Positional alternations - these are alternations that occur in any position and do not know exceptions in a given language system.

Historical alternation (non-phonetic) is the alternation of phonemes. It is reflected in the letter: boomG a - boomand ny (g\\f); RUto a - ruh ka (k\\h); thenP it - thenpl yony (n’\\pl’); grueb it - grubl yu (b ^ bl '); Yesin it - yesow enenie (v'\\vl'); save - save (m'\\ml'); graph - graph (f'Tsfl'); svet - sveh u - osvesch value (t\\h\\u); rod - roand at - rorailway at (d\\f\\zhd), de ny - days (e\\zero sound); Withabout n - sleep (o\\zero sound);city d - urban planner (oro\\ra); Coast - coastal (ere\\re; g\\f); molo to - mle chny (olo\\le; k\\h); countryX - countrysh ny (x\\w); inh it - inand y (s//f); treck - tresch at (sk / / u); sbrabout sit - sbra to pour (o//a), toa sit down - toabout sleep (a / / o), sa rya - zabout rka (a//o) etc.

Phonetic alternation (live) - this is the alternation of sounds related to the same phoneme. It is not reflected in the letter: about Yes [wada] - in about dy [in about dy], zu b [zu P ]- zu b s [zu b s].

The performance of phonemes of their functions depends on the position.

In a strong position phonemes best perform the functions of distinguishing and identifying significant units: ro [to ]new and ro[ G ]a; in[ about ]l and in[ a ]l.

in a weak position their neutralization, non-distinction can occur. For example: rock [rock] and horn [ rock]; oxen [shafts] and shafts [shafts].

For vowels strong is the position under stress, weak - in an unstressed syllable.

For consonants There are two positions: by sonority - deafness and by hardness - softness.

By voicedness - deafness:

strong - before vowels; before sonorants and "in"; before noisy consonants of non-opposite quality;

weak - at the end of a word before noisy consonants of the opposite quality.

By hardness - softness:

strong - at the end of a word before non-front vowels; before consonants of non-opposite quality;

weak - before front vowels; before consonants of the opposite quality.

In a weak position, phoneme changes occur, determined by the position in the word and the influence of neighboring sounds.

Positional vowel changes

Qualitative reduction - weakening and changing the sound of vowels in an unstressed syllable: G[ about ]ry - g[ a ]ra - s[ about ]rnyaki; n[e]bo - n[i uh ] besny - n [b] demon; p [a] t - p [and 3 ]So - p / b / wheelbarrow. Phonemes undergo qualitative reduction <о>, <а>, <э>.

Quantitative reduction - decrease in longitude and

the strength of the sound of a vowel in an unstressed syllable: p[ s]ba - p[ s]tank - R[ s] tanks; m[i]r - m[ and]ry - m[ and]ditch; m[ at]language - m[ y] zped - m[ y] zykant . Phonemes undergo quantitative reduction <и>,<<ы>,<у>.

Vowel accommodation - adaptation of vowels to consonants: With[ s ]play, cat [ s ] cook (front vowel <и> after a solid consonant gets a more posterior formation); [mat], [m 'at], [m , a*t’], [ma*t’] (the non-front vowel receives a more front formation under the influence of soft consonants).

Positional changes of consonants

Reduction - stunning paired voiced consonants in a weak end-of-word positions: oak -> du[ P], order -> order[ With], mirage ->world[ w], boot ->boot[ to], island -> acute[ f].

Accommodation - adaptation of consonants to vowels, manifested in the softening of hard consonants before front vowels at the junction of morphemes (in[ d ]a, but: in[ d ']tka, in [ d ']e); in rounding (labialization) of consonants before a stressed vowel<о>and stressed/unstressed vowel<у> (garden [ c am ], but: court [s°] ut ], love / l ,about ub°of’] , sleep [s ° he]).

Assimilation - likening one consonant to another.

Full assimilation (interacting sounds become exactly the same): stitch -> [w]it, lifeless -> be[w] lifeless, give away -> o[d]at.

