Formation and development of the theory of social work abroad Plan. Scientific stage of formation of social work. Thus, the customs and traditions of the ancient Greeks, religious beliefs, ideological constructions of the great ancient Greek philosophers created the theoretical basis on which and in conjunction with which the practice of philanthropy of social assistance to those in need developed. gives its meaning to the phenomenon of social assistance to those in need.

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Lecture 6. Formation and development of the theory of social work

abroad

Plan

1. Formation of the most ancient ideas about the process of assistance.

VI - XVIII centuries)

4. ХI Х century).

5. The scientific stage of the formation of social work

1. Formation of the most ancient ideas about the process of assistance.The concept of help and mutual assistance originates at the stage of tribal society, when the mechanisms of reciprocation (gift exchange) and redistribution (distribution of surplus products) are laid.

The separation of the process of assistance from many spheres of society's life for the first time occurs in ancient Greece. The concept of "philanthropy" is born (from Greek - love for people).

Understanding the process of supporting the needy is reflected in the works of famous thinkers and philosophers of antiquity. Here, first of all, Plato and Aristotle should be noted. So, Plato in his works “Laws” and “State”, Aristotle in his work “Politics” consider charity in the context of public benefit, and not a separate private ministry. Plato noted that one should not take care of the poor who find themselves in a difficult situation, since poverty, in his opinion, does not consist in a decrease in property, but in an increase in insatiability. An illness may be an exception. To establish the ideal social order, Plato recommended turning to education. He believed that education could change society.

The concepts of friendliness, beneficence or philanthropy in ancient Greece are considered not only at the level of macroprocesses. The phenomenology of the process is also comprehended at the interpersonal level through such important ethical categories as justice, compassion, honor, friendship.

Aristotle was more restrained than Plato in assessing the possibilities of education. He assigned an important role to legislative coercion. Considering the motivation of an act from the standpoint of benefit, Aristotle pointed out that the activity of the state in distributing food and money to the needy only corrupts the people, and the desire to be merciful turns into evil for the demos (people). Ancient wisdom speaks about this: “Everything that is given free of charge can corrupt.” Aristotle argued that philanthropy is a natural property of man. Democritus (460-370 BC) argued that helping poor citizens should be not only a political task, but also a manifestation of mercy and compassion.

Thus, the customs and traditions of the ancient Greeks, religious beliefs, ideological constructions of the great ancient Greek philosophers created the theoretical basis on which (and in conjunction with which) the practice of philanthropy, social assistance to those in need, developed.

Ancient Roman philosophers (Juvenal, Seneca, Ciciro, etc.) also addressed the problem of helping those in need. They substantiated the need for charitable activity, its importance and significance for maintaining stability in the state and society. Juvenal - claimed that a person was born for compassion, Seneca - advocated a merciful attitude towards a slave (he wrote a letter to Emperor Nero "On Mercy"), Ciciro - considered mercy a distinctive feature of a person. He saw the meaning of serving the state in the "enrichment" of the poor and in the ransom of compatriots from captivity.

It should be noted that in the ideology of ancient philanthropy, not only an altruistic beginning can be traced, but also the first attempts to comprehend the negative consequences that disinterested help and support can bring.

2. Formulation of Christian ideas about help. The concept of philanthropy (love for people) is being replaced by the concept of “agape” (love of neighbor), which is based on the motives of participation in the fate of a person, in his needs and problems.

The ideology of the first Christian communities that arose in Palestine in the first half I in. gives its meaning to the phenomenon of social assistance to those in need. According to Christian ideology, not the requirement of laws and secular traditions, not the rational, but the spiritual principle should underlie charity. The first true and natural "philanthropist", according to Christian tradition, was Jesus Christ, who was sought after by the poor, the hungry, vagabonds, lepers, prostitutes, etc.

The early Christians gave the word "mercy" the meaning of forgiveness and active love. Love your neighbor as yourself is a fundamental principle of Christianity. Each Christian community was a trustee body. The people appointed by her visited the needy, the sick, all who needed help at home.

The church, supported by the state, becomes the main carrier of charity and charity in the period of the early (V-X I centuries) and classical (X I - X V centuries) of the Middle Ages.

Rethinking the processes of both interpersonal and group interaction, issues of help and support for those in need are reflected in the writings and commandments of the Apostles and Fathers of the Church. Intra-group assistance and mutual assistance transferred to society are regulated, canonized, and become an obligatory law of the life of a true Christian.

Thus, the apostle Paul defined charity as the norm of Christian life and singled out the truly needy and petitioners who do not want to work.

In the early stages of Christian support, an attempt is made to prioritize the objects of assistance. They included: ministers and pastors of the church; decrepit old people, helpless children;

other needy.

The theoretical understanding of the essence of help and support for those in need, social justice, compassion was reflected in the most important Christian dogma about mercy of that period. Here we should note the works of church thinkers: Basil of Caesarea (the Great), John Chrysostom, John of Damascus, Gregory the Theologian, Ephrem the Syrian, and others.

Basil the Great interpreted the essence of mercy as caring for the oppressed beyond their fault. Mercy is associated with "sickness", with compassion for one's neighbor, since a person cannot comprehend the destiny from above, and even more so his state, which is constantly changing or can change at the will of Providence. First of all, according to Basil the Great, those who need help and support are those who have fallen into extreme poverty from great wealth, who have gone from good bodily health to extreme exhaustion, who are stricken with illnesses. The concept of social equality is interpreted by him in the context of a separate fate and its changes.

Gregory the Theologian, concretizing the ideas of his school, gives them the character of practical instruction and service: "Be God for the unfortunate."He distinguishes between a "higher good" and a "lesser good". Gregory the Theologian lists the laws of the Prophets, Teachers, Shepherds, "various gifts of the Holy Spirit and the sacrament of the new salvation" among the highest blessings that benefit the soul. To lesser good deeds - help in food, clothing, medicines.

Chrysostom noted that almsgiving is the mother of love, which distinguishes Christianity. Mercy is a natural quality and property. In mercy, he sees the natural substance, but this does not mean that its presence freely reveals the Divine principle in a person. Only the teaching of mercy opens before a person the possibility of ascending to his essence and further - to the “sign of the Divine”. John Chrysostom believes that there should be no boundaries in an act of mercy: everyone who is in a difficult situation should be helped, even a pagan. The problem of social justice is considered by Chrysostom in the context of the ideas of salvation and the opposition of the real and unreal world, where the subjects of opposition are the rich and the poor, the haves and the have-nots, the healthy and the poor. Social unity and harmony are possible among these groups only if the “principle of usefulness”, the complementarity of existence, is observed. The principle of social utility of the existence of haves and have-nots is understood by John Chrysostom as an establishment of Divine wisdom, according to which representatives of various property groups should live according to the Divine plan, carrying out spiritual improvement in conditions of social inequality, constituted from above.

Chrysostom identifies two types of help: spiritual graces and bodily graces. To bodily favors, he refers to the food of the needy, helping those who lack clothing, visiting the sick, providing shelter to wanderers, and burying the dead in squalor. Spiritual graces - turn the sinner away from sinful deeds,to teach truth and goodness to those in need, to give good advice to one's neighbor.

In the second half VII centuries There is a division of the Christian Church into Western and Eastern. As a result, new approaches to the Christian ideology of supporting those in need are being laid. Their peculiarity: in fact, everyone should not be engaged in charity work, but only people invested with dignity. Laity can help those in need with their donations (a member of the community can give alms, and the bishop distributes it). With XII in. there is a conviction that the Pope is the owner of all church property.

The Church officially extolled poverty. Poverty and wealth were recognized by God. The poor, the beggar was seen as the savior of the rich. According to Christian authors VIII-I 10th century The Church must guide the hand of kings and protect all the weak and oppressed. Protection of the needy is interpreted as legal, financial and moral. Consequently, the philosophy of aid begins to be built not only from the position of charity, but also from the regulatory requirements of the state. Gradually, the Church comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to legalize the process of social assistance. So, in 1100, the Roman Church publishes a collection of canonical laws on the theory and practice of charity - Decretum.

The practice of social assistance was clearly manifested in the idea of ​​"natural law" in the writings of the famous theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Christian theologians laid the foundation for three important ideas in the field of helping children: the idea of ​​foster homes for abandoned children, educational shelters for the sick and crippled; the idea of ​​universal education and training; idea of ​​individualized education.

Further development of the theory and practice of charity takes place under the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, up to the Reformation.

3. Understanding the process of helping those in need during the period of the establishment of capitalist relations (X VI - XVIII centuries). On the comprehension of the assistance process was influenced by the socio-cultural, economic transformations that Europe experienced during this period, and above all the Renaissance, as well as the Reformation (associated with the split of the Catholic Church), the beginning of which was the performance in 1517 in Germany by M. Luther from 95- with theses against indulgences.

Protestantism transformed the content of the concepts of "mercy" and "charitable activity", arguing that a person is saved by faith in God, and not by showing mercy to the poor and needy.

Martin Luther severely criticized the established forms and principles of charity; criticized the church for wastefulness, the unsystematic nature of assistance. He did not deny alms as a form of support, when the needy dies of hunger, freezes from the cold, hides from crime. However, he saw in the uncontrolled distribution of alms the main factor in stimulating professional begging.

The Reformation deprived poverty of the mystical halo of righteousness. J. Calvin (1509-1564) argued that even before the creation of the world, every person is predestined by God either to salvation in paradise or to hell. Poverty is a sign of God's punishment. The poor man is doomed to incur only the displeasure of the Lord, for his life is marked by the curse of the Most High, and therefore the poor should be instructed in patience so that they can throw off the burden placed on them by God. The very desire to be poor is as sinful as the desire to be sick. Love for one's neighbor is, first of all, service to God. J. Calvin, distinguished by extreme religious intolerance, forbade begging and persecuted the poor.

Protestant leaders not only sharply opposed the Catholic idealization of begging as an object of "good deeds", but also against the monks and monasteries who patronized the poor. Many of them suggested turning the monasteries into hospitals, confiscating the property of the monasteries and directing it to the needs of the sick, the poor, to the creation of institutions for public charity.

Since the Reformation, two main approaches to the regulation of professional beggary begin to take shape: the localization of this phenomenon with the help of laws;the imposition of appropriate taxes and fees on civil society. Taxation as a system that regulates the relations of some segments of the population with others, rich with the poor, is becoming a significant element of social socio-economic ties.Objectively, the Reformation was a progressive step in the history of the development of the theory and practice of social assistance. Protestantism shifted the center of gravity from the external forms of the manifestation of mercy to the internal content. The main thing was not to give alms to the needy, but to save his soul, renew him morally, mobilize his inner vitals.

strength to overcome difficult life situations.

At the end of the XVII in. in Western European philosophyprogressive ideas of helping those in need are born, which later formed the basis of many provisions of the modern theory of social work. The development of the theory of "natural law", which replaced the dogmas of early medieval charity, had a positive effect on the development of social thought in this area. Here, first of all, it should be noted the works of D. Locke, in which he relied on the legal ideas of Christians, namely on the idea of ​​freedom and justice, as well as the ideas of J.A. Comenius on the human right to education.

K X V W in. with the development of capitalist relations, the Church is losing its position as the main subject of social assistance, although church charity is still significant. There is a need to develop a charity system supported by

and government regulated. Civil society takes on the responsibility of helping all those in need.

The change of church support to the state occurred as a result of the following reasons : bankruptcy of the system of disinterested distribution of alms, which led to the growth of professional begging; complication of the social organization of society; transition from subsistence to cash economy.

B X V W in. the ideas of a state approach to supporting those in need are being formulated. The thesis is affirmed that if society does not take care of the needy, then it dooms itself to self-destruction. Thus, the famous French politician Montesquieu believed that the state should provide its citizens with food, clothing and opportunities to lead a healthy lifestyle. During the Great french revolution for the first time, the ideas of state support are formalized.

Thus, to X I 10th century there were prerequisites for state assistance and mutual assistance to merge into a single socio-cultural process, with their own traditions, principles, values ​​and forms. By this period, certain approaches had developed in understanding and interpreting such social phenomena as poverty, begging, neglect, orphanhood, etc.

4. Formation of scientific approaches to charity ( XI X century). The prerequisite for the development of scientific approaches was the active development of legislative practice in X VI - XVII centuries, when laws were drawn up aimed at eliminating the professional

begging, laws of a preventive nature, warning this phenomenon; Legislative measures against prostitution are being taken in a number of European states.

The development of social thought in the field of social assistance and support was based on theories of natural law, which replaced

ideas of medieval Christian charity. The ideological basis of which was the concept of natural human rights and the original equality of all people.

B X I 10th century poverty, injustice, begging become the basic postulates of many social teachings, and therefore various theories of social assistance.

The greatest success in the development of the theory of social assistance was achieved by representatives of liberalism, whose main postulate was the responsibility and moral duty of the state to the individual, as well as the responsibility of the state for creating normal conditions for every citizen for a normal existence.

During this period, there is a discussion about the relationship between the role of public and private charity. Main theoretical problems studies have become:

determining the role of the state in helping those in need.

The idea is being developed that the state should be active in charity (Mole, Baron, Louis Blanc). Three main tasks of the state social support system are put forward - repressive measures in relation to professional begging; preventive measures against poverty; helping those in need;

attitude state institutions protection and control with

private charity;

the problem of the right of the individual to help. Actively studied

the identity of the needy. In scientific theory, not only a reasonable person appears, but also a needy person. The view of the person is expanding.

various problems of social pathology are studied:

prostitution, drunkenness, etc. (Studies by C. Lambrose, Farrero, and others); suicide (E. Durkheim, A. Schopenhaur)

at the end of the nineteenth century. the issue of professional

training of social workers.

the problem of social dependency is analyzed.

B X I 10th century attempts are made to group the needy. So, the French scientist Ossonville, exploring the problem of pauperism, identifies three main types of social problems, when state intervention is mandatory: illness, accidents, old age. He believed that these three factors objectively affect a person's life scenario, and, therefore, they must be taken into account when developing measures aimed at overcoming and preventing beggary and poverty. As such measures, he considered targeted programs and funding implemented through local self-government bodies.

The category of poverty extends to representatives of various social strata. An indicator that allows us to attribute a person to this category is the attitude to work. Based on this, the following classes of needy were distinguished: the sick, the chronically ill, orphans, widows, and so on.

During this period, researchers also studied existing models of financing government activities to provide assistance to those in need; categories of persons who were assisted; effectiveness of repressive measures against professional begging. The main financial means of financing programs against begging, according to the English researcher Faul, were taxes, community contributions, donations, subsidies from state and departmental revenues.

Researchers were interested in such social problems as begging and pauperism. For the purpose of their comprehensive analysis and research, obtaining objective ideas about these processes, sociological methods are being used. The first to use them was the English preacher C. Booth.

Increasing attention is also being paid to the scientific study of the personality of the needy. It begins to be considered in the context of social issues, inseparably from the forms of assistance. A scientific direction on social assistance is taking shape, which has won its niche in the social sciences.

E. Münstenberg (1863-1916), the author of a practical guide on social assistance, identifies a number of objective socio-biological factors that can be of decisive importance for the development of a person's life scenario and contribute to the development of a difficult life situation: gender, age, marital status, state of health. The study of various combinations of these factors can help in determining the subjects and forms of assistance. However, E. Munstenberg believed that it was necessary to support only those who were not able to help themselves. Among the forms of assistance, he singled out temporary and permanent assistance; open and closed aid (outside charities or in institutions); help in kind; financial aid*.

At the end of XIX in. the question of whether professional training is necessary for a "social assistant" was discussed. Specific requirements for a social worker as a specialist are beginning to be determined. The consequence of these discussions was the opening of the first short courses for the training of social workers in England (1896) and the USA (1898). Financial assistance to the needy is no longer considered its main type. Activities related to self-help ideas, upbringing, education, and social insurance come to the fore. Not only operational approaches to providing assistance are being formed, but also issues of long-term assistance are being developed.

Thus, in the nineteenth century theoretical constructions arise, which formed the basis of social work as a science and profession.

5. Scientific stage of formation of social work. Scientific stage the formation of social work is associated with a change in social ties and relationships. The development of the paradigm of social assistance was influenced by: the destruction of a single community associated with general principles and the norms of existence; urbanization and industrialization; an increase in social ties and an expansion of relationships in which a person has become involved.

Theoretical understanding of the processes of helping and supporting those in need is being undertaken infirst twenty years of the twentieth century.

representatives of the feminist movement: Alice Solomon (Germany), Marikei Gaheri (France), Jane Adams (USA). This period (1900-1920) is associated with the ideology of designing individual work with a client. The greatest results in this area are achieved by Mary Richmond, who first described the method of individual social work with the needy. Her approach was based on medical methods, the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud, the behavioral school. Of particular relevance to practical social work was her book A Friendly Visit to the Poor: A Guide for Those Working in Charitable Organizations.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. principles of individual work are formed:

Human social adaptation is influenced by social and economic factors;

A person's response to social phenomena is determined by personal resources;

Every person, regardless of status, has a sense of dignity;

To make a correct social diagnosis, it is necessary to identify and comprehensively study the problem;

The reason for the inability of a person to adapt to the environment is caused by social and economic factors;

A necessary condition for a successful solution of the client's problem by a social worker is goodwill and friendliness.

In 1917, another work by Richmond, "Social Diagnosis", was published, in which the author describes the theoretical and methodological aspects of individual social work; process of interaction between a social worker and a client. AT

Concepts from medicine "diagnosis", "treatment" are introduced into social work. Richmond develops methods to analyze the social and psychological problems of the client; summarizes approaches to individual intervention, which should include such steps as: obtaining information; diagnosis; forecasting the development of the situation; client treatment.

Theoretical developments M. Richmond were of great importance not only for practice, but also for the development of the theory of social work.

In subsequent years (1920-1930) in social work, such phenomena as heredity, the physiological development of the individual, and the development-underdevelopment of the intellect are actualized and interpreted. Psychology and psychiatry become the explanatory base for situations in the client's life world. So, in the theoretical understanding of the processes of assistance and support, the development of the method of individual social work, active psychological knowledge is used: developmental psychology; psychodynamic theory; social behaviorism, which made it possible to study in more detail the personality of the client in social work, his social history; made it possible to analyze the internal processes of assistance and support. The client's social history and "treatment" have become dominant in the individual method of social work, social standards in the helping process.

M. Richmond clarifies and supplements the principles of individual social work and focuses on the principles of interaction between a social worker and a client: sympathize with the client; give preference to him encourage him; together with him to build clear plans to solve the problem. Richmond laid the foundationsdiagnostic school of social work.

In the same period, other approaches to the theoretical understanding of social work are developing. So, V. Robinson, developing a method of individual work, proposes to focus not on the situation of the client, but on the values ​​and meanings of his individual experience, basing the process of assistance on them. When interacting with a social worker and a client, she suggests paying attention to the past experience of the client, his childhood experiences, inclinations, values.

