which owns a powerful shipbuilding company, which employs one hundred thousand workers. The old Gerlach has his own philosophy of life - to build at all costs and serve his government with this, and who is in it (even the upstart Hitler), what his policy is, is not important. This is a kind of understanding of life debt. Gerlach is self-critical, the vulnerability of his life principles is obvious to him, but the criminal lie must be hidden deeper, which is why he skillfully plays out the tragedy of the imaginary death of his eldest son. The atmosphere in the Gerlachs' house is inflated, the viewer is waiting for the inevitable appearance of a voluntary prisoner - Franz von Gerlach.
The fifteen-year retreat of a former officer of the Nazi Wehrmacht is the ideological core of the play. The situation is generally artificial. The main reason for self-isolation is the unwillingness to participate in modern life, an attempt to preserve in memory the destroyed post-war Germany. Franz is a madman, but he only plays at madness, trying to get rid of his too sober consciousness, from memory, from war. Franz is aware of a terrible criminal guilt, but he does not recognize the right to judge him for the official authorities, who are no less guilty than he is. Hence the multiplicity of this most complex image arises: Franz is himself accused, judge and defender, prisoner himself and jailer himself. You involuntarily compare the Gerlach family with a ball of snakes: everyone hates each other, but they press closer to each other to sting. The commonality of guilt binds them. Franz loves and hates his father, feeling like his double, because everything that Franz did was provoked by his father.
Albert Camus (1913 - 1960) is a like-minded person and opponent of Sartre. Sharing the general provisions of the existentialist doctrine, Camus, unlike Sartre, had a negative attitude towards all kinds of revolutionary speeches and sharply condemned his attempt to find a common language with the communists and all sorts of leftists. Sartre twice came to our country, where he was received with honor - Camus refused to visit the Soviet Union, which seemed to him a stronghold of totalitarianism. He was no less critical of the countries of the West, where, in his opinion, individual freedom is suppressed by capitalism.
AT treatise "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942) he argued the absurdity of human existence. The "proletarian of the gods Sisyphus" is condemned to drag a stone up the mountain, which immediately rolls down. Sisyphus is doomed to do this indefinitely. Camus saw this as a model of human behavior: it is impossible to achieve the goal, but one should fulfill one's destiny without hope of success.
Albert Camus in journalism and creativity opposed the rebellious man, who was synonymous with a terrorist for the writer. Violence does not change the world, but the state does not have the right to punish those who violate its laws. AT essay "Reflections on the Guillotine he argued, "To sentence a man to capital punishment is to decide that he has not the slightest chance of expiating his guilt."
This idea is the basis of his first novel " Outsider" (1942). Again we have before us "no man", leading an existence on a physiological level; among his own kind, he is absolutely alien due to the atrophy of feelings. Meursault commits an unmotivated crime - he shoots an Arab, with whom there was a trifling skirmish. According to the author's logic, the criminal is a victim of a society that is more inhuman than the one it judges. Meanwhile, in Meursault, the inevitability of the guillotine awakens human feelings, he tries to resist the pressure of the prosecutor and judges, although he is powerless to refute them. The humanized Meursault goes to his death with dull indifference.
"Plague" (1947) - one of the most famous novels of the 20th century, the text opens with a significant phrase: "The curious events that served as the plot of this chronicle occurred in Oran in 194 ... year." So, immediately the plot: Oran is engulfed by an epidemic of plague. The first sign of a deadly disease was dead rats, then dying people, tens, hundreds, thousands. At first, the authorities did not want to notice the disaster, but the city had to be isolated from the outside world and a hopeless fight against the plague began. The novelist is focused on the study of various behaviors. The criminal elements rejoice in misfortune, because the threat of death has put them on a par with law-abiding citizens. A visiting journalist is trying to break out of quarantine, he is, they say, non-local. However, he is also destined to become a prisoner of the plague city, in which there are no strangers, everyone is in the same position.