Partial assimilation (the interacting sounds remain different, but acquire a common feature):

by voice: ko [z '] ba, [g] home;

in deafness: but [w] ka, by [t] pis;

by hardness: ste[p]noy (cf.:step']);

by softness: ba [n '] tick, ra [z '] nitsa, [z '] ver.

Dissimilation - distribution of consonant sounds:

light -> le[ X] cue (according to the method of formation: explosive [g] + explosive [k "] -> slotted [x] + explosive [k]); tram tra [n] wai (according to the place of formation: labial [m] + labial [v] -> dental [n] + labial [in]).

Diereza - loss of sounds: a) simplification of consonant groups: sad -> sad[...] ny, orally -> mustache[...] but.

b) merging two sounds into one (replacing them with affricates): laugh -> laughing [tsb], city -> city [ts] ([t] + [s] -> [ts]).

Epenthesis - Inserting a consonant between two vowels (shpi [j] he, kaka[v]o), consonant between consonants (with [t] ram, n [d] equal), vowel between consonants (fire fire[o]n). This phenomenon is typical for children's speech and vernacular.

Prosthesis - sound prefix at the beginning of a word: [in] sharp, [in] smart, [in] seven. It is found mainly in common parlance.

Metathesis - permutation of sounds (or syllables): hammer - reel, compote - pomkot , knee socks - gofli , glandersogi - basses , dolon - palm . This phenomenon is also mainly characteristic of children's speech and vernacular.

Positional changes of phonemes and designation in most cases in writing of the main variant of the phoneme (sound in a strong position) create numerous discrepancies between spelling and pronunciation, which are regulated by spelling rules.

Consonants differ not only in the signs you already know:

• deafness-voicedness,
• hardness-softness
• Formation method: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.

The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, its different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p "], [b], [b"], [m], [m "] - labial, [c], [c "], [f], [f " ] - labio-dental, all the rest - lingual: front-lingual [t], [t "], [d], [d "], [n], [n "], [s], [s"], [h ], [h "], [w], [g], [w ":], [h "], [c], [l], [l "], [p], [p"] , middle lingual [th "] and back lingual [k], [k"], [g], [g "], [x], [x"].

Positional changes in sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional vowel changes. Reduction

People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.

Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound appears are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, the stressed syllable, the unstressed syllable, the position before the vowel, the position before the consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which the sounds are not subject to positionally determined changes and appear in their main form. A strong position is distinguished for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is stressed, and the weak position is unstressed.

In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and not pronounced as distinctly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.

Sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. Normative in the Russian language is recognized as "akanye", i.e. nondiscrimination O and BUT in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

• under stress: [house] - [lady] - [o]? [a].
• without stress: [d a maґ] -homeґ- [d a laґ] -dalaґ - [а] = [а].

Sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e], after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. The normative pronunciation is "hiccups", i.e. nondiscrimination E and BUT in unstressed position after soft consonants.

• Under stress: [m "ech"] - [m "ah"] - [e] ? [a].
• Without stress: [m "ich" oґm] - sword -[m "ich" oґm] - ball - [and] \u003d [and].
• What about the vowels [and], [s], [y]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position undergo only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not present a problem.

[ski], [in _lug], [n "iґt" and] - both in strong and in weak positions, the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in an unstressed position, we clearly hear: [s], [y], [and] and write the letters with which these sounds are usually denoted.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

Performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. Lots of long compound words after hard consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They are right.

Compare the pronunciation of the words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen for the vowel in the first syllable. With a word Moscow everything is simple. We pronounce: [maskvaґ] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with the literary norm, in all syllables, except for the first syllable before stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but a different sound: less distinct, less clear, more like [s] than [ a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is denoted by the icon [ъ]. So, we really say: [malakoґ] - milk,[harashoґ] - well,[klbasaґ] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, who hear clearly that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:

[in a yes] - water -[in b d "other"] - water:[a]? [b]

[dr a wag] - firewood -[dr b in "other"] - wood:[a]? [b]

A special subsystem is the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in the school course, this material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowels are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I have the greatest sympathy for the guys who study from textbooks offered on the spot A, E, O after soft consonants, hear and translate the sound “and, prone to e” in transcription. I consider it fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated pronunciation norm - “ekanye”, which is much less common today than “hiccups”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place BUT and E- [and].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound resembling [and] and denoted as [ь]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [voґs "bm"] - [b], [d "eґv" yt "] - [b].