Another approach to the development of the theory and practice of social work is presented in the direction calledfunctional school. Representatives this approach O. Rank, J. Taft. The basis of their theoretical constructions was not a social diagnosis, but the process of interaction between a social worker and a client. Based on the teachings of Freud, O. Rank believed that the crisis states that arise in the process of personality development are caused by birth traumas (obtained at birth). Therefore, he believed that the meeting of an individual with a social worker is inevitable, regardless of specific social conditions.

Representatives of the "functional school" gave an important place to the relationships that are established as a result of the interaction between the social worker and the client and which determine the process of assistance. According to representatives of this school, the most important in the interaction of a social worker and a client is the process as a form and means of changing the situation. The functional school was based on the principles of a synchronous approach "here and now", when in the process of interaction between a social worker and a client, the real experience of the client, his feelings and emotional experiences are actualized. Hence, the main task was seen in the fact that the help was recognized and accepted by the client. In this case, a different relationship is established between the social worker and the client: they become partners and bear equal responsibility for changing the situation.

In 1930-1950. there is a development of methods of individual work in diagnostic and functional schools, there are scientific discussions about priorities in methods of supporting those in need, approaches to group social work and social work in the community (community) are being formed.

The development of diagnostic approaches in this period was associated with the name of G. Hamilton, who significantly expanded the concept of diagnosis. It began to be perceived not as an installation for action in solving the client's problem, but as a way of understanding the client, his situation and problems. In the situation, they began to see not only diagnostic, but also evaluative problems.

The situational approach introduced two essential components to social work:

• Foresight. The development of foresight in the client allows him to free himself from unconscious conflict, and the client's awareness of his difficulties allows him to effectively solve his problem.

Psychological support. It should be aimed at gaining confidence in the client.

During this period, a controversy is taking shape between the diagnostic and functional schools about priorities in support methods.

In 1950-1970. attempts are being made to accumulate theories of social work, there is an increase in theories in the practice of individual work with a client, the range of theories of social work with a group, in a microsocial environment, is expanding. The development of social work theory is influenced by the debate between the diagnostic and functional schools of social work. Get further study on the problem of client-social worker interaction. The principles of this interaction are formulated in more detail: individualization; openness in expressing feelings; confidentiality; not directiveness in relationships, control over the emotional development of the client.

The theoretical understanding and enrichment of the method of individual social work continues. Here we should note the merit of Helen Perlman, who combined the approaches of the diagnostic and functional schools and proposed a new model of individual work -problem solving method.Perlman – the process of assistance consists of two components: the actual process of assistance and the personal resources of the client. Theoretical understanding is received by such concepts as resources; problem; help process.

Later, in 1970-1990. tendencies to unify theories of social work are taking shape. Concepts are formed around the concepts of "social functioning". The terms and concepts associated with systems theory dominate.

The theory of social work takes shape and develops in the following directions:

Issues of individual, group social work (Kurt Lewin, Alvind Zander, etc.) and work in the community are being developed; theory of social administration and planning

The issues of connection between theory and practice are considered;

Get theoretical coverage of issues of training specialists;

Integrative approaches to the theory and practice of social work are emerging.;

The issues of management in social work are investigated (Marie Parker Follet).

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Social work in the USA.

Social work in Scandinavian countries.

Social work in European countries.

1. The United States is considered the birthplace of social work, where the traditions of social assistance, as in all other countries, were laid down in the charitable and philanthropic activities of the church, individuals and public organizations as early as the 18th-19th centuries. However, gradually the very process of providing concrete assistance to those in need in its various forms was concentrated in the hands of a special category of workers - the so-called social workers who worked in orphanages, hospitals for the poor, distributed various types of benefits, etc. The emergence of social work as a professional activity is directly related to the appearance in 1899 books Mary Richmond"Friendly visit to the poor: a guide for those working in charitable organizations", where evidence-based methods of social work were laid down. Around the same time, the first schools for the training of professional social workers appeared.

The current system of social assistance to the population in this country is flexible and complex. There are government services that provide various types of assistance: the Department of Social Security, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Children's Bureau, the Child Protection Service. In addition, there is an extensive network of private services.

The American model is characterized by the predominance of a liberal orientation in social policy. However, it does not imply such an active influence of the state on the social sphere and corresponding participation in social protection. In addition, the priority place in the organization of social work is given here not to municipalities, but to charitable and non-profit (associative) organizations. All this makes it possible to define the American system of social protection as liberal-associative.

The American model of social work is characterized by a system of attributes. Among the most important of them are:

- the presence of a strong liberal component in social policy;

- the predominant role of associations in the field of social assistance and support with funding from government agencies;

- the important role of insurance mechanisms of social protection;

– decentralization of the social work system.

In general, this system is completely decentralized and operates through various kinds of social programs, regulated either by federal or state legislation, or by joint governments. Individual programs are also adopted by local authorities, which makes it possible to take into account the needs for social assistance in each specific region. Today, all US social assistance programs are based on the conceptual and theoretical premises that freedom can only be expanded by increasing social responsibility.

Almost every school in the country has a school social worker. This area of ​​social work has become so widespread that it is now regarded as a separate specialty in social work that focuses on helping students to successfully adjust to school, on coordinating and influencing family and community actions to achieve this goal. . School social workers help students, their families, teachers and the school as a whole with problems such as absenteeism, social exclusion, aggressive behavior, indiscipline and the consequences of various physical, emotional and material problems.

With 1935 In the United States, the Social Security Act established two types of insurance - pensions and health insurance for persons aged 65 and over. This law also applies to workers and employees in the private sector. For railroad workers, federal civil servants, war veterans and military personnel, a special social insurance system has been established. At the same time, agricultural workers, employees of small enterprises, day laborers and some other categories of workers are not covered by state insurance.

Americans, while reforming the pension sector, continue to maintain the pay-as-you-go pension system as the main state pension program. It continues to provide the population of the country with the level of pension payments to which they are entitled by law. Calculations show that as early as 2013 in the United States, receipts to the state insurance pension fund may be lower than the required pension payments made under the pay-as-you-go pension system. Therefore, a course was set ahead of time for the parallel use of other pension schemes, designed primarily for the expansion of private pension insurance, which creates opportunities for a fairly significant increase in the total pension. The American private pension system consists of two main types: private pension systems (plans) at work and personal retirement accounts. In the second half of the 90s. 48% of workers aged 25 to 44 and 56% of those aged 45 to 64 were members of private pension plans. Such large-scale participation of the country's population in private pension insurance has made it possible to secure huge investments. Of the workplace pension plans, the most popular is the defined contribution system, which is usually financed by employers and employees in equal shares. At the same time, each participant in such a plan has his own personal account in the pension fund and the right to choose between various investment programs that are provided by management companies. The system of personal retirement accounts has also been widely developed in the United States. Annual fees are capped at $2,000. Funds from the account cannot be withdrawn until reaching the age of 59.5 years, and after reaching the age of 79.5 years, the account is closed without fail.

The difference between a private pension and a state pension is that it is paid to workers and employees after 10 years of continuous service in the same company, while the state pension is paid regardless of the place of work.

In addition to the general federal program, there are insurance programs at the state level in case of industrial injuries or occupational diseases. Compensation (for injuries at work; death, etc.) reaches up to 2/3 of wages, and basically it (compensation) is paid by private insurance companies.

The course towards the commercialization of the sphere of social services, the development of self-sufficiency is complemented in the field of employment by a strict restrictive policy in the labor market. It manifests itself in an extremely short period of payment of unemployment benefits (6 months), a relatively small amount of the benefit itself, differentiated by different states (in the richest city of San Francisco in the 90s, the monthly unemployment benefit was $ 375). In addition, about a quarter of American workers were not covered by unemployment insurance at all. In the event of the closure of the enterprise, they had to apply for support from state welfare agencies, designed to provide at least minimal social assistance.

With regard to assistance to the poor, it has become widespread since the 1960s and is aimed at providing a guaranteed income, supporting families with children, the elderly, the disabled, large or single-parent families (where the head of the family is a woman or unemployed), in need of food, housing and medical care. Government-guaranteed income in the United States meets the "poverty line". It is systematically adjusted for inflation and may be increased by state budgets. Food assistance is provided primarily through the provision of food stamps to those in need. They are received by individuals or families whose income does not exceed 125% of the income of the "poverty line". Vouchers are provided to them free of charge or at reduced prices. Other forms of food assistance are school breakfasts, assistance to mothers with children under 1 year old, etc.

In the United States, additional payments are also quite common (payment for vacations and sick leaves, additional unemployment benefits, subsidies for continuing education and legal services).

US government structures encourage private corporations to participate in solving the problem of unemployment. They, receiving from the state tax and other benefits for the employment of socially vulnerable groups of the population, expand the hiring of persons with limited ability to work, employ the long-term unemployed, introduce flexible work schedules, expand training and retraining programs for personnel, etc. However, such an incentive policy is far from always private companies compensates for the decline in the participation of the state itself in organizing and financing activities in the field of employment. Restrictive measures turn into an aggravation of some problems in the labor market. Thus, for quite a long time in the United States it has not been possible to significantly reduce the level of youth unemployment. Employment of certain categories of disabled people remains a serious problem. The vast majority of American visually impaired people - more than 70% of the able-bodied blind cannot count on state support in resolving the issue of their employment, remaining unemployed.

In the US, a large number of private agencies are involved in social work and the practice of paid social services is widespread. Moreover, the activities of many social institutions are based here on the principles of commercialization. 80% of American homes for the disabled are profitable for the concerns that own them. Depending on the amount of payment in private boarding houses for the disabled and the elderly, services of various levels are provided. Wealthy clients live in luxurious conditions with numerous staff, while low-income individuals receive a minimum of services, living with several tenants in one room.

Paid care is also provided in private family-type nursing homes. Such houses are intended for those who are not able to live independently and are deprived of the opportunity to live in a family. A family-type home for the elderly may be comfortable housing of a private person who has expressed a desire to serve an elderly person for a certain monetary reward. Persons working in family homes are usually paid from the personal funds of clients, from their pensions, benefits.

Thus, government studies in the early 1980s found that a third of nursing homes did not meet the required safety and quality standards. One reason for this is that many nursing homes are privately owned. Therefore, the state is forced to license and inspect their activities. Another problem is that older Americans (12% of the population) account for a third of all national health care spending. At the same time, more than 30 million citizens at a younger age do not have health insurance. Therefore, an attempt to further increase spending on the older generation (and they are really needed) can aggravate the conflict of generations, which cannot be allowed.

Special institutions for social assistance to children provide (for low-income families free of charge) the following services: organization of special vocational training groups for parents, provision of employment assistance; ensuring childcare of parents working in the daytime and in the evening; creation of services for unmarried mothers at city health centers; establishment and support of services for the protection of children subjected to violence; creation and inspection of orphanages, work with foster families, monitoring the adaptation of a child in a new family; development of social services to help children get an education, help parents with housekeeping, etc. In extreme situations, services take care of children, regardless of the level of family income. The task of children's social services also includes the adoption of orphans.

Social work with juvenile delinquents and adolescents at risk in the United States is built on the basis of a number of programs: basic police programs (they provide for the operation of police athletic clubs in order to involve minors in useful cases); basic programs of juvenile courts (they provide mainly for the rehabilitation of these persons); basic school programs. The latter are divided into two groups: programs for normal and special schools designed for "difficult" and convicted teenagers. Established in 1967, youth welfare bureaus act as intermediaries and supervise service organizations to meet the needs of minors.

One of the important problems of American society remains the problem of social protection of the country's racial and ethnic minorities. This includes those in the lower rungs of social life, primarily Black Americans, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Hispanic Americans, and Asian Americans. The practice of social work with ethnic groups in the United States is based, firstly, on the values ​​inherent in social work in general, secondly, on an understanding of ethnic realities, thirdly, on a professional approach, and fourthly, on practical experience. In other words, these concepts imply the need to adapt the general principles and methods of social work to the ethnic realities of the country.

In the 1990s - early 2000s. Attempts were made by the state authorities to reorient assistance programs for various categories of citizens from social payments to stimulating their labor activity. The federal law “On Personal Responsibility and Employment Opportunities”, which came into force in the late 1990s, became a means of realizing this goal. It obligated able-bodied recipients of social assistance to either work or undergo vocational retraining. In accordance with this law, the payment of various social benefits was limited in the United States to a five-year period. Given the tightening of requirements for recipients of benefits, the importance of tax incentives for the working poor may increase significantly. It is believed here that an increase in the amount of income that is not subject to taxation will contribute to the orientation of able-bodied citizens towards self-sufficiency.

To stimulate the activities of private institutions and social agencies, the federal government periodically provides targeted grants, implemented at the state level in the form of specific social programs. Government authorities retain the right to issue licenses to private social services and monitor the compliance of the level of their services with regulatory requirements.

A distinctive feature of the American model of social work is the predominant importance in its implementation of associative organizations that receive the support of state structures. In the last decade, a scheme has been effectively operating in the United States, according to which the state, represented by government bodies, develops and finances social programs, and associative (non-profit) organizations independently or jointly with municipalities implement them locally, controlling the fair distribution of state subsidies.

Today in the world only the United States of America has such an extensive network of association organizations, covering such a large number of people.

2. In the Scandinavian countries, the state model of organizing social protection prevails. As a rule, the concept of "social protection" in these countries is transformed into the concept "social welfare". This model includes a mandatory social policy, a state-regulated income level, as well as an egalitarian, universal nature of social benefits and payments. Despite the largely similar features of social policy, the Scandinavian countries differ somewhat in the nature and organizational forms of the implementation of social policy. In all Scandinavian countries, social policy is strongly linked to the concept of the "welfare state", which has recently undergone a significant transformation. However, before talking about transformations, it is necessary to turn to the very concept of social welfare. The concept of social welfare can be disclosed in two versions: in the broad sense of the word and in the narrow one.

In the narrow sense of the word, social welfare includes a guaranteed minimum income (material assistance) and social control over the welfare of children, as well as social control in relation to antisocial groups of the population, mainly alcoholics and drug addicts.

In the broad sense of the word, social welfare includes, in addition to the above, various kinds of social services that guarantee social security to citizens (with the exception of social insurance).

Local authorities are empowered to monitor the payment of social benefits, compliance with the minimum guaranteed income (material security), as well as the work of local social services.

The formation and development of the social welfare system is associated with the relevant legislative acts that were adopted in most Scandinavian countries in the 1970s and 80s.

Characteristically, the Social Welfare Laws in all Scandinavian countries are "framework" legislative acts. They do not fix the details of the organization of social services, the range of services and lists of services. By passing such laws, legislators believe that society is now developing at a faster pace than in previous periods, so legislation may lag behind the needs of the day. The Social Welfare Law is the fundamental law that everyone, without exception, must comply with. In addition, in the Scandinavian countries there are special by-laws that supplement the main law, especially in the part that concerns the rights and status of special groups of clients. The Basic Law obliges local authorities to:

1. Provide residents with social services.

2. Guarantee the receipt of a minimum monetary income for people living in the territory of the municipality.

3. Guarantee social benefits to residents.

4. Supervise the spending of the minimum income and social benefits, give advice on their proper use.

5. Inform residents about the system of social welfare and social security.

Local authorities are also responsible for the welfare of children and young people, the organization and maintenance of kindergartens, the maintenance and care of the mentally ill and disabled, and are also responsible for the lives of drug addiction clients. In addition to paying the minimum guaranteed benefit, local authorities are also required to pay social benefits to their clients, which include: childbirth allowance, maternity allowance, military dependency allowance, child maintenance allowance, disability allowance. Parents themselves can choose the form of allowance for a child under 3 years old: in the form of kindergarten services, in cash when keeping a child at home.

Norway (with a population of about 4 million) is often defined as a mixed economy welfare state based on significant income from gasoline production. Funding for the social and health sectors is 1/3 of the total state income, and every tenth worker is employed in the social or health sector.

The health insurance system is financed by taxes from employees, employers, regions and municipalities. This program includes benefits for: pensioners (after age 67), widows, children under 18, disabled, sick, medical and daily benefits during illness and after childbirth, weekly unemployment benefits (up to 80 weeks), for work injuries, mothers and single fathers.

Each municipality must have social offices that can be used. Social offices provide a wide range of services based on relevant legislation. Social protection by act 1964 provides for the provision of social and economic assistance to those who are not entitled to any payments, to the national insurance scheme and who are not able to support their livelihood. Economic assistance can be provided in the form of an allowance, loan or subsidy, for example, for the travel of students on vacation. Information, advice and financial assistance are the main directions in the work on this act.

Municipalities control the consumption of alcohol through its distribution in shops, cafes and restaurants, and carry out basic preventive measures aimed at reducing the use of alcohol and drugs. Youth prevention work, support and subsidies for alcohol-free youth clubs, discotheques and similar establishments can be concrete and effective measures in this area. In addition, so-called "street work" is also carried out among young people who abuse alcohol and drugs.

The aim of basic preventive measures is to improve the living conditions of children. With regard to practical social work, this is done through community work, opening playgrounds, kindergartens, youth clubs or solving transport problems, rebuilding houses, etc. These basic preventive measures go beyond the work of social offices and are included in the overall planning processes of administrative systems in municipalities.

In families where children live in “unfavorable conditions” that negatively affect their health, preventive measures are as follows: family supervision, support and advice to the family, economic support, help in solving any school problems or providing places in a nursery or kindergarten to improve the situation in the family, so that parents have the opportunity to give their children the necessary education. But if parents cannot take care of their children, the child protection department takes responsibility for their protection, education and placement in foster families or orphanages. In most cases, these measures are temporary, so that if the situation changes for the better, the child can return to the family. There are different types of institutions that are used in such situations: mother and child homes, orphanages, youth homes, family homes, institutes for drug addicts, etc. Approximately 0.3% of all children are permanently under municipal supervision.

In social work in Norway There are three professional levels and education:

1) social worker (socionom) - work in urban social offices aimed at ensuring social security;

2) social pedagogue - professionally works with children in children's institutes;

3) a social worker who specializes in working with people with disabilities inside and outside social institutions.

AT Netherlands the first, very limited social law, which concerned the poor, was issued back in 1848. And from that time began the development of social work. However, it became especially intense after the Second World War, when the restoration of the country from the ruins began with the active financial participation of the United States. During this period, American influence was also very strong in the field of social work: the Americans developed methods and forms of providing social assistance and training. Schools of social workers have sprung up all over the country.

AT 1965. was created Ministry of Social Work, which increasingly acquired the status of a profession. With the financial support of the ministry, many institutions, agencies, and organizations appeared on the American model that dealt with various problems of people. Various ideas and projects constantly arose, but in general, all this activity was unsystematic. Then the parliament of the country raised the question of coordinating the activities of all institutions of this profile, and he himself took on the role of a distributor of finances and a coordinator, which largely contributed to streamlining the sphere of social work, giving it the character of a system. At present, the country has an extensive network of social services of various profiles, including those aimed at solving childhood problems, both traditional, found in almost all countries, and those of an innovative nature.