The priest scourges the citizens of Oran for their sins, which caused the punishment of the Lord. But when a person ended up in earthly hell, heavenly hell is no longer so terrible. The position of the author himself coincides with the actions of the protagonist, Dr. Bernard Rieux, who was the first to diagnose and lead a squad to fight the plague. He understands better than others that it is impossible to defeat the plague, but it is possible to alleviate the suffering of the dying and their loved ones. He acts without hope of success, but the duty of a doctor and a man tells him to fight the plague.
Georges Amado (1912 - 2001) had a great sense of humor, but his creative path has developed in such a way that he was not laughing. The communist writer lived in exile for twenty years. Amado returned to his homeland in Mexico in 1958. From his early works, he was attracted to folk life. Success came to him after the publication of the novel "Generals of the Sandpits" (1939), in which he showed homeless teenagers, poor and proud, capable of theft and self-sacrifice.
The comic element forms the atmosphere of the novels Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1969), Teresa Batista, Tired of Fighting (1972), Tiete from Agreste (1976), The Rape of a Saint (1989). The writer acts in them as a sly, witty interlocutor who knows how to tell a funny anecdote, he has a lot of funny jokes in store, and in the end everyone has fun despite sorrows and losses.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez (born 1928) occupies a central place in the literary process of Latin American countries. The 1982 Nobel Prize-winning Colombian writer published his first stories when he was twenty years old. However, a notable debut was the appearance of the story “No one writes to the colonel» (1956). Marquez still considers it his best work.
The colonel and his wife are destined to survive the loss of their son, who was shot for writing an anti-government leaflet. The old sick man is inflexible. He lives by the memory of his son and faith in justice. In the story "Nobody Writes to the Colonel" the action takes place in a remote Colombian village, somewhere nearby is the town of Macondo mentioned in the story, in which all the events of the novel "One Hundred Years of Solitude" (1962) will be concentrated. But if in the story "Nobody Writes to the Colonel" the influence of E. Hemingway, who portrayed similar characters, is noticeable, then in the novel, the tradition of W. Faulkner is noticeable, who thoroughly recreated a tiny world in which the laws of the universe are reflected.
The town of Macondo, founded by the ancestor of the Buendia family clan, the inquisitive and naive José Arcadio, has been the central stage of action for a hundred years. Separated from world centers, lost in the tropical wilderness, Macondo is a landmark image that combines the local flavor of a semi-rural village and the features of a world city that are characteristic of modern civilization. What happened in Macondo, the author interprets as events that take place here and everywhere, because their uniqueness is combined with typicality.
Symbolism is an art direction. Originated in France in the mid 70s and 80s. 19th century. Symbolism arose from a dispute between a journalist and a poet. The journalist accused him of decadence. And the poet called his work symbolic.
Symbolism pursues the romantic principle of two worlds, but changes it (the real world and the ideal world). It was believed that the original world of ideas, and the real world is an illusion. The symbol does not have an unambiguous interpretation.
Subjectivity is the rejection of the direct naming of objective reality and the expression of its inner deep essence by suggestion.
Symbolism: Realism:
Dvoemirie
Spiritual world. Real world
There is no perfect world and perfect
Metaphor of the unknown "blue flower" allegory
The symbol can have different interpretations.
Symbolism is one of the largest trends in art (in literature, music and painting). The Symbolists radically changed not only various types of art, but also the very attitude towards it.
Characteristically: experimental nature, the desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism (the idea of world citizenship, which puts universal interests and values above the interests of a single nation, or denies such a concept.), association and intuitiveness.
By that time, there was another, already stable term "decadence" (decline, cultural regression), which was scornfully called new forms in the poetry of their criticism. "Symbolism" was the first theoretical attempt by the decadents themselves, so no sharp distinctions, let alone aesthetic confrontation, were established between decadence and symbolism.
Representatives: French poets: Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, Lautreamont.