Do not confuse:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are quite another.

The transcription sign [ъ] denotes a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.

The letter ъ is a solid sign.

The transcription sign [ь] denotes a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.

The letter b is a soft sign.

Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

end of word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In her E and BUT differ:

building[building "y" e] - buildings[building "y" a], opinion[pl "eґn" ij "e] - opinions[mn "eґn" ij "a], more[moґr "e] - sea[moґr "a], will[vogl "a] - on the loose[on_voґl "e]. Keep this in mind when doing phonetic analysis of words.

Check:

How does your teacher require you to designate unstressed vowels. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just do not be surprised that you really hear different sounds in an unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before a vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake, characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dacha "a] - yeah,[t "yl" iv "iґzur] - TV,[with "inoґn" ima] - synonyms,[b "ir" oґzy] - birches,[karz "igny] - baskets. All consonants in these examples are before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions in voicelessness:

• before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - ladies,
• Before unpaired voiced [p], [p "], [l], [l"], [n], [n"], [m], [m "], [th"]: [dl "a] - for,[tl "a] - aphid,
• Before [in], [ in "]: [own"] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and deaf consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness-voicedness:

• in front of pairs for deafness-voicedness: [sweet" th] - sweet,[zuґpk "and] - teeth.
• before deaf unpaired ones: [apkhvaґt] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
• at the end of the word: [zoop] - tooth,[dup] - oak.

Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicedness

In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become deaf, i.e. deafened, and the deaf - voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes are observed only in paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Voiced stunning occurs in positions:

• Before paired deaf people: [fstaґv "it"] - in become,
• at the end of the word: [clat] - treasure

Voicing of the deaf happens in position:

before paired voiced: [kaz "baґ] - toWith bbaґ

Strong positions in hardness-softness:

• before vowels: [mat"] - mother,[m "at"] - crush,
• at the end of the word: [won] - out,[won"] - stink,
• Before the labial-labial: [b], [b "], [p], [p "], [m], [m"] and back-lingual: [k], [k "], [g], [g "], [x[, [x"] for sounds [s], [s"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [ n], [n "], [r], [r"]: [saґn "k" and] - Sazhenki(genus pad.), [sgank "and] - sangki,[bun] - bun,[buґl "kat"] - gurgle,
• All positions for sounds [l] and [l "]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal "ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

• Before soft [t "], [d"] for consonants [c], [h], which are necessarily softened:, [z "d" es "],
• Before [h "] and [w":] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [on "h" ik] - donut,[kaґm "yn" sh ": ck] - bricklayer.

Remember:

In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:

• Before soft front lingual [n "], [l"] for front lingual consonants [c], [h]: snow -[s "n" eq] and, piss off -[z"l"it"] and [zl"it"]
• Before soft anterior lingual, [h "] for anterior lingual [t], [d] - raise -[pad "n" aґt "] and [padn" aґt "] , take away -[at "n" aґt "] and [atn" aґt "]
• Before soft anterior lingual [t "], [d"], [s "], [s"] for anterior lingual [n]: wintik -[in "iґn" t "ik] and [in" iґnt "ik], pension -[p "eґn" s "iy" a] and [p "eґns" y "a]
• before soft labials [c "], [f"], [b"], [p "], [m"] for labials: write in -[f"p"isaґt"] and [fp"isґat"], rhyme(dat. fall.) - [r "iґf" m "e] and [r "iґfm" e]

Remember:

In all cases, in a weak position, positional softening of consonants is possible.

Writing a soft sign with positional softening of consonants is a mistake.