For example, recently in the Netherlands, along with orphanages and shelters for children and adolescents with psychosocial problems, forms of social work have also appeared, such as placing a child in another family living in the same place or day care. The emergence of such forms of socio-pedagogical assistance was associated with the realization that the removal of adolescents from their home environment and familiar environment has many disadvantages.

The Day Care Program was created to work with adolescents aged 12 to 21, who are typically school dropouts with no jobs, minimal social support, and a desire to make a difference. This program is being implemented through a center for providing social assistance to youth, where teenagers who stay with their families work in groups (10 people in a group). During the implementation of the day care program, teaching is temporarily relegated to the background, and the emphasis is shifted to the provision of social assistance. The day care program is funded 100% by the state.

Of interest is such a training and production project as "The Hague Training Workshops". They started work in 1989. initiated by the municipality of The Hague, therefore, entirely within its competence and intended for young people who have been unemployed for a long time. The essence of the project is that young people from among the unemployed are trained in workshops and, after completing a four-five-month course, receive a certificate that guarantees them a job or the opportunity to continue their studies. During their studies, they remain unemployed and thus remain eligible for unemployment benefits. The aim of the project is to increase the motivation of young people and their activity in the labor market. This is done through an individualized approach and a differentiated selection of the educational trajectory for everyone.

The project uses a so-called framework approach designed for young people with different levels of learning and training delays. An example of a new type of social institution created on private initiative is a boarding house. "Zeizicht" to work with homeless youth. It was opened in 1990. and provides assistance when the normal network of social services fails. In a boarding house, homeless teenagers can find shelter for a relatively small fee, which they pay out of the funds received as an allowance (in the Netherlands, all young people over the age of 18 are entitled to an allowance). The conditions of staying in a boarding house are comparable to those of a hotel, but the main feature is that the work here is based on a customer-friendly basis.

AT Finland the first specialized laws on social protection, which dealt with the problems of child protection, alcoholism, vagrancy, and with which the state sought to prevent the development of undesirable trends in the social life of society, were issued in 1936. The professional training of social workers began in 1942 at the School of Social Sciences in Helsinki.

Social policy throughout all these years was developed and implemented by the state and communes. In the 1980s, the idea of ​​municipal social policy arose, and a number of discussions were held on this issue. According to research, among all types of social services, organized day care is developing the fastest in Finland, which is carried out by child care institutions, individual families, as well as through the organization of games and children's amateur activities by social workers. Home service groups have become widespread, providing household services at home to families with small children, the elderly, and working parents.

The state policy of Finland is aimed at equalizing the income of families with children and childless citizens through the redistribution of income. Additional payment for children, allowances for the upbringing of minors, allowances for the birth of a child and its maintenance are the most important part of the redistribution of income in favor of the family. Municipalities can additionally increase the living allowance, the soldier's allowance for the wives and children of military personnel.

Finnish social policy is seeking to change its strategy. Until recently, unemployment problems were solved with the help of income insurance and "active" employment measures. Support for the unemployed was provided in the form of training and rehabilitation using employment funds. If people did not work for a long time, they were simply forced to work, and people of pre-retirement age received unemployment benefits.

In 1990, Finland abandoned the forced labor policy.

In the summer of 1993, WHO held a workshop in Finland on the impact of economic change on health and social well-being. One of the main issues discussed was to prevent the growth of the level of social anxiety, pathological anxiety among the population in connection with the growth of unemployment. It was concluded that, if appropriate social policies were skillfully applied, rising unemployment would not necessarily lead to social instability. Three types of action were recommended: to continue with activities aimed at strengthening incomes in line with wages, to maintain the tactics of diversification or gradation by categories in the unemployed sector in the labor market, and to support actions aimed at mobilizing the unemployed themselves to actively search for work and new areas of employment. These measures can help to avoid social upheavals dangerous to stability.

3. British model social work can be characterized as liberal-traditional. The liberal component of social policy here remains decisive. However, at the same time, in the field of social protection in the UK, state influence traditionally remains. In social services for those in need in the UK, market mechanisms such as paid services and the activities of private social agencies are actively used. Differentiated payments are established for social services here, depending on the place of residence and the means available to the persons who need them. The cost of services in different counties of the country is not the same. To pay less to social services for services, their clients must submit income documents on time.

In England, the number of private social services and agencies serving the elderly and disabled is expanding. After closing in the 1990s 20th century a large number of specialized hospitals that provided inpatient care to such people, these functions were taken over by some private social services. The system of paid social services, the functioning of private agencies in the service sector take place in many countries of the world.

The maximum state pension today is just under £80 a week (about $150), which is less than the required living wage. Corporate professional pension schemes are not mandatory in the UK. Moreover, the rights of their participants during the first two years of insurance are practically not protected. In this regard, a significant part of the British, to ensure a decent standard of living in old age, invests in private insurance funds. The state, in turn, seeks to support this by issuing the necessary subsidies to some private insurance funds.

In England, men are entitled to a pension under the national insurance system upon reaching the age of 65, and women - 60 years of age, subject to payment of insurance premiums to the state National Insurance Fund for 35 years. For those with less work experience, the pension benefit is also reduced. The British can retire a little earlier or later than the established age. In this case, the size of the pension allowance decreases or increases accordingly. And most pensioners do just that. In the early 2000s The average retirement age in the UK was 62.6 for men and 63.4 for women.

Not every Englishwoman can count on receiving a woman's allowance. She is entitled to it only if the woman has worked for at least two years. Young mothers who have not yet had time to acquire such experience, at the turn of the 1990s - 2000s. remained outside the applicable norms, depriving them of the right to receive the appropriate allowance.

A distinctive feature of the British model of social work is the priority social role of municipalities while maintaining the significant influence of the state in social protection. As already noted, private agencies occupy an important place in the social service system in England. However, the main subject in the field of social work here are the municipalities.

Over the past three decades, municipal social institutions have been functioning under city and village councils - departments of individual services to the population, performing the bulk of social work in the field. Most of the British social workers work here.

Municipal social institutions in England provide services at home after a careful assessment of the needs of the client, who is assisted in housekeeping, cleaning of premises, purchasing products, washing clothes, delivering meals to the house. For the most infirm persons, hot meals are delivered by a special service called a "canteen". Innovative technologies are used in the practice of social services at home for the elderly and disabled. One of them is the self-service scheme developed and tested in the second half of the 90s. Hampshire County Department of Human Services. According to this scheme, the served person has the right to hire up to seven people - assistants: one, for example, can help a disabled person get dressed daily for an hour, another can help wash, a third can buy food and cook food, a fourth can regularly clean housing, etc.

A professional social worker involved in the UK in municipal social services most often acts as a manager organizing the provision of services from nurses, volunteers, etc. In addition, he evaluates the quality and volume of their provision. They develop individual customer service programs. They are reviewed several times during the year. Changes in the composition of services are carried out taking into account the condition and wishes of those served.

With 1987, across the UK, qualifications have become a prerequisite for employment as a social worker.

AT Germany, unlike the United States and a number of other European countries, social work and social pedagogy are, although closely related, but still independent areas of science and professional fields of activity. At the same time, it is quite difficult to draw a line between them today.

The 19th century is the century of the beginning of social work in Germany. The industrialization of the country contributed to the formation and development of social work, since the latter is associated with a sharp impoverishment of the families of workers, and, as a result, more people began to use social security. AT 1880 on the initiative German Charity Congress The German Benevolent Association for the Care of the Poor was founded. It was renamed the German Union of Public and Private Guardianship. First he was in Berlin, then in Frankfurt am Main. This is the central union that unites public, private, public institutions, as well as individuals involved in the implementation of social work in Germany.

After the unification of the GDR and the FRG (October 3, 1990), the number of its participants increased to 3,000. From the state side, representatives at the federal level, the level of federal states, free cities and districts were included. From public organizations, the union includes Charity Associations for Workers, the Catholic Caritas, the Parity Union, the German Red Cross, the Mercy Union of the Evangelical Church, etc. It also included social workers, managers, heads of boards and associations, well-known public figures. Educational institutions, research institutes, institutions of practical social work participate in the work of the Union.

According to the charter, approved by the meeting of the members of the Union on October 2, 1991, in Heilbronn, the main goal of the union is the embodiment of the ideas of social work. Its main tasks are: putting forward initiatives in the field of social policy, developing practical recommendations for the implementation of state, public and private social work; expert activity in the field of social law; creation of an information bank for specialists; advanced training of leading personnel and employees in the social sphere, support for sciences significant for social work; study of experience and evaluation of the development of social work in other countries, development of international cooperation and exchange of experience; publication of works and other publications on social issues.

The Union is headed by a chairman with four deputies. The experts are divided into commissions: 1) social assistance and social policy; 2) youth assistance, youth promotion, youth policy; 3) assistance to the family, the policy of promoting family relations; 4) health care, health policy; 5) assistance to the elderly; 6) assistance to people with disabilities since childhood; 7) assistance to disabled people who became disabled as a result of an accident; 8) social professions; 9) organization of social services; 10) planning in the field of social work.

The realization that social work needs its own personnel led to the opening of social schools. In 1905, the first Christian social women's school appeared. Over the next four years, 13 other social schools, where girls from bourgeois families studied the profession of a trustee of a charitable institution. During the First World War, the baton of caring for the victims of the war in Germany passed from charitable independent organizations to the state. After the war, all social security was consolidated into a charitable department. In the early 1920s, independent charitable unions united into the Imperial Community of the main independent charitable unions. In the mid-1920s, state social security bodies arose in large German cities, which exist to this day. Structurally, social security was divided into a charitable department (the city department of social security) and the city health department and the youth department.

The first steps in developing a methodology for social work were taken in Germany based on the study of experience in the United States. We are talking about the patronage method used in the Weimar Republic in connection with the consequences of the war, unemployment, mass impoverishment of the population. The extended concept of this method included, first of all, the question of the causes of need. The method is based on the principles of respect for the human person; activity and conscious participation of clients in overcoming their difficulties; social worker's knowledge of his own strengths and weaknesses, the responsibility of individuals to society. AT 1926 Alice Salomon published in Germany a work on social work "Social Diagnosis", the ideas of which were drawn from the book of the same name by M. Richmond. With the advent of the Nazis to power in Germany, the democratic development of the country was suspended. Social work was reduced to strict control over the population and became one of the political tools of the Nazis.

Since the mid-1960s, a unified approach has been developed in the social sphere to work with client teams, depending on the type and degree of social defeat. The 1970s were years of rethinking social work in Germany. The scientists came to the conclusion that the use of classical methods of social work is insufficient, as well as the low use of therapeutic agents in cases where it was a question of coverage and solution of the problem as a whole. In Germany, they draw a line between social work and social pedagogy. The social worker concentrates on the social problems of clients, on ways and means that will help him solve the client's pressing issues. The social educator participates in the daily life of the client, exerts a pedagogical influence on it.

In Germany, a specialist with a diploma in social work more often finds a job in charitable institutions paid from the budget of the communities, at the expense of the church, less often from public funds. The task of a social worker as a professional is to provide support to people in a socially distressed situation. The social policy of the state is embodied in practice in the activities of a social worker.

The development of social work in the 1960s and early 1970s gave impetus to the formation of large organizations for the provision of social services to the population. It was not until the mid-1990s that some decline in the growth of such institutions was observed.

A social worker in Germany can work as: an assistant social worker for the care of the elderly; social worker for the care of the elderly; psychotherapist for children and youth problems; certified teacher; rural household assistant, family counselor; educator; family life assistant; assistant in the upbringing of children; social worker for the disabled; orphanage teacher; organizer of leisure for children and youth; responsible worker with youth in the field; child and youth worker; rehabilitation consultant; social teacher; social worker for foreigners. In Germany, as in other countries, the profession of a social worker has a predominantly “female” face. She is underpaid, not prestigious enough.

The national system of social protection in the EU countries took shape gradually as the corresponding socio-economic and political prerequisites were formed. These processes were especially turbulent in the post-war period. Over the past 15 years, differences in the nature of EU systems and spending on the social protection of citizens have smoothed out. The southern countries increased these expenditures, while the northern ones (Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands) stabilized, reaching the optimal level. In EU budgets, social spending ranges from 20% in Portugal to 32% in the Netherlands. Payments in connection with unemployment are much more differentiated in European countries. In Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, unemployment benefits average from 70 to 80% of GNP per capita, and in Italy only 10%. In the latter country, in the event of dismissal, the employee receives other compensation payments and benefits. The lowest level of unemployment benefits in Italy, England and Greece. The reasons for the difference are the number of people receiving benefits; the ratio of benefits to purchasing power. In Greece and Portugal, no allowance is paid to those who are able to work but are not working.

There are also significant differences in sickness benefits. In Belgium, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the full salary is paid; in Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal only three quarters of the salary, and in England one third. The largest spending on social protection in the Netherlands.

The EU is divided into groups according to the social protection system:

Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg are countries where insurance principles dominate, where the amounts of payments and benefits are related to individual insurance premiums, i.e. benefits from the insurance fund depend on the salary. The state undertakes to ensure that the income of a citizen does not fall below a certain guaranteed minimum.

England, Denmark - benefits are tailored to individual needs, and financed from tax funds. Social benefits are distributed evenly.

The Netherlands, Italy - a mixed social security system, but closer to the first.

Spain, Portugal, Greece - a social protection system is being formed, there is no guaranteed minimum income, social services are not available to everyone.

Among the EU there are differences in the payment of family benefits. Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain spend less than 1% of GNP. Germany and the Netherlands 2%. France, England, Luxembourg more than 2%. Most of the EU is concerned about the declining birth rate. In the past 10 years, countries have made changes to their family policies. In France, laws have been passed to support large families (a family with three children receives an allowance in the amount of a third of the average salary). Ireland increased benefits for a fifth child in 1989 and for a fourth child in 1991. In France, the amount of child benefit increases from the second child onwards. And only in Denmark it is decreasing. Many countries have increased maternity benefits. This was connected not so much with the low birth rate, but with the support of the social status of women, the increase in their role in society. Such a policy aims to create the best conditions for a combination of productive work, social career, and care for home and family. In this regard, maternity leave has been extended in many countries over the past five years. In many countries, for parents who would like to spend more time with their child, social benefits are very low, if not non-existent. Three countries – Germany, Belgium and Italy – have such benefits. In Germany, it is only 22% of wages after the child reaches the age of 2 years, in Belgium - 30-25% up to one year, and 34% within 9 months in Italy. In other countries, assistance may be provided under certain circumstances. So, in France, single mothers are paid 59% of the last salary for 3 years.

The problem of incomplete families in European countries is important. In Greece, not only a mother, but also a single father can receive benefits; in Spain and Portugal, only in some provinces, local authorities generally pay such benefits. In France, this amount is 50% (up to 3 years of age), and in other countries it is much less. Only in Denmark and the Netherlands does this amount exceed 60%.

Thus, in the 20th century, an extensive network of state and public organizations to help those in need developed in the countries of the USA and Europe.

Questions for self-control:

1. What characterizes the decentralization of the social protection system in the United States?

3. What is the influence of the state on the functioning of the social security system in England?

4. How does Germany deal with the problem of unemployment?

5. Conduct a comparative analysis of the main areas of social protection in European countries?

Social work in the USA

1. Formation and development of social work in the United States of America

2. Basic approaches to the organization of social work.

3. Training of social workers.

At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in many European countries and in the United States, social work arose as a type of professional activity that developed along with charitable organizations. At the same time, in different countries and even regions, this social work developed in different ways, had many features and trends. The American researcher of social work R. Ramsay wrote: “By the beginning of the new century, the socializing essence of this new work shifted from voluntary charity to scientific philanthropy, the struggle began to ensure that the army of voluntary assistants received guaranteed earnings and appropriate training.” In Europe, activities in the new developing professional field were labeled as "social medicine". In North America, the term “social work” became the generally accepted term at the beginning of the century, but as an independent profession, social work stood out after World War II.

The term "social work" in different countries included completely different content. Thus, in the Republic of Ireland and Great Britain, “social work” did not include issues of work with youth and the community, and in Germany, this work of the community with youth was carried out within the framework of “social work” and “social pedagogy”.

In contrast to medieval philanthropy, social work is beginning to focus on three areas:

firstly, an individual person, a person with his life problems;

secondly, communities of people, first of all, the family as a social institution, as well as the labor collective as a stable association of workers, become the object of concern of the social worker;

thirdly, work with various social groups of the population, which are the basis for the development and implementation of programs of social support and assistance to a person in need.

At the end of the XIX century. Two models of social work were formed: American and European, which had their own characteristics, due to historical, economic and political conditions. Let's start studying the features of the formation and development of social work in the United States of America, since this country, one might say, was created by emigrants who overcame enormous difficulties in adapting to new conditions of existence and, naturally, needed help. In addition, we are starting to study the formation and development of social work in the United States also because the ideas of American social workers were of decisive importance for the development of social work in other countries of the world.

Due to the peculiarity of the geographical, economic and historical development of the United States, all previous stages in the development of social work: archaic philanthropy and public charity have passed. In addition, it is worth noting that it was in the United States in the twentieth century that the fundamental principles and methods in the field of social service. There, a model of social work was created and implemented, which subsequently becomes dominant in Western Europe.

As a country of emigrants, America directly solved the problems of social security and, above all, the problems of childhood. Even at the end of the eighteenth century. The first orphanages are opened in the United States. In 1773, the first asylum for mentally retarded children opens in Williamburg, Virginia. In 1790, the first public orphanage was opened in Charleston.

A group of volunteers appears in America, which develops the theoretical and practical principles of the social security system. One of these groups included: Thomas Chalmers, Tuckerman, Robert Hartley, who believed that their fate is closely connected with the fate of those who need social assistance. In 1819, Thomas Chalmers creates a system of salvation for people in need and poverty. This system was aimed at "acquiring courage" from people in need in the fight against adversity. In 1820, the method of individual work in the field of social assistance was approved.

In 1835, Tuckerman, having experienced the great influence of T. Chalmers, created the Boston Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the city of Boston. (The word pauper (lat.) - poor, impoverished workers.). This organization paid great attention to working with families, as well as the training of volunteers for this work. This is how the first volunteers appeared in the history of social work. It must be emphasized that the question of voluntary assistants in the field of social security in Western Europe was raised only in 1903 at the Milan Congress.

The period of social work in the United States is usually considered in four stages, which characterize the features of formation and technology of activity. social services:

1. 1870 - 1900

2. 1900 - 1920

3. 1920 - 1950

4. 1950 - present.

By the end of the XIX century. (1870 - 1900) in the Anglo-Saxon states, there were two main trends in social work:

The system of charity, which was carried out by the "American Benevolent Society";

Work in a “settlement” (quarter, community) is an association of people on a territorial basis based on a religious or class community.

In those years, poor, rich and Negro neighborhoods appeared in the country, and social workers needed to purposefully provide social assistance. It was the quarter that reflected the consequences of industrialization, the industrial revolution and urbanization - on the one hand, and on the other hand, in the quarters it was easier to implement a policy of social welfare, organize clubs for all age groups of the population, pursue an educational policy, and advertise the ideals of the American way of life.