Aesthetics. The Symbolists tried to depict the life of every soul - full of experiences, obscure, vague moods, subtle feelings, fleeting impressions.
Art form: Symbolist poets were innovators of poetic verse, filling it with new, bright and expressive images, and sometimes, trying to achieve an original form, they went into a play of words and sounds considered meaningless by their critics. Symbolism distinguishes two worlds: the world of things and the world of ideas. The symbol becomes a kind of conventional sign that connects these worlds in the sense it generates. The most striking change introduced by symbolism concerns the form of the artistic embodiment of its poetics. In the context of symbolism, a work of any kind of art begins to play precisely with poetic meanings, poetry becomes a form of thinking. Prose and drama begin to sound like poetry, the visual arts paint its images, and with music, the connection of poetry becomes simply all-encompassing.
Symbolism publicly declared itself as an artistic trend in France, when a group of young poets, who in 1886 rallied around S. Mallarme, realized the unity of artistic aspirations. The group included: J. Moreas, R. Gil, Henri de Regno, S. Merrill and others. In the 1990s, P. Valery, A. Gide, P. Claudel joined the poets of the Mallarmé group. P. Verlaine, who published his symbolist poems and a series of essays Damned Poets, as well as J.K. Huysmans, who published the novel Vice Versa. In 1886, J. Moreas placed in "Figaro" the Manifesto of Symbolism, in which he formulated the basic principles of the direction, based on the judgments of C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarme, P. Verlaine, C. Henri. Two years after the publication of the manifesto by J. Moréas, A. Bergson published his first book On the Immediate Data of Consciousness, in which the philosophy of intuitionism was declared, in its basic principles echoing the symbolist worldview and giving it additional justification.
In the Symbolist Manifesto, J. Moreas defined the nature of the symbol, which supplanted the traditional artistic image and became the main material of Symbolist poetry. "Symbolist poetry is looking for a way to dress the idea in a sensual form that would not be self-sufficient, but at the same time, serving the expression of the Idea, would retain its individuality," Moréas wrote. A similar "sensual form" in which the Idea is clothed is a symbol.
The fundamental difference between a symbol and an artistic image is its ambiguity. The symbol cannot be deciphered by the efforts of the mind: at the last depth it is dark and not accessible to the final interpretation. On Russian soil, this feature of the symbol was successfully defined by F. Sologub: "A symbol is a window to infinity." The movement and play of semantic shades create indecipherability, the mystery of the symbol. If the image expresses a single phenomenon, then the symbol is fraught with a whole range of meanings - sometimes opposite, multidirectional (for example, "the miracle and the monster" in the image of Peter in Merezhkovsky's novel Peter and Alexei). The poet and theorist of symbolism Vyach. Ivanov expressed the idea that the symbol signifies not one, but different entities, A. Bely defined the symbol as "combining the heterogeneous together." The duality of the symbol goes back to the romantic notion of two worlds, the interpenetration of two planes of being.
The multi-layered nature of the symbol, its open polysemy was based on mythological, religious, philosophical and aesthetic ideas about super-reality, incomprehensible in its essence. The theory and practice of symbolism were closely associated with the idealistic philosophy of I. Kant, A. Schopenhauer, F. Schelling, as well as F. Nietzsche's reflections on the superman, being "beyond good and evil." At its core, symbolism merged with the Platonic and Christian concepts of the world, having adopted romantic traditions and new trends. Not being aware of the continuation of any particular trend in art, symbolism carried the genetic code of romanticism: the roots of symbolism are in a romantic commitment to a higher principle, an ideal world. "Pictures of nature, human deeds, all the phenomena of our life are significant for the art of symbols not in themselves, but only as intangible reflections of the original ideas, indicating their secret affinity with them," wrote J. Moreas. Hence the new tasks of art, previously assigned to science and philosophy - to approach the essence of the "most real" by creating a symbolic picture of the world, to forge the "keys of secrets". It is the symbol, and not the exact sciences, that will allow a person to break through to the ideal essence of the world, to pass, according to Vyach. Ivanov's definition, "from the real to the real." A special role in the comprehension of superreality was assigned to poets as carriers of intuitive revelations and poetry as the fruit of superintelligent influxes.