Positional changes of consonants according to the features of the method and place of formation

Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to state the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in all details. But general patterns phonetics must be mastered. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic analyzes and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants according to the features of the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid errors in phonetic parsing.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the likeness of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are close.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] > [w:] - sew

[h] and [g] > [g:] -squeeze

[s] and [h "] - at the root of words > [w":] -happiness, account

At the junction of morphemes and words > [w":h"] - comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together, like one word)

[s] and [w":] > [w":] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms> [c:] -smiling

At the junction of prefix and root > [cs] - sprinkle

[t] and [ts] >[ts:] - unhook

[t] and [h"] > [h":] - report

[t] and [t] and [w":] countdown

[d] and [w ":] - counting

Distinguishing consonants

Dissimilarity is the process of positional change, the opposite of likening.

[g] and [k "] > [x "k"] - light

Simplifying consonant clusters

Learn the list:

vstv - [stv]: hello, feel

zdn - [zn]: late

zdts - [sc] : under the bridle

lnts - [nts]: sun

NDC - [nc]: Dutch

ndsh - [nsh:] landscape

ntg - [ng]: x-ray

RDC - [rc]: heart

rdch - [rh"]: heart

stl - [sl "]: happy

stn - [sn]: local

Pronunciation of groups of sounds:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles, there are letter combinations: wow, him. AT place G they pronounce [in]: him, beautiful, blue.

Avoid spelling. say the words him, blue, beautiful right.

Positional changes in speech sounds

Positional exchanges and positional changes in sounds are associated with the concepts of strong and weak position.

Positional exchange- this is such a change of sounds, which is due to the position occupied by the sound in the word.

Changes in sounds that occur under the influence of neighboring sounds are called positional changes.

Alternations of sounds must be distinguished from positional exchange and positional changes.

Sound alternation- this is such a change of sounds in the formation of words and their forms, which is determined not by phonetic, but by word-formation or morphological reasons: friend - friends, hook - hook, wear - I wear. Such alternations accompany the formation of words and their forms. They are studied in the sections "Morphology" and "Word formation", but they have nothing to do with phonetics.

Positional exchange and positional changes are observed both in the area of ​​consonants and in the area of ​​vowel sounds of the Russian literary language.

1. Positional change and positional changes of consonants

The positional exchange of consonants is associated with the relationship:

a) voiced and deaf noisy ones in the position before the noisy ones and at the end of the word: [n"izk - n"isk"iį / prÙs"it" - proz"b / klup / pr"ikas];

b) a hard and soft consonant in the position before [e], where in combination with [e], as a rule, only soft consonants appear: [ruka - ruk "eʹ / s" ielo - n ◠ s "iel" eh].

Consequently, the positional exchange of consonants is determined by the laws: assimilation by deafness - voicedness, assimilation by series (position before [e]) and the law of the absolute end of the word (neutralization), where only the deaf version appears.

Positional changes in consonants are associated with the relationship of hard and soft consonants when they are compatible in the flow of speech, i.e. hard consonants, falling into a position in front of a soft consonant, experience assimilative softening and are pronounced softly: [s"t"ep" / s"v"er"].

Such positional changes in consonants are called assimilation of consonants in terms of hardness - softness.

2. Positional change and positional changes of vowels

The positional change of vowels in Russian depends on their stressed and unstressed positions:

[p "at" / p "iet" and / p "chtÙch" ok].

Consequently, the positional change of vowels is determined by the law of reduction of neutralization.

Positional changes in vowels are associated with the impact on them of neighboring hard and soft consonants. This effect is most clearly detected when the vowels are in a strong position: [mat / mat" / m "at / m" at "] ® [a], [a"], ["a], ["a"].

Reduction- this is a weakening or change in the sound of vowels in unstressed syllables. There are two types of reduction:

a) quantitative. Means that the consonant sounds shorter and weaker in an unstressed position than under stress. In Russian, vowels and, s, u undergo quantitative reduction: soup - soups;

b) quality. With qualitative reduction, such changes occur in the vowel, in which it changes its qualities. The vowels a, o, e are subjected to qualitative reduction: house - houses.

Accommodation - positional changes in vowels depending on the nature of neighboring consonants.

Thus positional change depends on the position of the sound; implemented as a law; perceived and realized by the listeners, it is impossible not to notice it, because sounds differ in significant ways.