The Settlement movement developed ideas of helping the community, neighbors and social communities. “For the upbringing and social failure of the family, a replacement was sought, an alternative to its functions with the help of compensatory measures and structures in the form of community shelters, community kindergartens, schools, institutions, youth support, etc.” [Historical prerequisites for the formation and development of social pedagogy / Social pedagogy. Monograph. Under the editorship of Professor V.G. Bocharova. VLADOS. - M: 2004 - p.18].

The system of social assistance in the settlement is connected, first of all, with the activities of the American Jane Adams, who, starting from 1889, purposefully worked with settlers who found themselves in America without knowledge of the language, without housing, without means of subsistence. Jane Adams was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1931 for her work.

The American writer William Faulkner, in the work “Stories”, through the mouth of his hero, argues: “Pity, justice, conscientiousness is faith in something more than in the divinity of an individual person. We in America have made it into a national cult." Three qualities - pity, justice and conscientiousness, together with social instincts, which were substantiated by the French philosopher Auguste Comte, can ensure the integrity of the family and community of people. These views became the basic theoretical provisions for the organization of practical social work in the settlement.

In 1870-1880. an all-American social security system is being formed. In 1874, the first American Welfare Congress meets. At the same time, the first book in this field was published: Charles Bays published a work devoted to many years of activity among dangerous, deviant groups of the population.

In 1870 The National Conference of Charitable Organizations of America took place, where the problem of the social degradation of the nation, the growth of crime was discussed. At this conference, Herbert Spencer's maxim that helping the poor makes them lazy was criticized. In opposition to such views, the Special Services Association of America was created, and its branches are opening in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New York and other cities. The Association begins the development of theoretical foundations social activities organizes financial support for the family, individual in need. The functionaries of this Association during this period organize control over the activities of the administration, which is called "supervision".

“Supervision in social work is the improvement of the content of work in order to increase the efficiency of the specialist and organization” [Social work. Introduction to professional activity. Tutorial. Managing editor A.A. Kozlov. International project. - M: 2004 - p.289].

The Association has developed the theoretical foundations of work in the family. According to these developments, courses on working with families were opened in New York. When training future social workers, “the task of supervision is to help the student analyze the acquired experience of practical social work even better and identify its relationship with previously acquired theoretical knowledge” p.290. Traditionally, supervision performs the following functions: administrative, teaching, supporting and developing.

In Philadelphia in 1899, Mary Richmond published the textbook A Friendly Visit to the Poor: A Guide for Those Working in Charitable Organizations, which revealed the specifics of communication and interaction with this population group. All this was a necessary preparation for the second stage, when social services took up practical work with the population.

The formation of social services in full measure takes place at the second stage of the development of social work (1900 - 1920), when the main methods of social work began to take shape - individual work and work in the community. Individual work under the name "casework" Mary Richmond called the method "using common sense in a meaningless situation." Since 1911, this method has become the leading one in individual work with social ailments. The main thing that was in this method was to help the client, who is in given time in a difficult situation. The activities of social workers were carried out not only in communities, but also in special agencies. It was a new touch in the social work of those years.

In 1917, Mary Richmond published her next work, Social Diagnosis. Proceeding from the American ideology of individualism, M. Richmond considered poverty as a disease, the inability of an individual to independently organize his life. The client was seen as a social patient, and the activity of the social worker was reduced to the "social healing" of the individual, when the client is in a difficult condition, in order to prepare the individual to be able to independently solve their problems. M. Richmond believed that in each case it is necessary to correctly make a social diagnosis and use it to look for methods of assistance. The diagnosis must be scientifically based, as opposed to the general moral criteria that previously guided charitable workers. The established diagnosis, taking into account the circumstances, the personality of the needy, made it possible to identify the cause of the appearance of difficulties and outline a combination of measures, the result of which would be changes, both in the individual himself and in the social environment. She emphasized the importance of evaluating each case individually, based on its internal conditions, in order to release and develop the personal resources of a person and his social environment.

The medical model includes several stages:

Collection of facts;

social diagnosis;

Social therapy.

M. Richmond developed an indirect method of "treatment" and a direct method. The indirect method consists in influencing the environment in which the client lives in order to change it in a direction favorable to him. The direct method is to directly influence the client himself with the help of suggestions, advice, persuasion, as well as rational discussions in order to involve the client in the development, decision-making and involving him in specific activities. In addition, M. Richmond has developed a set of assessment schemes, examinations of the quality of social work, the diagnosis of social problems that a social worker has to solve.

The provision on social diagnosis developed by M. Richmond for several decades was more of a psychiatric than social nature. However, the paradigm of "study, diagnosis, cure" has not undergone any significant changes to date. indirect and direct methods later became the basis for the development of two main directions in the theory of social work - psychological and sociological.

At the end of her career, M. Richmond realized that social work would be successful with good state laws, so she directed her efforts to create social laws in the United States.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) had a significant influence on the development of social work in the United States. In his opinion, the development of a child and an adult is based on the sexual instinct, and he reduced the individual characteristics of people to “getting stuck” at any phase of development or returning to an already passed phase.

Z. Freud created a system of the unconscious, on which he revealed not only neurotic symptoms, but also all manifestations of the psyche, morality, religion, art, science, etc. He treated people on the basis of the interpretation of dreams and with the help of hypnosis (the method of catharsis).

Z. Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis as a method of psychotherapy. Psychoanalysis is based on the exclusion from consciousness of sexual and traumatic desires (forgetting, erroneous actions), as well as the introduction of protective mechanisms of the "Super Self" (social norms and moral attitudes). Among social workers, representatives of the diagnostic school experienced the strongest influence of Freud's theory. They focused on the inner world of the client, relegating social processes and the social environment to the background.

In the 1920s, another psychological theory of people management was born - behaviorism(from English - behavior). Behaviorism denies the role of consciousness in behavior, while behavior is understood as the body's bodily reactions to external influences. In 1898, the American psychologist and educator E. Thorndike wrote the book "The Mind of Animals", where he came to the conclusion that the solution is achieved through "trial and error." This approach has also been extended to human activities. At the same time, human thinking was considered not as a means of cognition, but as a means of adapting it to reality. The learning process was reduced to the art of creating or stopping behavioral stimuli according to the “S - R” formula. By selecting stimuli, one can expect the desired response. This manifested the biologization of human behavior and the need for its training. The “Thorndike effect” law was developed, according to which connections accompanied by satisfaction are fixed, and unsatisfied ones are lost. The reward should follow immediately after the successful execution of the command. Behaviorism posed the problem of using tests

The widespread use of social programs has led to the need to train specialists in social work. At first, these specialists were trained in the field of medicine and sociology. But soon a special training of social workers was launched. In 1910, two-year schools appeared in Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis and other cities, focused on training practical workers with the population in the field of social policy. In these schools, students studied evolutionary diagnostics, planning social actions, conducting individual interviews, etc. In historical terms, the most famous schools include diagnostic and functional.

Diagnostic school associated with Smith College in New York, where since 1918 the training of social workers has been carried out. At this time, there was a need for specialists who could work on overcoming the emotional problems of World War I veterans and their families. The main emphasis in the preparation of students was on the diagnosis, for which it was necessary to collect as much objective data as possible about the client and his situation. The emphasis shifted to collecting information about the client's childhood, assessing his personality, and assessing the situation faded into the background. The relationship between client and social worker becomes authoritarian. The task of the social worker is to change the personality of the client and help him adapt to the environment.

Features of the training of social workers in functional school were clearly manifested at the III stage of the development of social work in the USA (1920 - 1950).

In the 1930s, the Pennsylvania School of Social Workers began training professionals to work primarily in the social environment and in the process of helping clients. But this training was not aimed at the treatment process, but at the provision of services within the social service. The functional school was based on the idea that the client himself wants changes for the better and he needs to be prepared for positive changes in his life. When working with clients, he was instilled with the right to solve his own problems. Thus, there is a transition to a modern understanding of the essence of social work, when a social worker refuses authoritarianism and formal relations that were developed by M. Richmond.

In 1930, Virginia Robinson published Psychological Change in Social Individual Psychotherapy, which became the main textbook in the Pennsylvania Functional School. According to the theoretical principles put forward by W. Robinson, the client is placed at the center of assistance, and only what the client himself chooses as a topic for discussing his past is important for a social worker. This premise comes from the fact that the client himself knows himself better and only he is able to diagnose the problem. The social worker thus takes responsibility for the process of providing assistance and for the formation of relations between him and the client.

A feature of the III stage of the development of social work in the United States was that the social workers themselves fought for the legitimization of social work as a field of activity related to the higher education system. At this stage, the theory and practice of psychoanalysis by Z. Freud is included not only in the system of training social workers, but also as a “casework” method is extended to the work of social services when interacting with clients.

The professional period in the development of social work is characterized by the integration of various schools of social work into a single network, which had its own professional standards in activities and preparation for the methods of providing professional assistance. Thus, in 1927, the Association of Schools of Social Work was formed, which proposed new standards for curricula and administrative leadership, in 1934 - standards for the adequacy of training programs for social workers to the budget, staffing of teachers of practice, as well as requirements for university libraries. In 1937, this Association developed the standards for programs for the degree of Master of Social Work.

Thus, the training of highly qualified specialists in the system of social work in the United States began.

Stage IV (1950 - to the present) of the development of social work is characterized by the fact that the paradigm of social assistance is significantly expanding, an entire industry of assistance is being created. The complex social life of society, the war in Indochina, Vietnam, the youth riots of the 60s, the Cold War period increased the volume of social services. In view of the complexity of the situation during this period, social work began to take into account the characteristics of clients not only by category, but also by the problems of the clients themselves.

Erich Fromm (1900-1980) - American psychologist and sociologist put forward the project of a "healthy society" based on psychoanalytic "social and individual therapy". In his works, he wrote that "man is the only being who feels his own being as a problem that he must solve and from which he cannot get rid of."

The complication of life leads to the fact that knowledge from cybernetics comes to the aid of social services, social psychology, anthropology and other sciences. The method of individual and community work is enriched by methods of group work that have come from clinical psychotherapy. In the classical methods of social work, numerous techniques, means and ways of helping clients are developed. The casework method itself is further developed at the intersection of the diagnostic and functional theory of social work: the method of problem solving, the method of socialization, the impact during a crisis, the method of changing behavior, the method focused on specific tasks, etc.

As already mentioned, social work is expanding by category of client. Among the clients there are people from childhood to the oldest age, representatives of all racial groups, socio-economic levels and religions, the homeless, unemployed, deviant and other people with various problems.

Social work in the United States today is help in its various forms and forms, in agencies, families, schools, the army, hospitals, churches and nature. For example, in the army, social workers solve problems of relationships between servicemen, take care of the families of soldiers and officers. Medical social workers help doctors, many of them work in the field of psychiatry.

Social services cover families with whom they work on issues such as delinquency, violence, and difficulties in teaching children. They help families suffering from unemployment, illness, lack of funds, etc.

Since 1935, in the United States, the Social Security Act (together with amendments, this law is called the "General Federal Program") established two types of insurance: old-age pensions and unemployment benefits. Somewhat later, measures were provided to help certain categories of the poor (primarily the disabled and orphans), and over time - pensions for the loss of a breadwinner, disability benefits (not related to industrial injuries), health insurance for people aged 65 years and older. This law also applies to workers and employees in the private sector. For railroad workers, federal civil servants, war veterans and military personnel, a special social insurance system has been established. At the same time, agricultural workers, workers of small enterprises, day laborers and some other categories of citizens are not covered by state insurance.

Currently, the United States has a system of social security for the population. This system is considered to be highly flexible and complex. A characteristic feature of this system is its decentralization. This is manifested in the implementation of various social programs: federal, state, local. The advantage of this system is that it makes it possible to realize the social needs of people in almost every region of the country.

The state social security system is based on two main forms: social insurance and state assistance, which differ in terms of funding sources. Social insurance payments are made from insurance premiums formed from the social insurance tax, which is levied on workers and entrepreneurs. State aid is carried out at the expense of appropriations from the federal budget, state budgets or local governments.

The tax rate for workers is set as a percentage of wages, and for entrepreneurs - as a percentage of the payable wage fund. Professionals: doctors, priests and others pay more than 14% of their income to social insurance funds.

At the US state level, there are insurance programs in case of industrial injuries or occupational diseases. Compensation (for injury at work, death, etc.) reaches up to 2/3 of the salary.

The system of assistance to the poor was widely developed in the 1960s. Unlike social insurance, no special upfront contributions are required to receive assistance in the social assistance system. The criterion for obtaining it is need! This assistance comes in the form of a guaranteed income, support for needy families with children, food, housing and medical assistance.

The Income Guarantee Program covers the elderly, the disabled and the blind. They receive a minimum subsistence income from the federal government, which is up to about 60% of income corresponding to the "poverty line". These earnings are indexed for inflation and other conditions.

The Families with Children Assistance Program provides assistance to low-income families with many children, where the head of the family is a widow, divorced or single mother. Sometimes benefits are paid to those who have lost their jobs.

Within the framework of food assistance, the provision of food stamps to those in need has become most widespread. Under a 1981 law, individuals or families whose income does not exceed 125% of the "poverty line" are eligible to receive coupons. Schoolchildren receive food assistance in the form of breakfasts and mothers with a child under the age of one year, etc.

Housing subsidies are received by low-income families.

In addition to state insurance, there is also frequent pension provision, which is of two types: individual and collective. Collective security is formalized by an agreement between trade unions and entrepreneurs. AT post-war period within the framework of private insurance, additional payments have become widespread in the form of vacation pay, sick leaves, additional unemployment payments, subsidies for continuing education, legal services, etc.

At the local level, patronage assistance, the work of volunteers to serve the elderly and the disabled is encouraged. Social services for the mentally retarded are carried out both in psychiatric hospitals and boarding schools, and in specialized inpatient and dispensaries, as well as on an outpatient basis. For the disabled, a large adaptation training is provided: providing various technical and other means, arranging an apartment with special devices, providing transport services, etc.

Social work with juvenile delinquents and adolescents at risk in the United States is built on the basis of basic programs: the police, juvenile courts, schools (normal children and special schools for children with problems). There are two categories of correctional facilities in the United States: closed places of detention and closed educational institutions. Special types of social work are available when serving the unemployed, the poor, ethnic minorities (blacks, Indians, Hispanics, etc.).

In 1996, the US Congress passed a bill to reform the US welfare system. The philosophy of this bill was expressed as follows: "People should live not at the expense of aid, but at the expense of work."

Here are its main provisions:

1. Federal aid is limited to five years.

2. Medi Paid - The poor people's health care program is maintained and only lasts for a year after a Social Security recipient finds a job.

3. Financial assistance and free food rations are not provided to persons who have a drug-related conviction (pregnant women and persons undergoing treatment are not covered by this provision).

4. Unemployed childless persons aged 18-50 will only be able to receive food stamps for 3 months during a 3 year period.

5. State allocations will not be allocated to individual programs, but in the form of “broker grants”, and they can use them more flexibly, at their discretion.

Currently, over 80 million Americans receive monthly (or weekly) benefits from government Social Security and Assistance programs. The taxation of these benefits is largely limited, which is another form of state support for low-income segments of the population.

According to estimates for 1997, the total amount of public spending for social purposes amounted to about 1.7 trillion. dollars, including federal spending reached 1.019 trillion. dollars.

At the end of the 20th century, the process of professionalization of social work began in the United States; social services in various fields began to be carried out by specially trained personnel. The process of training social workers is based on the concept of "professional education", focused on the formation of students' professional competence and professional attitudes.

Competence- a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, a person's experience in a certain area. This is a set of powers, functions for activity.

Competence- a set of professional and personal qualities that allow you to own, have the appropriate competence. At the same time, in the USA there are different types of competence in the social sphere:

1. Conceptual (scientific) competence (understanding the theoretical foundations of the profession).

2. Instrumental competence (possession of basic professional skills).

3. Integrative competence (the ability to combine theory and practice).

4.Contextual competence (understanding the social, economic and cultural environment in which the practice is carried out).

5. Adaptive competence (the ability to anticipate changes that are important for the profession and be prepared for them).

6. Competence in interpersonal communication (ability to effectively use written and oral means of communication).

Vocational education should also form certain social attitudes:

1. Professional identity (acceptance of professional norms and responsibilities, usually through the process of professional socialization).

2. Professional ethics (mastering the ethical standards of the profession).

3. Competitiveness in terms of career (graduates become competitive in the process of professional practice).

4. Striving for scientific improvement (awareness by graduates of the need to test existing knowledge and acquire new knowledge through research).

5. Motivation to continue learning (the desire to maintain knowledge and professional skills at the level of modern requirements).

Official training of social workers in the United States, not counting continuing education, is carried out at the level of undergraduate, graduate and doctoral studies. In 1992, there were 376 accredited programs at the undergraduate level and 106 at the graduate level in the United States. Almost 41,000 students enrolled in the higher education program: more than 31,000 master's programs, about 2,000 students were registered in 53 doctoral programs. Doctoral studies play a decisive role in the entire system of training social workers. Doctoral programs include topics related to research methods, social science issues, social policy issues, impact methodology in social work, and the theory of knowledge development through field practice.

Doctoral programs are accredited by a national organization, the Social Work Doctoral Improvement Group, which is responsible for the quality and level of education. The accreditation of higher education and master's programs is carried out by an official body - the Council for the Training of Social Workers, which determines the standards of their training programs.

According to the “Regulations” (1992), the tasks of the professional practice of social work are set:

1. Support the social functioning of individuals, families, organizations in the implementation of the tasks of preventing and relieving stress, in the use of resources.

2. Planning, defining and implementing social policies, services and programs necessary to meet basic human needs.

3. Focus on areas, services and programs that support "risk groups" and ensure social and economic justice.

4. Development and verification of relevant professional knowledge.

The goal of all social work education programs in the United States at the graduate and graduate levels is to prepare graduates for practical work with various populations and types of clients.

Thus, modern social work in the United States is professional activity to help individuals, groups of people, communities to increase or restore their ability to social functioning and to create a favorable social situation for the population.

The work was added to the site site: 2015-07-05

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"> 1. The main stages in the formation of the history of social work in Russia and abroad.

"> Foreign experience of social work is diverse and multifaceted. In almost all countries there are social workers - some of them received training at various levels in specialized educational institutions and therefore consider themselves professionals; others who do not have professional training are engaged in social work on a voluntary basis or work for hire in social institutions in auxiliary positions.

"> At the heart of any social activity are the constituent elements that include the following four conceptual areas:

"> - Purpose and goals of the profession;

"> - The system of values, ethics and philosophy of practical direction;

"> - The basis of knowledge of the practical direction;

"> - Methods and means used in the work.

"> When they write about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the USA and Canada. However, in certain forms, different or similar methods, with different returns and efficiency, social work is carried out in all countries. Russia is no exception. And although many foreign and Russian researchers note that social work in our country allegedly began only in the 90s of the XX century, this is absolutely wrong.