The formation of Symbolism in France - the country in which the Symbolist movement originated and flourished - is associated with the names of the largest French poets: C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarmé, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud. The forerunner of symbolism in France was Charles Baudelaire, who published the book Flowers of Evil in 1857. In search of paths to the "ineffable", many symbolists were taken up by Baudelaire's idea of "correspondences" between colors, smells and sounds. The proximity of various experiences should, according to the symbolists, be expressed in a symbol. Baudelaire's sonnet Correspondence with the famous phrase became the motto of symbolist searches: Sound, smell, form, color echo. Baudelaire's theory was later illustrated by A. Rimbaud's sonnet Vowels:
"A" black, "E" white, "I" red, "Y" green,
"O" blue - the colors of a bizarre riddle ...
The search for correspondences is at the heart of the symbolist principle of synthesis, the unification of arts. The motifs of the interpenetration of love and death, genius and illness, the tragic gap between appearance and essence, contained in Baudelaire's book, became dominant in the poetry of the Symbolists.
S. Mallarme, "the last romantic and the first decadent", insisted on the need to "inspire images", convey not things, but his impressions of them: "To name an object means to destroy three-quarters of the pleasure of a poem, which is created for gradual guessing, to inspire it - that's a dream." Mallarme's poem "Luck" will never abolish chance consisted of a single phrase typed in a different script without punctuation marks. This text, according to the author's intention, made it possible to reproduce the trajectory of thought and accurately recreate the "state of the soul" .
P. Verlaine, in the famous poem Poetic Art, defined the adherence to musicality as the main sign of genuine poetic creativity: "Musicality is first of all." In Verlaine's view, poetry, like music, strives for a mediumistic, non-verbal reproduction of reality. So in the 1870s, Verlaine created a cycle of poems called Songs without Words. Like a musician, the symbolist poet rushes towards the elemental flow of the beyond, the energy of sounds. If the poetry of C. Baudelaire inspired the symbolists with a deep longing for harmony in a tragically divided world, then the poetry of Verlaine amazed with its musicality, subtle feelings. Following Verlaine, the idea of music was used by many symbolists to denote creative mystery.
In the poetry of the brilliant young man A. Rimbaud, who first used vers libre (free verse), the symbolists adopted the idea of abandoning "eloquence", finding a crossing point between poetry and prose. Invading any, the most non-poetic spheres of life, Rimbaud achieved the effect of "natural supernaturalness" in the depiction of reality.
Symbolism in France also manifested itself in painting (G. Moreau, O. Rodin, O. Redon, M. Denis, Puvis de Chavannes, L. Levy-Durmer), music (Debussy, Ravel), theater (Poet Theater, Mixed Theater, Petit theater du Marionette), but the main element of symbolist thinking has always been lyricism. It was the French poets who formulated and embodied the main precepts of the new movement: the mastery of the creative secret through music, the deep correspondence of various sensations, the ultimate price of the creative act, the orientation towards a new intuitive-creative way of knowing reality, the transmission of elusive experiences.
LECTURE 1
AESTHETICS AND POETICS OF ROMANTICISM
1. Socio-historical prerequisites for the development of romanticism.
2. The concept of romanticism. The main stages in the development and course of romanticism.
3. Art and fashion of the Romantic era.
1. Socio-historical prerequisites for the development of romanticism
The concept of "Literature of the XIX century." includes primarily two trends in art - romanticism and realism. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in European literature, a new direction is being established - romanticism. It can be seen as a kind of response to the social and economic changes in the life of Europe at the end of the 18th century. The main events that gave impetus to the emergence of romanticism were the French bourgeois revolution 1789 - 1794 and the Napoleonic wars that began after it, the industrial revolution in England. Further development of romanticism falls on the period of the Restoration (1815 - 1830) and 30 - 40s Subsequently, realism became the dominant trend, which was replaced in 1870 - 1900. came naturalism.