Positional changes depend on the environment of the sounds, carried out as a process; are not perceived and are not realized by listeners, tk. allophones differ not in the main, but in the secondary features.

Phonetic changes and sound laws.

Phonetic changes:

1. Paradigmatic (change in the system)

2. Syntagmatic (change in speech flow)

The phonetic change may be related to the position of the sound.

The change in sound may be due to the influence of others around it.

Positional changes- these are changes in sounds due to their position in the word, caused by the presence of special phonetic conditions. They affect both vowels and consonants.

1) Reduction- from lat. reductio - "reduction, reduction." This is a change in the sound characteristics of vowels or consonants (associated with a reduction in their duration or weakening of tension) caused by their phonetic position in a word. Reductions are mainly vowels, but there is a reduction of consonants (especially in the position of the end of a word). The reduction can be quantitative this is a reduction associated with a reduction in the time of sound articulation, i.e. shortening its duration and quality. this is a reduction associated with a change in the nature of the articulation of a sound due to a reduction in its duration.

3) stun voiced consonant at the end of a word Stunning noisy voiced at the absolute end of a word- this is the replacement of a voiced noisy consonant with the corresponding deaf consonant in pairs in certain positions:

At the end of a word:

a) before the break

b) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also sonorous consonant, vowel, as well as [c] and [j]

In the middle of a word: before a voiceless consonant (regression assimilation)

combinatorial changes are phonetic changes caused by the interaction of articulations in the flow of speech. Among the combinatorial changes, accommodation, assimilation and dissimilation are distinguished. Depending on the direction of sounds to each other, combinatorial changes can be regressive (associated with the influence of the articulation of the subsequent sound on the pronunciation of the previous one) and progressive (associated with the influence of the articulation of the previous sound on the pronunciation of the next one).

1) Assimilation- from lat. - "similarity". This is an articulatory likening (full or partial) of sounds to each other within the same word or phrase. Both neighboring sounds can interact - contact A., and sounds at a distance - dissent A. Occurs between sounds of the same type - vowels or consonants. Assimilation is distinguished by: deafness / voicedness, by the place of formation, by the method of education, etc.

Diareza. - from Greek. diairesis - "division, division" This phenomenon of falling out of consonants arises on the basis of A.

2) Synharmonism- positional phonetic process, characteristic of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages. It consists in the fact that in the same word all vowels must be of the same row - either front or back.

2) Dissimilation- from lat. dissimilatio - "dissimilarity". This is an articulatory dissimilarity of sounds within a word, as a result of which their common phonetic features are lost. It is observed between sounds of the same type - vowels (vocal dissimilation) or consonants (consonant). On a dissimilative basis arise:

Haplology- from Greek. Haplos - "simple" and logos "word". Simplification of the syllabic structure due to the loss of one of the two immediately following identical syllables.

Metathesis- from Greek. metathesis - "permutation" This is the phenomenon of permutation of sounds or syllables in a word.

Prosthesis- from Greek. prothesis - "setting ahead." The appearance of an additional sound at the absolute beginning of a word that is absent in the original form.

Epenthesis- from Greek. epenthesis - "insert". The appearance of an additional sound in the middle, absent in the original form.

Example: radio - radio.

3) Accommodation- from lat. accomodatio - "adaptation". This is a partial change in the articulations of adjacent sounds - a consonant and a vowel. A. thus more often observed between sounds different types, i.e. vowels and consonants. There is progressive and regressive.

Example: A progress: frost and.. [maro s-s] - under the influence of solid acc. the front vowel becomes more back

A. regression. - the world [m "ir] - under the influence of the vowels of the front row is palatalized according to.

№21 phoneme as a unit of language. phoneme and sound.

Phoneme- from the Greek phone - “sound”, “voice”. The minimum unit of the sound system of the language, which serves to add up and distinguish between significant units of the language: morphemes of words.