"> First of all, it is necessary to keep in mind two aspects in social work, in the social protection of certain strata and groups of the population. As a type of activity aimed at providing support, protecting people who find themselves in difficult situations, social work has appeared since the emergence and development of human Of course, it had a different character in different periods, was carried out by different methods and in different forms, did not concern all segments of the population and was assessed differently by society and its various institutions. And of course, in Russia, in Russia, as evidenced by historical documents.

"> However, only from the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century did social work form as a type of professional activity. The official recognition of social work as a profession, specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times.

"> In the analysis of foreign experience of working with the elderly, two opposite trends are clearly visible: its overestimation or unwillingness to use it. In the first case, it is believed that all social problems have been solved in the West and it is only necessary to use the developed models of social work with this category of the population. In the second case it is argued that Russia has its own way, difficulties, problems, traditions and specifics, that it is not worth studying and using foreign experience.

"> For example, in the United States, there are ten tasks that provide social protection for the elderly: 1. Adequate income. 2. Good (if possible) mental and physical health. 3. Adequate housing. 4. Increased assistance to those who need public ( 5. Employability 6. Retirement life in health, honor and dignity 7. Engage in meaningful activities 8. Provide effective community services 9. Conduct research to promote and improve health, and, in 10. Freedom, independence and individual initiatives in planning and managing one's personal life Dozens are being implemented at the federal level, and hundreds are being implemented at the state level to solve social and gerontological problems Law on family and medical leave passed , according to which working family members have certain benefits in labor if they need to take care of elderly family members. the end of the 20th century in social work with the elderly in America is the intensive development of the "third sector". These are public organizations and associations that work with the elderly, or organize activities aimed at improving this work. Involving the elderly themselves in active work, uniting the public and social workers in solving social and gerontological problems is a strategic task of democratizing social work and developing the volunteer movement. Public organizations serve as a kind of experimental platform where models of various programs with the elderly are being worked out, which then, having proved their effectiveness, can become programs and projects of the state or the country as a whole.

"> The study of US volunteer organizations involved in social work with the elderly made it possible to distinguish 5 groups among them.

"> Group I. Public organizations uniting various categories of the elderly

"> Group II. Public organizations dealing with general problems of the elderly.

"> Group III. Public organizations dealing with special problems of the elderly.

"> Group IV. A public organization that brings together professionals working with the elderly.

"> Group V. Public organizations involved in training personnel for social work with the elderly.

"> the historical roots of social work lie in the charitable activities of the church, in charity itself. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, the development of social work in Russia and in the West diverged. In Soviet Russia, it became party-ideologized and over-centralized. Therefore, it is especially interesting to take into account the experience of Western professional social work of the 20th century, when it developed intensively and fruitfully and proved its effectiveness.

"> In the Nordic countries, the bulk of social workers are employed by social welfare organizations run by local authorities. This also applies to some other European countries, such as the UK. In addition to this, social workers are employed by other government bodies: health organizations, most often general and specialized hospitals, as well as open public medical institutions (like polyclinics in Russia), general education schools and other educational organizations, prisons and correctional facilities. In the field of medical services, the traditional places of social work are psychiatric hospitals. As far as open public mental health services are concerned, practice varies. In the UK, social workers have a very strong position in mental health clinics, while in Finland some mental health clinics have stopped hiring social workers and prefer psychiatric nurses instead.

"> In the countries of Central Europe, the approach is quite common when social workers work in public organizations or organizations for the provision of social services at churches. Voluntary organizations hire social workers in the Nordic countries. Previously, there was a practice when social workers were hired by enterprises. This was common in the days when businesses provided social services to their employees.Such practices can still be seen in individual businesses.I know there are similar examples in Spain and the Netherlands.

"> With regard to the structure of the organization of social security at the level of local authorities, there are two models of organization:

">? organization around existing problems (or sectors)

">? organization on a territorial basis.

"> Organization around existing problems (or sectors) means that social work is organized in accordance with the problems that clients have: there are social workers for social work with children, social workers for targeted social assistance, social workers dealing with problems of alcoholism, people with disabilities , the elderly, etc. This kind of specialization is usually only possible in cities, where local authorities can employ several different social workers.In rural areas, social work has always been more general, i.e. one and the same social worker dealing with several types of issues.

"> In some municipalities, while organizing work around existing problems, different levels of social workers have their own administrative departments. its own administrative area.

"> 2. The paradigm of social work as a subject of historical analysis.

"> 3. Theories of the historical process of social work in Russian historiography.

"> Methodological problems of the historiography of social work in Russia form three areas of research:

"> the concept of social work;

">periodization of the assistance process;

"> sources necessary and sufficient for understanding social work as a cultural and historical phenomenon.

"> Modern science of science, sociology of science, the main prerequisites, factors and conditions for the emergence of certain branches of social knowledge, scientific disciplines are usually grouped into three groups. Firstly, the emergence of new realities in the human environment, new problems of reproduction and maintenance of its vitality, individual and social subjectivity, satisfaction of the needs of maintaining life support and active existence are noted. Secondly, the self-development of scientific knowledge as such, based on its traditional and updated scientific categorical-conceptual apparatus, is usually stated. Thirdly, the phenomenon of individual-personal subjectivity of a scientific researcher is taken into account, whose knowledge potential, his scientific intuition, research capabilities significantly affect the emergence and development of new branches of knowledge and scientific disciplines.

"> The third group of reasons under consideration is usually characterized only as a subjective factor in the development of scientific knowledge. This is true, but only in part. It is also obvious that the very existence of outstanding scientists who define new horizons in the science of man, society and nature is an objective phenomenon that characterizes the well-known way of social life, first of all, the evolution of scientific knowledge.In this case, of course, one should take into account the individual-personal characteristics, abilities, character, temperament of the researcher and citizen of each scientist, which largely determines the scale and nature of the increment of scientific knowledge.

"> Considering the named groups of factors and conditions that determine the development of scientific knowledge, let's consider the main prerequisites for the emergence and progressive evolution of the theory of social work as a science. First of all, let's turn to those realities of modern life that have become the object of study of a new scientific discipline.

"> Most specialists in social history and the history of social work agree in recognizing the need to determine the period of emergence of social work as a modern social phenomenon that required the development of special theoretical foundations, a special theory. This period is usually called the last quarter of the last century. It was at this time in a number of In industrialized countries, groups of specialists are emerging who begin to professionally engage in social work, educational institutions are being created that train social workers, and the first faculties of social work of universities are opening.

"> In turn, the outstripping development of the service industry in developed countries leads at the turn of the century, and especially in the 20th century, to the study of the patterns of human behavior in an increasingly developed and technically equipped social sphere. Not least, this happened because the industry services required accurate forecasting and formation of a certain demand for goods and services, as well as due to a fundamental change, complication of the material environment of modern man, which changed his way of life, typical forms of life, ways of maintaining his vitality, their formation, rehabilitation.

"> Another important factor that contributed to the formation of the modern system of social work, its emergence as a social phenomenon was the struggle of workers for their rights in the 19th century. The increase in the concentration of workers in large enterprises, in cities, strengthening the organization of the labor movement, trade unions undoubtedly had strong influence on bourgeois governments, entrepreneurs, and convinced the latter of the need for broad support for various forms of social work that relieve tension in society. your rights.

"> The era of proletarian revolutions came on the most large-scale precisely in the last century. Its destructive nature in many respects intensified the search for peaceful, evolutionary ways of transition by the progressive public to a more just social order, more flexible modern mechanisms for solving both traditional and new social problems. The wide distribution of various forms social work, its design as an objectively necessary social phenomenon has become one of the main ways to solve modern social contradictions, to ensure social progress in general.

"> 4. Social work as a phenomenon of the modern world.

"> Social work in modern society is usually associated with the development and flourishing of industrial capitalism, which entailed such grandiose changes in the social structure in the social forms of the West that one can speak of a qualitatively different type of relationship between man and society. Since the beginning of the 90s in the Russian Federation began the rapid development of the system of social protection of the population.Assessing the attempts to reform the socio-economic sphere in Russia, we should briefly note three important circumstances.

"> 1. Measures to reform the economy have led and are leading to a further deterioration in its condition.

"> 2. In spite of everything, we managed to create an extensive system of social protection, which to a certain extent softens the blows from the weakening economy and science.

"> 3. Managers, specialists and "field" workers in the social protection system are mainly women who have solved "burning" tasks and created the basis for the further development of this system (dynamic women).

"> Social work is a specific social phenomenon that can be characterized as:

"> - A type of social activity aimed at harmonizing personal and social relations through helping those groups of people and communities that experience difficulties in social functioning, through protection, support, correction and rehabilitation, as well as changing or reforming individual elements of the social system. In social work uses the principles, methods and approaches of a number of scientific areas to solve social and humanitarian problems.

"> - A theory that studies the ways and methods of promoting social adaptation and the realization of the subjectivity of an individual and a group in accordance with social norms and values ​​of society in different spatio-temporal situations.

">- Academic discipline multi-level character; it is taught in higher, secondary specialized educational institutions, as well as in the system of advanced training of social workers. Its goals and objectives are to form the personal and professional qualities of a future social worker with a clear focus on self-education, to teach theoretical knowledge and transfer the necessary skills and abilities, the system of technologies existing in social work.

"> Social work is one of the varieties of social action: the main efforts of targeted manipulations in professional social work are focused on creating conditions under which the client of the action will socially function on the principles of self-sufficiency, as well as on corrective or rehabilitation work with people who are asocial or deviant behavior. The boundaries of social work as a sphere of social action can only be defined in specific spatial and temporal coordinates, since at the professional level social work is largely limited by boundaries. Social work is characterized by continuity, which is due to the fact that social and humanitarian problems in society, as well as theoretical and practical approaches to their resolution, arise in parallel with the development of society, as well as its individuals. The scope of social work is expanding in line with the expansion and complexity of the nature and scope of social ties in society.

"> The phenomenon is interpreted as an unusual, rare phenomenon, an exceptional fact, a person. From this point of view, the formation of social work in the life of human society can be viewed as an unusual, exceptional phenomenon, especially applicable to past stages of human history, taking into account conflicts, strife, wars, which are still characteristic of humanity. And yet, despite the situation in the country, one of the most important is the relationship between people. This, of course, is caring for loved ones, children, the sick, the elderly, as well as caring for spiritual and physical health, preserving and prolonging life. And what profession can be compared with social work? After all, only it enables people who fall into the rank of social protection not to remain on the sidelines of society, helps at least partially (if possible) to participate in the fast pace of our life. science does not study and investigate the entire object as a whole, but only a certain area of ​​it, its own “section.” Social work as a science reveals and explores the essential, necessary connections and phenomena inherent in social processes and the social development of society and determining the nature and effectiveness of the economic, psychological, pedagogical and managerial impact on the development and behavior of social communities, groups and individuals: patterns, principles and methods of social work with various social groups; ways and means of effective implementation of the functions of social work, its personnel and information support; structural and functional analysis of the activities of various state and public institutions of social protection and public services; regularities, principles of functioning of the mechanism of social management in the system of social work. In this case, complex interdisciplinary studies of social problems with access to a social forecast and modeling of the development of social processes, and, consequently, the possibility of determining ways to optimally resolve social contradictions and conflicts, are of great practical importance. Since the life of people takes place against the background of any social relations, social work considers them from its own point of view. The subject of study is the social relations that function in the social sphere of society and are considered in the context of the totality of social relations, including economic and political ones. Social work applies the principles of socio-philosophical knowledge to the analysis of a specific problem in the social sphere. Unlike specific social sciences, it considers problems from the point of view of both their specific features and integrative properties. Social work includes a preliminary collection of information, a systematic analysis of the object, hypotheses, a comparison of facts, and the construction of development models. Thus, the value process of the qualitative definition of the problems of the object takes place in the fullness of its aspects and the integration of properties.

"> In the process of learning the theory of social work as an integral system of scientific knowledge, as an applied science, the relationships and characteristics of its components do not appear immediately, but gradually, as they penetrate into their nature, essence. Accumulating knowledge about certain aspects of social work, the scientific system creates favorable prerequisites for the knowledge of other aspects and a deeper insight into the essence of the subject of study as a whole.It is important to use the arsenal of tools of scientific knowledge in a complex: observation and experiment, description and theoretical explanation, justification and logical evidence, comparison and similarly, generalization, induction and deduction , analysis and synthesis, hypothesis and scientific theory as a whole.This ensures that the unique and complex nature of social work.So, the formation and development of social work as an independent science takes place in the context of constant discussions on its main problems.And simultaneously with the development of the methodology of social work bots as a scientific theory, there is a comprehension and selection of methodological principles for the use of phenomena (factors, processes) of social practice, its knowledge as a specific area of ​​social knowledge. Summarizing the above, we can say that each person lives and acts in accordance with his social nature - this is the practical goal of social work, which also determines its theoretical basis as a science about a person, ways to improve his social well-being. It is this approach that excludes the reduction of the tasks of social work from the point of view of theory only to the justification of the need for social assistance and social protection of the population.

"> 5. The main models of social work in Russia and abroad.

"> One of the effective sociological methods in social work on professional identification is modeling. The widespread penetration of the modeling method into sociology precedes the creation of systemic conceptual schemes of social phenomena and processes focused on the choice of means of formal description that are relevant to the presented aspects of social systems. Among the models intended Sociological modeling makes it possible to study in social work the average population values ​​of the indicators of the quality of life of the adult population of Russia and, by analogy, can serve as a starting point for assessing professional identification: changes in this parameter in the process of development of Russian society; deviations from the average value quality of life caused by diseases, employment opportunities, living conditions of people; social conflicts and shocks in the conditions of mass migration of the population and the loss of professional identity; the state of the quality of life in Russia compared with the quality of life in other countries.

"> There are several sociologically oriented models of social work, the specificity of which is that they form the basis of structural social work. Some of them are formed on the basis of the theory of social systems (a model of social work using the provisions of the general systems theory and a model of social work using ecological systems theory); others rely on radical Marxist approaches (radical and Marxist models of social work). Sometimes, within the framework of sociologically oriented approaches, a culturological model is singled out. Predominantly sociologically oriented is a permissive model of social work, gravitating towards complex-oriented approaches , as well as the vitalist model, which can be classified as both sociologically oriented and complex oriented models.

"> In the practice of social work in our country, there is currently, firstly, an active adaptation of Western models of social work, and secondly, the revival of our own, original forms and types of social assistance. This study develops a sociological model of social work based on foreign and domestic approaches and based on the current Russian situation, taking into account the processes of marginalization taking place in it.

"> The developed model is aimed at expanding and deepening sociological theory, contributes to the introduction of sociological knowledge into social practice through the search for ways to influence it on the change of the whole society and individual social indicators, contributes to strengthening the influence of the professional sociological community on society through the implementation of social work.

;background:#ffffff">Let's consider some of the main theoretical models used in social work abroad. First of all, these are psychologically oriented models, a variation of which are traditional psychodynamic models based on 3. Freud's psychoanalysis. In its pure form, psychoanalysis is now used quite rarely , although for a long time it was the basis of work at the individual-personal level or "work with a case" ("case york"). Unlike classical psychoanalysis, psychodynamic models mainly focus on the present, and not on the past of a person, while analyzing perception of the real social situation.

;background:#ffffff">In social work, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic models are often used - as systems of philosophical views on the world and man, which include a number of fundamental principles of relations between people. Since they are in">
;background:#ffffff">determine the worldview of a specialist in many ways, although it is necessary">
;background:#ffffff">I would like to briefly talk about their significance for professional co">
;background:#ffffff">cal work..

;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of existentialism, on which psychologically oriented humanistic models of social work are based, emphasizes the postulate of freedom and infinite potential. of each person; asserts that a person's life is determined by the system of his choices that take place at any moment in time and are determined solely by his goals and desires.

;background:#ffffff">According to the concept of existentialism, no one and nothing">
;background:#ffffff">standing to influence a person's life path. Such a worldview">
;background:#ffffff">the logical position logically determines the following principles of social work: subjective relations of a specialist and a client; non-directiveness of influence; therapy centered"> ;background:#ffffff">on the client; the principle of personal growth, potential development. Av">
;background:#ffffff">torus of most of these and other concepts within the humanistic">
;background:#ffffff">what kind of psychology is K. Rogers, who believed that exactly">
;background:#ffffff">client-specialist relationship can become a prototype of const">
;background:#ffffff">manual interpersonal relationships. The personality itself is">
;background:#ffffff">constantly changing, correlating ideas about yourself and your">
;background:#ffffff">life experience in the process of endless self-actualization, times">
;background:#ffffff">growth, growth.

"> 6. Modern concepts of social work in Russia and abroad.

;background:#ffffff">Among modern concepts, the system-theoretical approach to social work is relevant, in which relationships, interactions, transactions and social processes are considered in a causal relationship. Each person is a member of several systems - family, circle of friends, school or the labor collective - they all have mutual influence, and this must be taken into account by the social worker in working with the client.

">
;background:#ffffff">The concept of social action in social work is of undoubted interest, since each person is the bearer of two principles - biological and social. Human actions as a self-organizing system in the social aspect are regulated by symbols, such as language, values, etc. , and norms that determine individual actions depending on generally accepted norms and values.But human actions, no matter how they are regulated by social relations, also carry a certain manifestation of voluntarism, i.e. to a certain extent, irrationality and independence of actions from environmental conditions, and at the same time dependent on subjective “certain situations”.">
;background:#ffffff">Thus, a social worker needs not only specific knowledge of the theory and methods of social work, but also sufficient understanding of society, the needs and interests of various social groups, legislation and generally accepted norms, cultural (as well as subcultural) and ethnic At the same time, a social worker can count on success in interacting with a client when he takes into account not only his status and other social characteristics, but also individual physical and mental, i.e. biological characteristics of a person, which, like social factors are manifested in his actions.Therefore, social work is not only a theory, but also the art of interacting with other people, often experiencing complex psychological problems or in a difficult life situation.

;background:#ffffff">According to this concept, a social worker deals with a conflict based on the clash of natural and social. For a social worker, it is important not only to take into account the client's inner world and environment, but also to realize that his task is assimilation by the client of generally accepted norms, standards of behavior and their transformation into internal motives of activity.">
;background:#ffffff">In social work, even at the level of an individual case, it is necessary to understand that the most important sign of the normal state of a social system is the balance of all its components, while the decisive importance is attached to the processes of regulation, means of social control over this state, designed to preserve society from unwanted conflicts, abrupt changes, etc.">
;background:#ffffff">Among the various concepts in the field of social work, the situational analysis in social work must also be mentioned. Of greatest interest is the theoretical concept of social networking, which gained particular currency in Germany during the unification process and after it, with the advent of the syndrome “ loss of identity”, characteristic not only for the new federal lands of Germany, but also for the entire Central and Eastern European region in connection with the transition to a market economy.">
;background:#ffffff">Further formation of social work as a scientific theory went in four main directions:

;background:#ffffff">personal work theory;

;background:#ffffff">group work theory;

;background:#ffffff">community work theory;

;background:#ffffff">theory of social administration and planning.