Prerequisites for the emergence of romanticism:
Worldview: the ideas of the Schlegel brothers, F. Schelling, I. Kant, I. Fichte and others.
Aesthetic: sentimentalism, the Sturm und Drang grouping, the work of I. Goethe and F. Schiller, Herder's theory of nationality.
Historical: historical events in Europe, in particular the French Revolution of 1789 - 1794.
Romanticism arose at a time when Europe experienced a strong spiritual disappointment in connection with the events of the French Revolution of 1789-1794. and the Napoleonic Wars. The belief that it is possible for a person to rebuild the social order for the better on the basis of reason was questioned, and this was depressing. After all, the revolution led to social harmony, it ended in rampant violence and the bloody "Jacobin terror." Failed to establish freedom and justice and the Napoleonic soldiers. Thus, a blow was dealt to faith in the mind, its power, strength. It was this that explained the deep disappointment that seized many romantic artists. It found its expression in a pessimistic tone and tragic coloring of creativity. It is here that one must look for the origins of the image of a hero disappointed in life, sung by the romantics.
The rapid ascent of Napoleon to the pinnacle of glory became for many romantics an example of bold daring, spiritual emancipation of the individual. And let the prominent people of Europe soon condemn Napoleon for his thirst for power, imperial ambitions and cruel wars of conquest - the image of the Hero will remain in people's memory for a long time. It is here that the origins of the active hero of romanticism lie - the hero - a rebel, the hero - a Protestant.
Tragic and heroic in romantic art are closely intertwined. We find a combination of heroic, rebellious mood and tragic disappointment in the works of romantic writers, in particular in the works of the great English poet J. G. Byron.
The philosophical basis of romanticism was the philosophy of Fichte with his doctrine of creative activity the absolute subject "I", which generated its object as the starting point of world perception. According to his philosophy, the world was considered not as a set of immutable things and a ready form, but as a process of endless becoming, which was a creative spiritual activity and, moreover, a symbolic activity, the embodiment of the exposure of the inner through the outer, that is, the process of artistic creativity.
Man was considered as the main center and ultimate goal of the natural process and at the same time as the starting point of supernatural discovery. The driving forces of the human soul were considered not thinking and intellect, but fantasy and feeling.
The subjective understanding by the author of the role of the phenomena of reality, the desire to attribute to it what the romantic writer would like to see in life - all this often led to a misunderstanding, and sometimes a distortion of the objective laws of the development of reality. The realities of capitalist society did not suit the romantics, so they were in constant search for answers to burning questions: how to eliminate the evils and vices of this society, where is the ideal to strive for.
Speaking of romanticism, it should be emphasized that he was not only literary direction, he was a movement that covered various areas of the spiritual culture of that time. It was reminiscent of other great eras such as the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment.
2. The concept of romanticism. The main stages in the development and course of romanticism
The name of the term "romanticism" indicates a connection with the Middle Ages, when the genre of chivalric romance was popular in literature.
Romanticism is usually called the direction in art, which arose in the countries Western Europe at the end of XVIII - beginning. XIX Art.
The name comes from the French word "romantisme", which denoted something mysterious, strange, unreal.
Romanticism is a trend in literature and art of the first quarter of the 19th century, which is characterized by the depiction of ideal characters and feelings. It is characterized by a sense of the fragility of the world, disappointment in the revolution.
The Essence of Romanticism: Unusual Heroes in Unusual Circumstances.
The term was first mentioned in 1650. In Spain, this word originally meant a lyrical and heroic song - a romance. Then epic poems about knights - novels. The very word "romantic" as a synonym for "picturesque", "original" appeared in 1654. It was adopted by the Frenchman Baldaneparzhe.
Later, at the beginning of the 18th century, this word was already used by many writers and poets, including classicist writers. (In particular, Pope calls his condition romantic, linking it with uncertainty).
At the end of the XVIII century. German romantics, the Schlegel brothers, put forward opposition to the concept of classical - romantic. This opposition was picked up and made known throughout Europe. Thus, the concept of "romanticism" began to be used as a term in the theory of art.
Romantic writers departed from the traditions of the classicists, who followed everything ancient. In contrast to them, the romantics were carried away by the chanting of the Middle Ages. They created new pictures of life in the spirit of the Middle Ages, rejected strict canons and rules, and above all valued inspiration.
Also, representatives of romanticism abandoned the realistic depiction of reality, because they were dissatisfied with its anti-aesthetic nature.
Romantics represented the mind as an identification of pragmatism, so the cult of feelings was opposed to the enlightenment ideal of reason. They focused on human experiences that expressed a unique individuality.
3. Stages of development of romanticism
Pre-romanticism - phenomena and trends in European literature and spiritual culture of the second half of the 18th century, which paved the way for the development of romanticism.
Features:
Growing interest in medieval literature and folk art;
Assigning the main role to imagination, fantasy, creativity;
The emergence of the concept of "romantic", which preceded the emergence of the term "romanticism".
Early romanticism (late XVIII - early XIX centuries)
The era of the Napoleonic Wars and the period of the Restoration formed the first wave of romanticism. In England, this is the work of poets J. G. Byron, Percy Boucher Shelley, J. Keats, novelist W. Scott, in Germany - the master of satirical prose Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann and the brilliant lyricist and satirist Heinrich Heine.
Features:
Universalism, the desire to embrace being in its entirety (what exists and should exist), to give it a synthesizing artistic expression;
Close connection with philosophy;
Attraction to the symbol and myth as the most adequate forms of artistic expression;
Discord with reality;
Sharp opposition of reality and ideal, disappointment and negativism.
Developed forms (20-40s of the XIX century).
The second wave of romanticism begins after the July Revolution in France and after the uprising in Poland, that is, after 1830. The best works at that time were written in France - Victor Hugo, J. Sand, a. Dumas; in Poland - A. Mickiewicz, Julius Slovak, in Hungary - Sandor Petofi. Romanticism is now widely embraced by painting, music, theater.
Under the influence of European romanticism, American literature developed, which dates back to this time and was represented by the novelistic works of J. F. Cooper, E. Poe.
Late romanticism (after the revolution of 1848).
Romanticism was not monolithic. It had different currents.
Currents of romanticism
Folk-folklore (beginning of the 19th century) - a movement oriented towards folklore and folk-poetic artistic thinking. It first appeared in England, in Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworth, the first edition of which appeared in 1798. In Germany, it was approved by the Heidelberian school of romantics, then it became widespread in other European literatures, especially in the Slavic world.
Peculiarities:
They not only collected folk poetry and drew motives, images, colors from it, but also found archetypes of their creativity in it, adhered to the principles and structures of folk poetic thinking;
They were attracted by the simplicity of poetic expression, the emotional richness and melodiousness of folk poetry;
They did not perceive bourgeois civilization, they sought to find support in opposing it in people's life, consciousness, and art.
“Byronichna” (J. Byron, G. Heine, A. Mitskevich, O. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, etc.), therefore, it received its completed incarnation in the work of Byron.
Peculiarities:
The core of the current was the mental-emotional attitude, which can be defined as the "idealization of the objection";
Disappointment and melancholy, depression, "world sorrow" - these "negative emotions" acquired absolute artistic value, became the leading lyrical motifs, determined the emotional tone of the works;
The cult of spiritual and mental suffering, without which they could not imagine a full-fledged human personality;
Sharp opposition of dreams and life, ideal and reality;
Contrast, antithesis are the main elements of a work of art.