;background:#ffffff">Among the various concepts in the field of social work, it is also necessary to name a situational analysis in social work, but, perhaps, for Russian specialists, among others, the theoretical concept of creating social networks (Netzwork), which has become especially popular in Germany, is of the greatest interest during the unification process and after it, with the emergence of the "loss of identity" syndrome, which is characteristic not only for the new federal states of Germany, but also for the entire Central and Eastern European region and is associated with the transition to a market economy.Social work in the European dimension exists in close interconnection with social policy and such a social institution, which is, in particular, the welfare state. Importance for the formation of a modern system of social assistance abroad, the principles of the Elberfeld system, which got its name from the city where it was effectively applied, provided. In the middle of the XIX century. it spread throughout almost the entire territory of Germany and part of France. These principles are based on: - the independence of each guardianship in considering particular issues and the centralization of the general direction of affairs; - individualization of assistance with a detailed examination of each person in need; - attraction of all strata of society to active participation in the charity of the poor.

"> 7. Domestic and Western European paradigms of assistance: essence and difference.;background:#ffffff"> In the Western model of help, the ideas of altruism find their development in the logic of the ideas of individualism, where the feelings of thought and desire of an individual act as the highest value in itself. , and the community and the community, which are considered in the logic of subjectivity.">
;background:#ffffff">K. Popper, reflecting on the synthesis of individualism and altruism in Western civilization, wrote: “This individualism, combined with altruism, became the basis of our Western civilization. Scripture, and not “love your kind”), as well as all the ethical teachings that have developed in our civilization and hastened its progress.”">
;background:#ffffff">At the heart of the philosophy of helping the domestic model are the ideas of sobornost. Altruism goes back to communal collectivism, to the ethical, moral idea of ​​nationality, as the idea of ​​truth and justice. pre-revolutionary, but also in post-revolutionary Russia.">

;background:#ffffff"> 2. At the heart of the ideological doctrine of assistance in both domestic and Western models were the principles and ideas of Christianity.">
;background:#ffffff">In the Western model, the process of helping is reflected as a spiritual transformation, which “involved an inner change, renewal of the spirit, which led to “resurrection” and “revival” and turned a sinner-violator into a worthy member of the community.”">
;background:#ffffff">In these approaches, an individual way of saving an individual was seen. Moreover, it is characteristic that social relations, social ideals act as a norm. And hence the desire to form socially necessary behavior, which is brought up and reflected in the Christian paradigm of thinking in the West.">
;background:#ffffff">In the Western model of assistance, various confessions took part in the fate of a person. The antagonism of religions introduced egalitarian tendencies of personal freedom into the model of assistance.">
;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of helping the domestic model is revealed in the logic of the ideas of Orthodoxy. The Russian Orthodox Church has been shaping national consciousness, national spiritual experience for a millennium.">
;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of charity has become for many centuries the defining approach in the domestic model of assistance. To look after means to bring closer, take care of the needs of one's neighbor. Russian consciousness to a different horizon of the norm.">
;background:#ffffff">S.L.Frank, defining the specifics of Russian spirituality, identifies a criterion that reflects the essence of the moral norm that determined the approaches of various types and levels of assistance in Russia, “... when it comes to Russian searches for “good”, there are meaning not values ​​that bring personal salvation or healing, but a principle or order, i.e. ultimately a religious-mythical point, or foundation on which all human life, and indeed the entire cosmic universe, should be based, and through which humanity and the world are saved and transformed.”">
;background:#ffffff"> The criterion of the norm is, as it were, not reality itself, but ideal reality, which is mobile and constantly changing in the spiritual culture of the Russian consciousness. This, apparently, results from these throwing in principles and approaches, in help systems. So, The Stoglavy Cathedral officially allows begging, legalizes and formalizes the relevant institutions of assistance, while the reforms of Peter I are carried out without taking into account established traditions, and new principles for organizing assistance are put forward.This is also characteristic of the aid models of post-revolutionary Russia and Russia of the reform stage.">
;background:#ffffff">3. Social work as a profession in the Western model of assistance arises from voluntary social movement feminists and liberal democratic opposition. A similar trend is observed in Russia. But if in the Western model the development from voluntary to professional assistance was continuous, i.e. the Western model is characterized by an evolutionary path of development, in Russia the development of the profession was discrete, i.e. intermittent. Even its modern, professional stage is characterized by the fact that specialists are “recruited” from other professions and services, and their formation as professionals is carried out on the basis of their own empirical experience and implicit professional ideas.">
;background:#ffffff">4. The conceptual field in the Western model of assistance was formed on the basis of medical, sociological, confessional, legal and psychological approaches. Psychology was the methodological basis for the development of knowledge of social work, and the technique of group and therapeutic work formed the basis of its methodology.">
;background:#ffffff">The conceptual field of social assistance in Russia was formed under the influence of other factors. Two areas - social security and social work - appear in unity in Russia, including enlightenment, education, medicine, social policy. It acted as a unifying form , the paradigm where all the above processes have found their development.This explains the fragmentation of the “conceptual consciousness” when social work is identified with social pedagogy, social security, social medicine.">
;background:#ffffff">5. The domestic aid model has been developing for several centuries in close contact with the Western aid model. The extrapolation of ideas, state laws, the involvement of domestic science and the democratic public in the processes of Western civilization have had a peculiar effect on the aid processes. Many ideas and laws, especially during the period of Peter's reforms, were declared when there were still no objective conditions for their implementation. Hence, the Western model of assistance acted as a kind of "absolute idea", the vision and "touch" of which made it possible to outline their own prospects for growth and development. These trends are present and in the modern domestic model of assistance.

"> 8. Social assistance as a civilizational phenomenon.

;background:#ffffff">Social work is a specific social phenomenon that can be characterized as follows:">

;background:#ffffff"> 1. A type of social activity aimed at harmonizing personal and social relations through helping individuals, groups of people and communities experiencing difficulties in social functioning, through protection, support, correction and rehabilitation, as well as through change or reforming individual elements of the social system.In social work, the principles, methods and approaches of a number of scientific directions are used to solve social and humanitarian problems.">

;background:#ffffff"> 2. A theory that studies the ways and methods of promoting social adaptation and the realization of the subjectivity of an individual and a group in accordance with social norms and values ​​of society in different spatio-temporal situations.">

;background:#ffffff"> 3. An academic discipline of a multilevel nature; it is taught in higher, secondary specialized educational institutions, as well as in the system of advanced training for social workers.
Its goals and objectives are to form the personal and professional qualities of a future social worker with a stable attitude towards self-education, to teach theoretical knowledge and transfer the necessary skills and abilities, the system of technologies existing in social work. Social work is one of the varieties of social action: the main efforts of targeted manipulations in professional social work are focused on creating conditions under which the object of action (the client) will socially function on the principles of self-sufficiency, as well as on corrective or rehabilitation work with people of asocial or deviant behavior . The boundaries of social work as a sphere of social action can be defined only in specific spatial and temporal coordinates, since at the professional level social work is largely limited by the framework predetermined by the social policy of a particular state in a specific time period of its historical development. Social work is characterized by continuity, which is due to the fact that social and humanitarian problems in society, as well as theoretical and practical approaches to their resolution, arise in parallel with the development of both the society itself and the individuals that make it up. The scope of social work is expanding simultaneously with and accordingly with the expansion and complexity of the nature and scope of social ties in society.
Social work as a professional activity has features that distinguish it from other similar professions. social orientation(doctor, teacher, psychologist, lawyer, etc.). One of the main distinguishing features is the very nature of the process of social action and interactions between the specialist and the client. Unlike the role-based subject-object relationships that are characteristic of other types of helping professions, and in this regard the act of decision-making in the process of action, social work is dominated by subject-subject relationships that are of a trusting nature, in which the client retains the right or advantage in making decisions. solutions.
The specificity of the clientele of social institutions lies in the fact that mainly representatives of financially unsecured, socially vulnerable or marginalized strata of society apply for help. This means that social work cannot be a high degree prestige and bring large incomes to professionals - social workers, especially in a market economy and the influence in society of both liberal and conservative ideologies. Social work is often mistakenly referred to as the services of auxiliary or technical personnel of social services or charitable organizations engaged in social services, whose work usually does not require high qualifications and appropriate training in the program of higher or secondary specialized education, while the professional services of a social work specialist solving personal problems of a client at the level of a consultant-psychologist or teacher, a specialist manager for personnel (personnel) or organizing social-analytical, research or prognostic activities, require thorough theoretical and practical basic training.
Social work provides rich factual material, the study of which helps to obtain information about the structure and self-awareness of modern societies in their crisis points. An analysis of the connection between social work and social theory can shed light on the nature of a "developed" society. And vice versa - the characteristics of modern society contribute to a better understanding of the nature of this peculiar profession and academic discipline, which was born just a few days ago.

"> 9. Religious ideas about mercy and charity.

"> Religion reflects the desire of a person and society for a direct connection with the Absolute. Depending on the directions of the search for the Absolute, religions can be conditionally divided into egocentric, sociocentric and cosmocentric. Egocentric religion assumes as the highest and self-sufficient value the restoration of the spiritual connection of the individual with his true "I" as a universally sized microcosm based on the principle “Know thyself". Sometimes an individual microcosm can be understood not only as a condensate of the Universe, but also as the entire historical change of people removed and eternally residing in the “I”, starting with Adam and Eve. This type of religion contributes to the spiritual improvement, disclosure of the creative potential of the individual.

"> Sociocentric religion reflects the desire of a generic person or certain social groups for the unity of their essential forces through the embodiment of the desired spiritual integrity in a chosen sacred object. The main varieties of sociocentric religion are cults of personality, state, party, chosen people or social class, technology, science. Process The improvement of a person's individuality can be stimulated or hampered depending on the basic provisions of this religion.

"> Cosmocentric religion is focused on establishing (restoring, reproducing) the connection of people with God, the gods, the energy center of the Universe, the focus of all cosmic forces. Many schools of Buddhism deny the existence of God. According to their teaching, a person is constantly connected with the cosmic source and has the opportunity to be saved through the approach to the axis of the "wheel of life", i.e. reaching a state of complete rest (nirvana).Cosmocentric religions exist in the forms of theism, pantheism and atheism.

"> The division of religions into egocentric, sociocentric and cosmocentric allows us to apply the concept of religion both in relation to an individual person and in relation to large social groups, society.

"> Religion comprehends and in various versions interprets the evolution and horizons of the spiritual connection between man and the Absolute. This connection can be relied upon:

"> a) as initially immediate, subsequently interrupted and subject to restoration;

"> b) as an orientation towards achieving (indirectly through intermediate levels) a certain ideal - a direct connection;

"> c) as subject to constant reproduction both in different periods of the life of an individual, and in a whole series of generations of people.

"> Religion performs a number of functions and plays an important role in society. The following functions of religion are distinguished: worldview, communicative, regulatory, compensatory, culturally broadcasting, integrating-disintegrating, legitimizing-delegitimizing.

"> 10. The origins and nature of assistance and support in the ancient states of the East.

;background:#ffffff">Approximately from the 4th millennium BC in the history of mankind, the transition from primitive communal relations to state-civilizational development begins. At the late stage of the primitive system, the growth of labor productivity, the emergence of property and social inequality, the transition to monogamous marriage The strengthening of the family and its isolation led to the weakening of the primitive community.Territorial ties between families were strengthened.As a result, the early consanguineous primitive community was replaced by a primitive neighbor community, and then by an agricultural community that combined individual production with collective ownership of land. communal way of life, which combined private and collective principles, created the conditions for the emergence of classes and states.">
;background:#ffffff">In the 4th-2nd millennium BC, the first ancient states appeared on the vast territory from the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, the centers of civilization, which were special cultural, social and material communities. In relation to antiquity, civilizations created peoples who rose above the level of primitiveness, having begun the formation of their state formations.">
;background:#ffffff">In the scientific literature, two main types of ancient civilizations are usually distinguished: eastern and western. The most striking civilizational centers of eastern society include: Ancient Egypt (late 4th-2nd millennium BC), Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia (late IV-I millennium BC), Ancient India (III-I millennium BC), Ancient China(late III-I millennium BC). Unlike the ancient Egyptian, lower Mesopotamian and ancient Indian civilizations, the ancient Chinese did not belong to civilizations of the irrigation type. Here agriculture was based mainly on flood and atmospheric irrigation.">
;background:#ffffff">The basis of the social structure of ancient Eastern societies was the neighboring community of farmers. It was largely self-sufficient, uniting people not so much by kinship as by territorial production ties. In the countries of the East, the leading sector of the economy was agriculture, where the main work was performed by peasants Here, land ownership belonged to the entire community, and movable property was the personal (private) property of individual community members and their families.With the help of this property, they cultivated land plots.">
;background:#ffffff">The family and the territorial community were the main source of social assistance for ordinary peasants. First of all, the family took care of the elderly and the infirm, those incapable of work. Help for orphans and lonely elderly was provided to a large extent by the community.

"> 11. Fundamentals of social assistance and charity in ancient states.

"> Social assistance as a system of support relations for people who are not capable of self-sufficiency arises in a primitive tribal community. This is assistance based primarily on consanguinity, traditions of mutual assistance and religious ideas.

"> Developing, humanity is entering a qualitatively new era, distinguished not only by more advanced production, but also by fundamentally different social relations. Changes in socio-economic relations inevitably give rise to new relations and connections in social assistance.

"> What happens to social assistance in a slave-owning society? Why does it even exist when family ties are broken, society is divided into antagonistic classes and exploitation of man by man arises? What are the natural, general patterns of the implementation of ties and relations of social assistance took shape during the period of the slave-owning system?

"> Let's try to answer these questions using the example of the most developed and studied (classical) slave-owning states - Ancient Greece and Rome.

"> As you know, with the development of production and the further division of labor within the framework of the primitive communal system, the relations of private property and exchange took shape. The labor force began to give an excess over the costs of its maintenance, to produce more than necessary for existence. , and even earlier - eaten "prisoners of war" turned into free labor - slaves. The tribal system gradually outlived itself, unable to withstand the onset of the division of labor and the development of commodity-money relations. Slavery became the dominant form of production.

"> From the VIII century BC, the first slave-owning city-states (polises) were formed: Athens, Corinth and others, then Ancient Rome. Against the backdrop of the rapid differentiation of society and the process of division of labor between city and countryside, urban branches of labor were formed new social groups.The urban population lost contact with the clan and was deprived of its care.The tribal authorities (council of elders, leaders, etc.), which previously provided assistance within the clan, also lost their power.Citizens often went bankrupt and passed into the category of the urban poor The growth in the number of people deprived of support from the clan could not but disturb the state authorities, since they were "combustible" material for uprisings and unrest.The social assistance system of the clan society collapsed along with the old socio-economic relations, and society faced the task of forming a new system of assistance adequate to the changed social relations.

"> During this period, types of assistance unknown to the tribal society arise: state social assistance and philanthropy.

"> Theoretical approaches to the question of the role and importance of the state in relations of assistance can be found in the writings of the philosophers of Ancient Greece and Rome. Thus, Plato (460-370 BC) considers social assistance in the context of public benefit, from his point of view From this point of view, this activity is the prerogative of the state, and not of a separate private ministry.Aristotle (384-322 BC) considers the order of fair distribution as a series of rights and duties and raises the question of the state system of assistance.

;background:#ffffff">In ancient Athens, a significant portion of public spending goes to the issuance of benefits. It is believed that Solon (640 / 635-559 BC) passed a law according to which all citizens maimed in war were kept at the expense of the state. Later, these preferences were extended to all the poor who were unable to work. The amount of the allowance was appointed by the popular assembly, and the rights of "pensioners" were determined by the council of the assembly. Periodically, they were required to appear in the council for examination, under the threat of deprivation of pension. During the reign of Pericles, theatrical money was introduced, which was given to poor citizens to attend theatrical performances, which also included refreshments.Disabled people were paid state benefits in the amount of 1 obol per day, which was the minimum wage for an artisan.Pericles also introduced public works to strengthen, improve the city, roads , where the unemployed, poor segments of the population were attracted. These works came from the state treasury. Thus, in the ancient classical slave-owning states, a new type of social assistance arises. Its subject is the state, the object is free citizens from among the poor, the disabled, orphans and other categories incapable of self-sufficiency. Assistance is mostly obligatory, systematic. It is laid down by law, enshrined in laws, which gives rise to the obligation of the subject to provide it and the right of the object to demand and receive assistance. To implement relations of assistance, the government creates special institutions, structures and establishes responsible officials maintained at public expense. The economic basis of social assistance is public funds that are forcibly accumulated in the treasury through taxes, duties, etc. Assistance is of a mandatory redistributive nature.

;background:#ffffff">Particular attention was paid to the care of the children of poor parents. In ancient Rome, officials were appointed responsible for the care of orphans. Under Emperor Trajan, some estates were bought up by the state and leased (or secured), and the proceeds were used to raise children , primarily orphans.One of the first charitable institutions was founded under the emperor Octavian Augustus.

"> 12. Church and monastic charity in medieval Europe.

"> An important phenomenon was the emergence of "beggarly" monastic orders that elevated poverty as an ideal, such as the orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Carthusians and Cistercians. )

"> In fairness, it should be noted that the church was not limited only to preaching about the need for alms, but sought to actually help those in need. Thus, up to a quarter of church income was used for religious or charitable purposes. lists of those in need of help became the prerogative of the church."> St. Basil "> (329-379), a bishop in Caesarea Cappadocia, who organized a shelter for the elderly, a hospital, a hospice and an almshouse for the weak and crippled at the gates of the city. Both church income and private donations of parishioners served as sources for organizing charitable institutions. It should be noted that the hospital organized by St. Basil served as a prototype for the creation of monastic hospitals in Western Europe.Of course, the first monastic hospitals were distinguished by an extremely low level of treatment and care for sick people: the medical training of the monks was insufficient, and the treatment of "fasting and prayer" rarely reached its goal. In addition, during periods of epidemics, hospitals built in the absence of sanitary and hygienic knowledge, with crowded patients, turned into hotbeds of infectious diseases. It is no coincidence that hospitals were called "houses of suffering", "vale of death". So, in 542, a special shelter was opened in Lyon, called sya "House of the Lord", where both monks and volunteers from the townspeople worked.

"> Up to the 13th century, every 3-5 years, crop failure regularly caused famine. There was a kind of frightening cycle: bad weather -> crop failure -> price increase -> famine -> eating surrogates -> epidemic -> pestilence. At first, a bad harvest. Food became more expensive, the need of the poor increased, Those who did not die of hunger were exposed to other dangers. organism or killed. One of the strict concerns of the church in lean years was the duty to feed the hungry, clothe them and provide temporary shelter. In every major abbey there were services for the distribution of alms and hospitality, as well as two special officials who carried these obediences. Thus, in In the Cistercian order, the alms giver was called the gatekeeper, and in his cell, located near the monastery gates, he must always We were storing bread, prepared for distribution to passers-by and the needy.