Grotesque-fantastic, which was also called "Hoffmanivskaya", after the name of its most famous representative. Main feature: the transfer of romantic phantasmagoria to the sphere Everyday life life, their peculiar interweaving, as a result of which the wretched modern reality appeared in a whimsical grotesque-fantastic lighting, revealing an unsightly essence. This trend can be attributed to the late Gothic novel, in certain aspects, the work of E. Po, Gogol's "Petersburg stories".
Utopian current. Received significant development in the literature of the 30-40s of the XIX century, manifesting itself in the works of V. Hugo, George Sand, G. Heine, E. Xu, E. Jones and others.
Peculiarities:
Shifting the emphasis from criticism and objection to the search for the "ideal truth", to the affirmation of positive trends and values of life;
Preaching an optimistic outlook on life and its prospects;
Speech against the "individualism of modern man" and opposing him with heroes full of love for people and readiness for self-sacrifice;
Expression of optimistic hope and prophecy, affirmation of ideal truth;
Widespread use of rhetorical means.
- "Volterivska" trend, which focused entirely on historical topics, in the development of the genre of the historical novel, historical poem and drama. The model of the historical novel genre was created by W. Scott. This trend in certain aspects has become a transition to realism.
4. Art and fashion of the Romantic era
Romantics made many important artistic discoveries. Having opposed classicism, they demanded a new approach to poetics - creative, devoid of canons and rules. Romanticism began with the novel as a universal genre, elegy, ode, ballad and created a synthetic genre.
Representatives of romanticism believed that the work of the poet, which depended only on poetic inspiration, gave rise to free poetic forms. Therefore, unusual equivalence of genres appeared: a combination of epic with lyrics, a novel with philosophical reflections; palettes works of art were introduced into folklore genres, especially the ballad, fairy tale, legend, song. Romantics boldly introduce versification reforms, affirmed romantic norms in poetry, in particular in lyrics.
Immersion in the inner world of a person led to the development of lyrical-epic genres, the most popular of which was the romantic poem.
The arbitrariness of the image of the romantics was manifested in their compositional searches: they violated the sequence of the compositional structure of the work, provided it with incompleteness, asymmetry, filled it with a plot mystery, incompleteness, tried to build the work in an original way contrary to all the rules and assumed various bizarre forms.
Romantics discovered the beauty of folk art - fairy tales, songs, legends and traditions. They emphasized the enormous role of feelings, imagination, fantasies in a person's life, asserted the spiritual originality and uniqueness of each individual person. But at the same time, they were brought closer to the educators by humanism, sympathy for the “little man”. Romantics stood for sincere, open human relations, against the world of profit, selfishness and hypocrisy. They defended human freedom. The image of the protagonist is created on the principle of contrast with the real features of a contemporary. The romantic hero is a man of great passions, deeply dissatisfied with reality, capable of unusual deeds.
| ROMANTIC IDEALS: |
||||||
| Holy Bible | the beauty | Art | Historical past | Nature | Childhood | Love |
The surrounding world of romance was considered as a living organism - holistic and unified. It is not quite accessible to the human mind, it has a lot of mysterious, unknown, it was inhabited by mystical and unknown forces. They imperceptibly passed from real life, influenced him, intertwined with him. Hence the large number of fantastic and mystical elements in the works of art of the Romantics (Hoffmann, Gogol and others).
Romantic literature is unthinkable apart from folklore, music, and painting. Romantics subtly felt this connection, which affected the language and style of works of art. In their poems they transferred the melodiousness and cordiality of a folk song, poems and novels - the picturesqueness and panorama of descriptions, into each work - musical excitement, sincerity, lyricism.
General aesthetic principles of romanticism:
Mystical sensation (many moments of direct communication with the divine world);
Love is the way of knowing the secrets of being;
Affirmation of independence, uniqueness of each person;
The center of attention is transferred from the outer world to the inner one;
Denial of canons in creativity;
The poet is a free creator who has the right to express his own "I" in his works. He places himself high above the crowd;
Fantasy is given the main place; uma—secondary;
An unusual hero in unusual circumstances (disappointed, lonely, devastated by life, passive; on the other hand - a rebel, a protestant);
Love for obscure plots of the past, distant lands (especially India);
The search for the ideal;
Discovery of the beauty of folk art - fairy tales, songs, legends and legends;
dissatisfaction with the social order.
All romantics believed that there was a tragic gap between their imagination and real life. A person in the art of romanticism is always tragic: she did not perceive reality, was in disharmony with herself, she is a rebel and a victim. Therefore, the romantic direction provided for the lyrical stormy manifestation of feelings. Calls for freedom, for the protection of human dignity sounded from the stage.
Romanticism in the theater is associated with the names of poets D. Byron, P. Shelley, playwrights V. Hugo, A. de Musset, Mr. Heine and writers A. Mickiewicz, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov.
In the stage images of actors - romantics, the truth of feelings prevailed, which was dictated by a protest against reality. Actors and playwrights did not seek to understand the real circumstances, they plunged into the world of violent suffering of their own inner world, were busy searching for an ideal in themselves or in the past.
The Romantic theater prepared the stage for realism. Actors - romantics brought free language to the stage, pushed away the gesture, showed the innovative originality of each person. They played not only kings and nobles, but also officials, peasants, workers. Of great importance for the theater was the train of romantic art to national identity, interest in national traditions and history.
In the era of romanticism, music occupied a leading place in the system of arts, because it most corresponded to the aspirations of the romantics in reflecting the emotional life of a person. Musical romanticism is represented by the works of F. Schubert, E. Hoffmann, K. Zeber, N. Paganini, G. Rossini, F. Chopin, R. Schumann, F. Mendelssohn, F. Liszt, M. Glinka and others.
Romanticism is reflected not only in art and literature, but also in fashion. After 1815, men's clothing was freed from the requirements of court ceremonial, the wig, powdered hair, cocked hat, frill and cuffs disappeared. Long stockings came into fashion, a tailcoat became a universal form of clothing, and a top hat was a necessary part of the new costume. Men's clothes were sewn from simple woolen fabrics. The only decoration was a pin in his tie and a watch in his pocket. The type of "London dandy" was formed (J. Byron). In the years 1820-1840, men's suits were of moderately bright colors. The collar and cuffs stood out. The Romantic era introduced the loosely knotted black tie into the law. Along with the top hat, a soft felt hat was in fashion. A blouse appeared in women's clothing, the waist lines were squeezed by a corset, wide sleeves enhanced the contrast with a narrow waist.
The neckline has increased, the shoulders have opened and exposed. Complex hairstyles were decorated with ribbons, flowers, bows, there was a passion for jewelry. The fashion of the era of romanticism directly emphasized the individuality of the "non-state person", freed from conventions.
With regard to Ukrainian romanticism, it should be noted the painfully victorious remaking of national history (P. Kulish, comrade Shevchenko), original “Russianism” (G. Vovchok), stormy, grotesque, juicy, lyrical and preschool humor (Nechuy-Levytsky).
Merits of Romanticism:
Served as a transition to realism;
He freed the personality of the poet from the shackles of the aesthetics of classicism with its genre hierarchy, the obligatory rules of the three unities;
He showed how creativity should prevail over rules, and not vice versa;
Gave impetus to the development of historical and philological sciences;
Remained unsurpassed in the reflection of love with all the contradictions and outbreaks of this feeling;
Influenced other forms of art, as well as realist literature.
Questions for self-control
1. What are the prerequisites for the emergence of romanticism?
2. What is the essence of romanticism?
3. Define the term romanticism.
4. Name the representatives of romanticism.