"> Another misfortune of medieval Europe was regular epidemics of various infectious diseases and horrific infant mortality, which was considered normal. Poor nutrition and a miserable state of medicine, frequent epidemics gave rise to terrible physical suffering and high mortality of the population. The average life expectancy was very low and did not exceed thirty The appearance of "fever" (modern researchers believe that it was caused by eating bad grain) underlay the emergence of a special cult that led to the founding of a new monastic order and, thereby, to the emergence of a new type of orders - hospitals. the admirers of St. Anthony (antonites) tried to treat with “success.” The fever disease was replaced by a no less terrible epidemic of another disease -"> leprosy "> (or leprosy), the cause of which in Europe is considered to be communication with foci of infection in the East that began as a result of the Crusades. The spread of leprosy resulted in the emergence of special isolation rooms for patients -">leprozoor ">, organized by the specially established Catholic Church for the care of lepers, the Order of St. Lazarus (hence the infirmaries). In the middle of the 14th century, an even more terrible epidemic disease came to Europe, putting the Western world on the brink of life and death - the plague.

"> In the conditions of recurring epidemics, it is the monasteries, as places of relative stability, that turn into centers for the distribution of alms. The role of the monasteries during this period can hardly be overestimated: in addition to distributing alms, they organized constant assistance to those in need through the construction of monastic hospitals. So, in 1403, the hospital of the Holy Spirit in Cologne supported up to 400 beggars each week, and this number did not include those permanently residing in the hospital.The monastic hospitals also provided lodging for needy pilgrims.

"> In parallel, there are attempts to regulate assistance to those in need. In 1458, the so-called Chamber of the Poor was established in Antwerp. In Augsburg in 1475, the beggars were already recorded in the census forms as a professional group (namely, out of 4,485 taxpayers, 107 were registered as beggars.) They were obliged to pay the same taxes as the rest of the workers.

"> Plague epidemics also marked the beginning of the formation of sanitary legislation and urban sanitation. In 1348, a sanitary council was organized in Venice, and special overseers appeared in a number of Italian ports - "health trustees".

"> 13. Public charity in the Middle Ages.

"> The theme of charity, rising from the depths of centuries and perceived as a desire to help those in need, as a purposeful expression of philanthropy, is interpreted ambiguously in various philosophical traditions and schools.

"> In most modern works devoted to the study of charity, researchers construct a connection between the emergence of charity and Christianity. This point of view is shared by many pre-revolutionary researchers, in their opinion, charity appears only with Christianity. This directly contradicted his spirit". The Church in the Middle Ages takes on a very important function - to maintain social peace and smooth out social contradictions. Naturally, the Church did not share open hostility towards the disadvantaged needy, since this hostility would be incompatible with the preaching of humility , love for one's neighbor and equality of all before God.Therefore, addressing the powerful of this world, the church appealed to mercy.

"> Sympathy for the lower strata and condemnation of their oppressors largely stemmed from the social teachings of the church, which formally glorified poverty, considering it an ideal state. The program of the church in this regard was actually reduced to the demand for alms in favor of the poor. They did not even think about ways to end poverty At the same time, the poor were seen not so much as the unfortunate, whose miserable lot needed to be alleviated, but as the saviors of the rich. to “self-purification.” Thus, quite definite rules for giving alms were formed:

"> 1) only direct alms given from hand to hand are valuable;

"> 2) alms were given secretly, in passing;

"> 3) "blind" almsgiving is important, without clarifying the reasons for begging and the circumstances where almsgiving will go;

"> 4) the beggar must know the name of the beggar in order to pray for him in the church, and feedback is optional here.

"> By the XI century, the creation in many cities of Western Europe (the Netherlands, Germany, etc.) dates back to the creation of communities of women and girls to serve the cause of mercy and care for the sick. The annals of these countries mention many women, even belonging to a princely family, who dedicated caring for lepers in the first public hospitals.Thus, in the XIII century, Countess Elisabeth of Thuringia, who was distinguished by deep religiosity and love for people, devoted her whole life to serving the cause of mercy.At the age of 20, she built a hospital at her own expense, organized a shelter for foundlings and orphans, in which she herself worked a lot.

"> In 1235, Elizabeth was canonized as a saint and in her honor the Catholic community of "Elizabethites" was founded - from those who wished to follow her example. In peacetime, the sisters of the community cared only for sick women, and in wartime - for men, The community has also done much for leprosy patients.

"> An important phenomenon was the emergence of "beggarly" monastic orders that elevated poverty as an ideal, such as the orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Carthusians and Cistercians. ).

"> In parallel, there are attempts to regulate assistance to those in need. In 1458, the so-called Chamber of the Poor was established in Antwerp. In Augsburg, in 1475, the beggars were already recorded in the census forms as a professional group (namely, out of 4,485 taxpayers, 107 were registered as beggars.) They were obliged to pay the same taxes as the rest of the workers.

"> Plague epidemics also marked the beginning of the formation of sanitary legislation and urban sanitation. In 1348, a sanitary council was organized in Venice, and special overseers appeared in a number of Italian ports - "health trustees."

"> In the Middle Ages, the cripples were, first of all, the object of Christian virtue. They were one category of the population with the poor and the elderly. In the monasteries they were treated as guests, because the Gospel says that they will be the first to be in the Kingdom of Christ. Living on donations relatives, neighbors and parishioners, the disabled occupied a strictly defined position in society. Their special function was to atone for the sins of the rich. On the one hand, they were admired because of the proximity of their fate to the fate of Christ. On the other hand, they inspired anxiety and fear.

"> 14. Private charity during the Middle Ages.

"> 15. Renaissance and humanistic concepts of charity.

">

"> 16. The problem of begging in the period of the European Middle Ages.

"> The beggars and vagabonds until the 15th century were not looked at as strangers, separated by a sharp line from "decent people" and dangerous to society. Disease, crop failure, ruin, death of relatives, who drove a person into the open sky, threatened everyone. When Shakespeare gave his king Lear a denunciation of a beggar vagabond, this picture did not cause amazement among theatrical audience.Medieval man found attractive features even in forest robbers, endowing them with nobility, justice, special care for the poor.These features were most clearly manifested in the beloved hero of English legends, Robin, nicknamed "Do I" (in English - "Good") from Sherwood Robin becomes a robber not of his own free will, but even in the forest he remains a more worthy member of society than his opponents - knights and sheriffs.

But from about 1450-1500. tolerance for (begging and vagrancy for various reasons decreases. In England and the Netherlands, after the victory of Protestantism over traditional Catholicism, begging ceased to be a respected occupation; it was believed that each person is obliged to earn a living on his own - this he fulfills his duty to God. Many Catholic states experienced in the 16th-17th centuries, serious economic difficulties could not allocate large children to the maintenance of the destitute.But the main reason, apparently, was different: the wide spread of hired labor in Europe during the late Middle Ages now made it possible to feed themselves and people, The crowds of vagabonds on the roads irritated the new capitalist entrepreneurs more and more, they were no longer seen as a beggarly Christ, but as cheap labor that should have been put to work.

Cities begin to close their gates to the surrounding ragamuffins, punishing them for illegally collecting alms on the city streets. (Violation of the laws on begging was severely punished: in Cologne, for example, a vagabond three times caught illegally begging, who was not included in the established number of "our city beggars", ended his life on the gallows.

The city authorities dealt with this dangerous public without any ceremony, but the royal authorities behaved even more harshly towards them. In the XVI century. the English kings issued a whole series of laws against vagabonds, which the people called "bloody." According to these laws, anyone could capture vagrants on the roads and put them to work. Several times a tramp who was caught and escaped was stigmatized as a criminal.

The more severe European society became towards its outcasts, the more people went into the forests or mountains and engaged in robbery. Robber in the 16th century is no longer the kind and noble Robin Hood, punishing the greedy rich and helping the poor. On the contrary, it is a person who is angry at everything and everyone, cruel and treacherous, robbing and killing indiscriminately. Wands of such robbers kept entire regions in fear for decades, and local authorities could not cope with them. Such organized crime was especially strong in the poorest regions of Europe - Sicily, southern Italy. "> ">

Since the end of the Middle Ages, vagabonds and robbers have been separated by a sharp line from respectable burghers. A well-fed, rich Europe sees in every person deprived of a roof over his head and a reliable income, his enemy and, if not today's, then tomorrow's criminal. "> ">

;text-decoration:underline">Church attitude towards the poor">

In the Middle Ages, a very important function was transferred to the Church - to maintain social peace and smooth out social contradictions. Naturally, the church did not share open hostility towards the destitute and needy, since this hostility would be incompatible with the preaching of humility, love for one's neighbor and equality of all before God. Therefore, turning to the mighty of this world, the church appealed to mercy. Thus, the Bishop of Orleans Jonah (IX century), addressing his words to the lords, wrote that "by their nature, their slaves and in general, all the poor are equal to them."

Sympathy for the lower classes and condemnation of their oppressors stemmed in large part from the social teachings of the church, which formally exalted poverty as an ideal state. The glorification of poverty became the main leitmotif of the religious literary monuments of the early Middle Ages. It was in the poor that it was supposed to serve them as a kind of moral compensation for earthly hardships.

The program of the church in this regard was actually reduced to the demand for alms in favor of the poor. They did not even think of ways to end poverty - alms were supposed to perpetuate it, since it inclined the poor to remain in the position of dependents, feeding on the crumbs given to wealthy people.

Moreover, the church in every possible way justified the state of affairs that had developed in society. The monks of Saint-Laud in Angers wrote: “God himself deigned so that among people some were lords, and others were serfs, and that the lords were inclined to honor and love God, and the serfs to honor and love the lords.”

Poverty was elevated to the rank of moral dignity. In turn, the cult of poverty sometimes gave rise to the so-called "swaggering of the poor", which was sometimes encouraged even in the lives of the saints. Thus, in the Life of St. Herman” (bishop of Paris) it was said that when the bishop received a horse and carriage as a gift from King Childebert, he used this gift to ransom the captive, although the king asked the saint not to give this gift to anyone. The author of the life says: “For the priest, the voice of the poor meant more than the king”? The true anthem of voluntary poverty is the poetic legend of St. Alexei, who retired from rich parents and died in poverty.

At the same time, the poor were seen not so much as the unfortunate, whose miserable fate needed to be alleviated, but as the saviors of the rich. The poor existed so that the rich could atone for their sins; the rich are needed by the poor, so that they can feed around them. The alms given to the poor, wrote Alcuin at the end of the 8th century, allow the giver to go to heaven. Thus, poverty was not perceived as a social problem that society had to solve. In this regard, almsgiving was not intended to directly help the beggar, but rather to help the beggar himself, giving alms.

In this case, the beggar-lover was driven not by love for his neighbor, not by philanthropy, but by the desire to be cleansed of his own sins; the beggar acted as a means to "self-purification". Thus, quite certain rules for giving alms were formed:

">1) "> "> only direct alms given from hand to hand are valuable;

">2) "> "> alms were given secretly, in passing;

">3) "> “>“blind” almsgiving is important, without clarifying the reasons for begging and the circumstances where almsgiving will go;

">4) "> "> the beggar must know the name of the beggar in order to pray for him in the church, and feedback is not required here (the giver may not know the name of the beggar who accepted his alms).

The Church stood for the preservation of the established order and taught that each member of society should live in accordance with his position, and not seek a change in his legal or property status.

The Christian Church has long spoken about the need to care for the poor. Thus, the decrees of the Council of Elvira in 306 are known. and the Council of Antioch in 341, where the episcopate was given the right to dispose of the property of the church at its discretion for the needs of charity. “We decree that the bishop should have authority over the property of the church: after all, if the valuable souls of people are to be entrusted to him, then all the more he should dispose of money - to know his own power, to give to all those in need through presbyters and deacons under the fear of God and with all caution.” From the rules of the Sardinian Local Council (347): "Bishops should help orphans and widows." In the rules of Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria (end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries), it was stated: “Let widowers, and beggars, and strangers from the Church feed on, and accept all pleasing.” In the rules of the IV Ecumenical Council (Chalcedon, 437 vol.) it was written: “Let the beggars who require help with a message of peace depart.”

The idealization of poverty has become one of the components of the social program of the Christian church, which, for example, was clearly manifested in the preaching work of the Franciscan preacher Berthold of Regenburg (1250-1270s).

To the exclamation of his fictitious interlocutor: “Alas, brother Berthold, I see that many live in great sin and everything is safe with them and in abundance of everything related to their bodily needs, and on the contrary, there are many good people who do not commit sins, but deeds they are bad, and they are hungry, thirsty and cold, in need of everything, ”the preacher declares:“ In fact, these prosperous people are bad; much better for those who live in suffering, but without sin.”

This position became a kind of basis for the development of hermitage and the emergence of the so-called "beggarly" monastic orders.

The sermons of voluntary poverty set forth in the "Rules of Life" by the famous preacher Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) acquired the greatest influence. Realizing how popular the preaching of poverty was among the poor, Pope Innocent III approved the idea of ​​creating a special monastic order of the Franciscans.

The return to the ideals of the early Christian church, which did not yet have any property, preached by Francis of Assisi, sharp criticism of the greed, self-interest and love of money of the clergy, the distribution of alms to the poor and the maintenance of the poor at the monasteries gained the Franciscan order wide popularity among the people. Shortly after his death, in 1228, Francis was canonized.

The movement of the guardians of the ideals of beggary, the so-called spiritualists, assumed a mass character in the second half of the 13th century. The wave of pious begging took on such a massive character that Pope Boniface VIII sent out orders to all bishops to force mendicant vagabonds or hermits to either change their lifestyle or join some recognized monastic order.

Thus, the desire to atone for sins took on a variety of forms - from the idealization of poverty to voluntary begging. A peculiar ideological basis was also brought under the need for atonement for sins.

"> 17. The initial stage of state charity in Western Europe.

"> The rapid development of the capitalist mode of production in Europe in the 19th century, accompanied by a series of scientific discoveries, technical and technological inventions that found immediate practical application in industry, was expressed in a phenomenal increase in productivity in many industries. The high rates of development of capitalism created the conditions for the development of interstate (international ) competition and led to the uneven economic development of states - their stratification according to the level of well-being. This period of development was characterized, on the one hand, by exceptional social suffering in underdeveloped states, and on the other, by the possibility of raising living standards on a massive scale, which the world had never seen in states - leaders of economic development.

"> Germany, approaching the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, was an economic leader in Europe. Further stable development of the economy was held back by accumulated social problems. Therefore, in 1889, Chancellor Bismarck developed and introduced a pension system for the first time in the world, the main purpose of which was to increase the level well-being of older people who are losing their jobs.Two years later, in 1891, a different model was developed in Denmark, taking into account the weak economic development of the state, the purpose of which was to reduce poverty and support pensioners.The creation of a pension system in these countries, with different economic levels development, became an example for other states.

"> Frank de Butter and Udo Kok offer a brief three-stage model for the development of a system of public charity and charity in Western Europe:

">) the first stage - charity was the main source of social support for the poor in the Middle Ages, and the level of support is the level of physical survival of the poor;

">) the second stage - after the industrial revolution, countries introduced social insurance schemes to cover the risks of old age, industrial injuries and illnesses for workers in certain industries, later these schemes were expanded to all workers;

">) the third stage - after World War II, when the need to maintain the stability of society led to the fact that almost all countries of Western Europe were forced to expand the social protection system to all aspects of industrial and private life.

"> Public charity and charity were in the center of attention of medicine, pedagogy and practice, since the problem of mental disorders became especially acute not only for adults, but also for children who needed special conditions for education, training and maintenance.

"> 18. The formation of the system of state charity in Western Europe in the second half" xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">XVIII"> - start " xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">XX"> cc.

"> 19. Public Charity and Charity Abroad in the Modern Age.

"> 20. The emergence of social work as a professional work and its institutionalization.

"> ;background:#f2f0e8">Social work as a social phenomenon has been characteristic of human society since its inception: at various periods of its development, society helps its members to survive in various forms. This model of assistance is determined by the level of development of society, its culture in a specific historical period The very first forms of social assistance - alms.With the advent of the state, the process of providing assistance is enriched with systemic properties (legislative basis for assistance, regulation of the process, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">The spread of Christian ideology played a special role in the development of social work. In addition to the fact that the church is actively involved in real activities to create institutions to help and support various categories of the population, the Christian doctrine introduces a new moral meaning into the process of providing assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The very understanding of such phenomena as poverty is being revised in the context of a kind of social and religious activity aimed at transforming the world in the image and likeness of God.

;background:#f2f0e8">In the second half of the 19th century, not only the state, the church, but also various public organizations, primarily charitable, educational societies, and feminist organizations began to play an active part in the processes of providing assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The state system of assistance and support has focused mainly on the treatment of social ills, such as poverty, homelessness, disability. In a number of countries, there are state organizations, purposefully implementing on the ground state policy in the field of social security and support (Elberfeld social security system in Germany, the system of zemstvo charity in Russia, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">Unlike the state, public organizations provide assistance to those categories of the population with which the state cannot interact due to various circumstances (for example, work with deviant groups in England, educational activities in Russia, work with emigrants in America) .

;background:#f2f0e8">Social assistance as a type of practical activity begins to be distinguished in the field of such knowledge as medicine, sociology, psychology. The question is raised about professional systemic assistance to various categories of citizens, and this involves special training of workers in educational institutions was opened at Columbia University in the 1880s.) Social work takes on the form of a profession and a separate field of scientific knowledge.

;background:#f2f0e8">At the present stage of development of society, social work no longer has the unified form that could be observed at the end of the last century. Today, this profession is divided into many subspecies, and various concepts are distinguished in the theory of social work. But regardless of interpretation of the concept itself, from the features of the assistance model, the main task of social work today is to help the client in solving vital problems.

;background:#f2f0e8">The Institute of Modern Social Work in Russia arose as a result of the activities of certain social groups, the elements of which are quite active subjects with social thinking and responsibility;color:#000000;background:#f2f0e8">;background:#f2f0e8">. Undoubtedly, this institution has its own social base, the basis for which was laid by natural and social inequality, social differentiation of society as a whole.

;background:#f2f0e8">The development of social work in Russia has its own logic and features, which are expressed in the conceptual apparatus of the history of Russian social assistance (charity and charity are the main, specific concepts of domestic experience) both in content and in forms. This specificity was formed in the conditions of the civilizational originality of Russia (features of the way of life, mentality, cultural traditions, folk pedagogy, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">Identification of the main stages of pre-revolutionary activities for charity and charity is connected with the nature of the participation of various forces in it: the church, the state, the public.

;background:#f2f0e8">So, the first stage: X - mid-eighteenth centuries - marked by the active charitable activities of the church and the gradual formation of the state system of charity. By the second half of the XVIII century, a stable state policy was being formed in Russia aimed at helping the destitute and needy .

;background:#f2f0e8">Effective forms and methods of helping those in need appear: orphans, illegitimate, widows, the elderly, the disabled, the disabled, the crippled, the mentally ill, imprisoned victims of fire, etc. There are two types of charity: "closed" - in specially created for this, institutions (hospitals, orphanages, almshouses, etc.), "open" - outside institutions, carried out in the form of pensions, benefits, provision of land, profession.Church and private charity exist along with state charity and sometimes have a leading significance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The second stage: the middle of the 18th - the middle of the 19th centuries - the functioning of state-public charity. Of particular importance in this direction is the activity of Catherine II to strengthen the legislative and organizational base of charity (opening orders for public charity); development the system of closed charity under the leadership of I. I. Betsky, and the emergence of public charity (the creation of public charitable societies such as the Free Economic Society, the Imperial Philanthropic Society, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8"> The third stage: the reforms of 1861 - 1917 - the period of public charity. In the post-reform period, public charity and charity have undergone major changes: qualitatively new principles for the organization and activities of charity societies and institutions have appeared. Distinctive features of charitable activities become decentralization, "openness" and public charity, focus on prevention in social activities, the emergence and dissemination of original forms and methods of work with a wide contingent of the population, as well as an increase in the number of private charity.Despite the numerous shortcomings of the Russian charitable system (the most important of which are dispersal of funds and efforts, lack of a unified program), this time was a heyday in the history of domestic social assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The post-revolutionary and Soviet period is characterized by the development, mainly, of the social security system, which took shape as a whole by the end of the 20s. In modern conditions, a model of social work is being formed that reflects the characteristics of social processes modern Russia and using the experience and traditions of the organization of social activities in the field of charity and social security.

"> 21. The emergence of the theory of social work, its founders.

"> 22. Social work in the developed countries of the world: general and special.

;background:#ffffff">When they write about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the USA and Canada. However, in certain forms, different or similar methods, with different returns and efficiency, social work is carried out in all countries. Russia is not an exception. And although many foreign">

;background:#ffffff">and Russian researchers note that social work in our country allegedly began only in the 90s of the current century,">

;background:#ffffff">this is absolutely wrong.">

;background:#ffffff">First of all, you need to keep in mind two aspects in the social">

;background:#ffffff"> work, in the social protection of certain strata and groups of the population. As an activity aimed at providing support, protecting people who find themselves in difficult situations, social work has appeared since the emergence and development of human society. Of course, it in different periods it had a different character, was carried out by different methods and in different forms, did not concern all segments of the population and was assessed differently by society and its various institutions.As you know, helping the poor, crippled, charity has always taken place. Russia in Russia, as evidenced by historical documents.">

;background:#ffffff">However, only at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 20th century, social work was formed as a type of professional activity. Official recognition of social work as a profession, specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times.">
;background:#ffffff"> Further, social work becomes relevant when a society, a country is going through difficult periods, when social problems are sharply exacerbated. Moreover, the solution of these problems depends on the possibilities of the material (financial) base of social work, as well as on the essence and content social policy in society. Indeed, many problems of social protection are aggravated not only due to the economic situation in society, but also as a result of the social policy of the state, carried out in the interests of only certain groups of the population. After all, problems are often first generated for various reasons, and then with them are trying (successfully or unsuccessfully) to fight (which is what Russia is now demonstrating.) That is why social policy should be aimed not only at helping certain segments of the population, but also at preventing or (in any case) mitigating certain social problems, let's say unemployment, drug addiction, crime, etc., i.e. have a leading character kter.">

;background:#ffffff">Studying the foreign experience of social work involves the use of a number of methods. Among them are general (historical, system analysis, comparisons, etc.), and more private (survey, observation, document analysis, etc.) methods.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">Historical method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to compare how the process of formation and development of charity went on in various countries, how professional social work was born and developed.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">Comparative method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to select objects of comparison, including countries, taking into account their level of socio-political and socio-economic development. On this basis, you can (and should) distinguish between capitalist and non-capitalist countries (in the latter case, China, Vietnam, North Korea, Cuba, as well as the socialist period of development in our country and in other countries).">

;background:#ffffff">Studying the experience of social work abroad also suggests a typology of countries according to the established systems of social work, in particular, according to the role of the state in solving the problems of social protection of the population. It is on this basis that American is now distinguished (with a predominance of non-state forms of assistance and support for socially weak strata) and the European system (with a predominance in the latter of state forms of assistance and support for the population">.

;background:#ffffff">Comparison of social work can also be carried out taking into account the predominance of market or planned forms of farming. And in this case, the experience of both current and former socialist countries is especially important, in which a very significant role in the social support of the population play (or played) public consumption funds used to provide free education, health care, recreation, etc.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">System method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to study the foreign experience of social work as an integral system that includes such elements (components) as objects and subjects, content, means, management, functions and goals of social work. In this case, a comparative analysis of both the social protection systems of individual (or groups) countries as a whole, and their individual most important components. may prevail depending on the goals and objectives of the study of social work.">

;background:#ffffff">It is clear that along with the named common methods studying foreign experience of social work will certainly use private methods (observation, analysis of documents, etc.) both in the aggregate and each separately.">

;background:#ffffff"> Practice shows that when studying foreign experience, such forms (and techniques) as holding international conferences, colloquia and seminars, round tables, business trips, work and study in social educational institutions and social services of foreign countries, preparation of joint books, brochures, textbooks and manuals, etc. In this regard, we can note the developing contacts of the SASBU with a number of educational institutions in the USA, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Malta and others countries.">

;background:#ffffff"> The above methodological and methodological aspects, in our opinion, are very important for a correct understanding of the experience of social work that has been accumulated both in individual countries and in various regions of the world. In any case, this experience must be known, for its study, comprehension and reasonable adaptation can be of considerable importance for any country, including, of course, for Russia.

"> 23. European social space and social protection management system.

"> The system of European social cooperation can be conditionally represented in three dimensions:

"> - the European Community (due to the fact that the Community unites several European structures, the name European Communities - EU is used in official documents);

"> - Council of Europe (CE);

"> - Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

"> If the last two structures represent social interests in the field of human rights, then the EU (also known as the Common Market) is a single economic, financial and social space.

"> The beginning of the existence of the OSCE was laid by the signing on August 1, 1975, by the leaders of 33 European states, the United States and Canada of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in the Conditions of Bipolar International Relations in order to promote the improvement of relations between capitalist and socialist countries. The OSCE focuses on the creation international mechanism for the protection of human rights, the establishment of the principles of democracy and the rule of law, which has been recognized as the "human dimension of the pan-European process".

"> Another important structure of European social interaction is the Council of Europe, a consultative inter-parliamentary organization established in 1949 to promote integration processes. About a hundred different conventions and agreements have been concluded within the framework of the Council of Europe, which, although they are advisory in nature, are taken into account by European states when formation of social policy.

"> 24. The welfare state and its role in the formation of a modern system of social protection.

"> The welfare state is a higher level of statehood. Based on the term, it can be defined as a state that serves the interests of society. Today, the Scandinavian countries, more than others, put into practice the model of the state that was discussed.

"> The first thing that comes to the mind of an ordinary citizen when the term "welfare state" is mentioned is the social protection of such categories of citizens as pensioners, the disabled, the poor. Powerful social protection is possible only when there is the necessary material potential for this. That's why among the features of a welfare state, the first place should be given to those that relate to citizens who create the wealth of society, namely, the able-bodied.

"> The idea of ​​social statehood was formed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries as a result of objective socio-economic processes taking place in the life of bourgeois society, when two of its most important principles came into conflict - the principle of freedom and the principle of equality. Theoretically, there were two approaches to the correlation of these principles Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Benjamin Constant, John Locke and others defended the theory of individual human freedom, imputing the state as the main duty to protect this freedom from any interference, including from the interference of the state itself. in the long run, such freedom would lead to inequality, but freedom was considered the highest value.

"> Another approach is personified by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who, without denying the importance of individual freedom, believed that everything should be subject to the principle of equality, which is the task of the state to ensure.

"> The principle of individual freedom, which liberated the initiative and self-activity of people, contributed to the development of private entrepreneurship and the market economy, thus had an economic basis in the period of strengthening the economic power of bourgeois states. However, by the end of the 19th century, as wealth developed and accumulated, it began to occur property stratification of bourgeois society, its polarization, fraught with a social explosion.And in this situation, the principle of individual freedom lost its relevance and gave way to the principle of social equality, requiring the state to move from the role of "night watchman" to active intervention in the socio-economic sphere. in such a historical and political environment, the concept of a welfare state, an understanding of its special qualities and functions, begins to take shape.

"> In the future, the idea of ​​a social state begins to receive more and more recognition, to be embodied in the practice and constitutions of modern states. For the first time, the state was called social in the Constitution of Germany in 1949. In one way or another, the principle of sociality is expressed in the constitutions of France, Italy, Portugal, Turkey, Spain, Greece, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Japan, etc. Of great importance for the theory and practice of the welfare state was the teaching of the English economist J. Keynes, under the influence of whose views the concept of the welfare state was formed, proceeding from the increase in the social function of the state.

"> It should be noted that undoubtedly the catalyst for the development of the idea of ​​a welfare state and its implementation in the West was the emergence of the Soviet state, which constantly declared in its Constitutions and other legislative acts the social orientation of politics. And, although the political theory and declarations of socialism were in conflict with realities of lack of democracy, civil society, rule of law and private property as the economic basis of these institutions, one cannot deny the real achievements in the social policy of the socialist states. It goes without saying that in these socio-economic conditions, the socially oriented activity of the socialist state could only have a paternalistic (paternal) character, associated with the establishment of wretched equality.

"> Stages of development:

"> the first stage (from the 70s of the 19th century to the 30s of the 20th century) is socialist;

"> the second stage (from the 30s to the end of the 40s of the twentieth century) - a legal social state;

"> the third stage (from the end of the 40s to the 60s of the twentieth century) - the state of social services;

"> the third stage (from the end of the 50s to the middle of the 80s of the twentieth century) - the welfare state;

"> the fifth stage (from the beginning of the 80s to the middle of the 90s of the twentieth century) - the destruction and crisis of the welfare state;

"> the sixth stage (from the mid-90s of the twentieth century to the present) - a liberal welfare state.

;background:#ffffff">It is important to understand the essence of the state is to understand its goals, objectives and social purpose. Plato and Aristotle believed that the state exists for the sake of establishing moral standards, achieving the common good of people and justice. Plato believed that the state creates the needs of people and it is useful.According to Aristotle, the state is the political communication of citizens.It ensures life in accordance with virtue.Modern Western political scientists believe that the state exists to create a variety of social benefits for all members of society, a fair distribution of these benefits (Rostow et al. All this captures only certain aspects of the social essence of the state. The main thing in the social essence of the state is that it is the organizational form of society, its cohesion and functioning on generally recognized principles and norms.

Order writing a unique work

Periodization of the history of social work abroad and in Russia.

Social work as a theory and practice of helping a person in crisis situations has deep roots, manifesting itself in national traditions that have consolidated the sociocultural principles of responding to changes in the life scenario of an individual. The theory of social work, having passed a certain socio-historical path of development, today is an independent kind of scientific knowledge that has a generally significant value.

In its historical development, social care for the needy took on various forms - from alms to an organized state system of social protection, combined with various types of public and private charity.

The term "social work" was first used in England in connection with the expansion at the beginning of the 20th century of the activities of one of the religious public organizations (COS), engaged in philanthropy, or as it was then called - "amateur (amateur) work." In accordance with this, a task arose for this organization - the transformation of unskilled activities into professional ones based on social theories and special training. This new activity became known as social work. Long before the emergence of the term in society, they began to highlight activities aimed at supporting various groups of the population who find themselves in a difficult life situation.

In modern literature, there are five periods in the history of social work abroad.

1) The archaic period of charity (before the formation of the first slave states at the end of the 3rd millennium - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC).

2) Philanthropic period (approximately until the 5th century AD).

3) The period of public (community, church) charity (until the beginning of the 16th century).

4) The period of state charity (until the turn of the XIX-XX centuries).

5) The period of social work (continuing to the present).

The scientific stage of the formation of social work

The scientific stage of the formation of social work is associated with many factors of its evolution and, above all, with a change in social ties and relations that have changed qualitatively in many countries by the beginning of the 20th century. What are the reasons for changing the paradigm of social assistance? The main reasons were the following:

Destruction of a single community associated with common principles and norms of existence;

Urbanization and industrialization;

The increase in social ties and the expansion of relationships in which a person has become involved.

These are the main reasons that influenced the evolution of social work in general. What are the macro-, meso- and micro-factors of evolution at the beginning of the 20th century, which led to a significant change in the process of assistance and the formation of the theory and practice of social work?

Macrofactors of evolution:

Industrial Revolution of the beginning of the century;

Changes in social policy in the field of human rights and its protection;

Organization of a social insurance system for the sick and the elderly.

Mesofactors of evolution:

Shifting the focus of assistance from material assistance to teaching clients to solve their problems on their own;

Changing the practical orientation of social workers, the transition from solving class problems to solving specific problems of the individual.

Microfactors of evolution:

Concentration of attention of social workers "at work with the case";

Substantiation and introduction into practice of psychoanalytic approaches "with a case";

The formation of techniques and methods of individual work, when the activity of a social worker is based on the client's requests.

The first practical steps in the field of theoretical understanding of social work were taken by feminists in many countries of the Western world - Alice Solomon in Germany, Maria Gaheri in France, Elizabeth Fry in England, Jane Adams in the USA.

But the greatest success in the field of theoretical research is achieved by M. Richmond, who described the method of individual work with those in need. Her approach was formed on the basis of medical methods, the behavioral school of psychology, the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud. One of the first books by M. Richmond in the field of the theory of social work was the fundamental work "Friendly visit to the poor: a guide for those working in charitable organizations."

In 1917, the book "Social Diagnoses" was published, in which M. Richmond described the theoretical and methodological foundations of individual social work.

In 1921-1930, psychological knowledge "penetrated" into individual methods of social work. The "new psychology", represented by the behaviorist school, the Adler school, the Freudian school, the Jung school, is reflected in the theory and practice of social work.

Since 1922, M. Richmond has been developing the principles of "social individual work", which M. Richmond calls the "principles of mental hygiene". Subsequently, these principles will be taken as the basis of the ethical code of the social worker.

The theoretical activity of M. Richmond laid the foundations for a certain approach, a school of social work, known as the "diagnostic school" (the approach of this school to social work is accordingly called the "diagnostic approach").

Another approach to the development of theories and practices of social work is presented in the direction that has been called the "functional school of social work". The ideologists of this direction were O. Rank (O. Rank) and J. Taft (J. Taft).

The focus of the functional method is the process that occurs between the social worker and the client. The functional school based its theoretical constructions not on a diagnosis, but on the process of interaction between a social worker and a client.

AT Russia periodization of the history of social work has its own specifics and is as follows.

Archaic period (before the formation of the Kyiv principality and the baptism of Russia in the 9th-10th centuries). Tribal and communal forms of assistance and mutual assistance among the Slavs until the 10th century. help members of your community. The most common forms of helping the poor were feeding at home (prisoners spent the whole day in one house, moving to another the next day) and almsgiving.

The period of public (community, church) charity (X-beginning of the XVI centuries). It is characterized by the absence of a state system of social assistance to the population. The predominance of church charity. The most common form of help is giving alms. Development of princely charity (distribution of alms, adoption of decrees,

The period of church-state charity (XVI-XVII centuries). Gradually, the first closed institutions began to form, and the regulation of work with the poor was laid down. Hospitals were organized at the monasteries. Help in the parishes of the sick, the poor, etc.

The period of state charity (XVIII - early XX centuries). Formation of a system of state social assistance to the population. The system of state charity was laid down during the reign of Peter I. Almshouses for the old and crippled were built in all provinces. In the second half of the 18th century, care for socially unprotected categories of the population was recognized as an indispensable duty of the state. The first special government agencies for orphans. The growth of capitalism determines the development of the charity of merchants and entrepreneurs. At this time, the transition from voluntary to professional assistance is also formalized. The first courses on public charity are opened. At the end of the 19th century, a number of areas of public charity emerged: charity for illegitimate babies, guardianship of adolescents (orphanages), charity for the blind and deaf and dumb, charity for the elderly and the provision of medical care. One of the largest societies during this period was the Imperial Humanitarian Society.

At the end of the 19th century, a movement of community sisters of mercy arose. They helped during epidemics and wars.

During this period, there was state, church-public, and private charity.

The period of social planning (1917-1991). The welfare system is being reformed. Charity is regarded as one of the means of the bourgeoisie. All charitable organizations were transferred to the state. Separate forms of private and public charity were taken over by the social security system. New orphanages are opening. State support is provided to those in need. One of the main ideas is social justice and comprehensive care for a person.

The period of social work (since the 1990s). The destruction of established socio-economic ties, the liberalization of prices, unemployment leads to an aggravation of social problems. There are short-term social programs. A system of assistance to those in need is being formed. In March-April 1991, the profession of "social work" was officially registered in state documents. The transformation of social work as a type of practical activity into an institution of Russian society meant that social work needed personnel and scientific support. The formation of a system of higher and secondary specialized education in this area and specialty began. Currently, more than 130 educational institutions of the country are training specialists in social work.

Peculiarities national culture also influences the formation of national conceptions of the SR theory.

The formation of the domestic theory of SR is represented by the following cycles:

1) the theory of alms, or the theory of social reconciliation and consent (the period of the early Middle Ages). The foundations of the theory of mercy are developed here in three main directions: the understanding of mercy as a philosophical category, as a Christian way, as a means of managing social relations;

2) the theory of charity, which was originally formalized by the state as the theory of poverty (XIV-XVIII centuries). The doctrine of aid represents poverty. Within the framework of this theory, its development is traced from worldly poverty to civilized forms of public charity, to the state stage of social assistance to Russia;

3) the cognitive model of helping those in need (XVIII century) is characterized by the fact that theological approaches to the personality of the client are replaced by societal ones, and individual fate is considered in the context of the visible needs and problems of society, in the context of its life, norms and values. In general, the directions of public thought that took shape during this period about helping one's neighbor both on the part of the Church and on the part of the state at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. are gradually formed into a single scientific complex on private and public charity;

4) the theory of public (state) charity revealed a steady interest in the formation of a conceptual apparatus, the desire to define concepts in the context of world social thought, which made it possible to comprehend the development of social assistance in Russia in the context of foreign experience, but taking into account national and cultural originality. The main directions of social and scientific thought about the essence of public assistance were: theological and confessional; legal direction, theory of legislation in social issues; public charity and charity as a cultural-historical and socio-political process; education and correctional education; the system of aid organizations; training of specialists, etc.;

5) the theory of social security (20-90s of the XX century) went through two stages in its development: the first (1919-1941) - the understanding of social assistance narrowed compared to the pre-revolutionary period and found its expression, first of all, in social security and social insurance in a socialist society; the second period - (50-late 80s) was marked by the development of medical and labor expertise and methods of social and legal rehabilitation of disabled people;

6) the theory of social work has been formed since the beginning of the 90s. 20th century The scientific field of knowledge of SR is determined. The initial period is characterized by a certain influence of the American theoretical school. The rapid development of social knowledge and social science continues.