Shcherba wrote: "In live speech, usually more than we usually think, the number of various sounds is pronounced, which in each given language are combined into a relatively small number of sound types that can differentiate words and their forms. These are sound types ... we will call them phonemes" . TO phoneme is the unit of language, and sound is the unit of speech. Language - system of means of communication. A fairly clear model of it is presented in its grammar, in dictionaries. Language means are characterized by generalization, mentality (they are stored in our minds in the form of generalized representations) Speech- implementation or use of language potential in a real communicative situation. The phenomena of speech are real, material, as they are perceived by hearing and sight are variable and changeable. . Consequently:

Phoneme

Language unit.

Psychol sound equivalent (figurative representation)

Generalized sound type

Phonemic transcription is used to convey the phonemic composition of a word.

Sound

Unit of speech

Real articulation and acoustic result

Phoneme variant in def position

Phonetic transcription

A phoneme cannot be pronounced, since any pronunciation is a sound. , the tone of the phoneme. The sound is perceived as the main shade of φ and, as it were, represents the phoneme

The phoneme has perceptual function is the function of bringing to the perception of speech (sounds - with the ear, letters - with the eyes). and significative - semantic, those f-tion distinguishing significant elements of the language.

There are more sounds in each language than there are phonemes. The number of phonemes is countable, the number of sounds is not. In Russian consonants - 32-37, vowels 5-6 For Russians, the difference between open and closed E is not important, as for the French, for example.

On the contrary, t and t" are important; hardness and softness serve to distinguish the words of their meaning.

Any phoneme has a set differential signs- acoustic and articulatory properties of phonemes that are perceived by the speaker and distinguish phonemes from each other, and also contribute to the recognition of words and morphemes. and integral features - . common features, which cannot be used to distinguish phonemes in a language.

According to the Diff sign, one f can be opposed to another phoneme. D signs are the basis for grouping phonemes into a systemic paradigm, for example: a triangle of vowels.

In each language, the system of phonemes differs not only in the number, but also in the set of differential features.

Integral features- these are signs of indistinguishable filling phonemes: sonorous, fricative - d recognized, but if they are common to a group of phonemes, then they become integral. Depending on the pronunciation conditions, the phoneme may be in a strong position this is the position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position at which the greatest number of units differs. For vowels - under stress, for accord - before vowels. The phoneme is distinct.

Or in weak position- this is the position of non-distinguishing phonemes, i.e. a position in which the number of units differs less than in a strong position. In this position, the phoneme may lose some features. Bezud for vowels, before dr acc. or at the end of a word for dr acc.

the phoneme may not merge with another phoneme and the signific function will be performed. This is how phoneme variations occur. (according to IDF)

In some cases, a phoneme in a weak position can merge with the main variants of a paired phoneme, which leads to the loss of a significative ph. This is how phonemes come into existence. According to MfSh.

The definition of phonemic composition is given by different PNs in different ways.

MFS - Avanesov, Kuznetsov, Reformatsky. It proceeds from the connection between phonemes and morphemes and from the constant phonemic composition of morphemes, regardless of position.

LFSH- Shcherba, Bondarko. It proceeds from the fact that the phoneme cannot be divorced from the real sound and has independence as a unit of the language. Accordingly, what we hear is yavl F, if it is according to its type.

Phonemes I and Y:

MFS - considers Y to be a variant of the phoneme I and emphasizes that in the same morpheme Y is replaced by Y under the influence of the hardness of the preceding consonant. In inflections of names adj. And after hard foundations, use Y and after soft I. Arguments: w, w, h - primordially soft4 impossibility of using Y at the beginning of a word.

LFSH- different phonemes in view of their awareness. It does not entirely correspond to the facts of Russian phonemes that the previous solid agree causes the appearance of Y. This is not observed in solid foundations when the suffix IR is attached to them. Instead of the expected Y. Arguments: when teaching a foreigner, they will have to be bred. It is necessary to set the pronunciation, there is a difference in articulation, methodically the position of the LFS is correct.

№ 28 Ways and means of expressing grammatical meaning.

Can be expressed in different ways

1) The main thing - affixation, when grammatical forms are formed with affixes An affix is ​​a morpheme with a grammatical meaning. By position relative to the root, A can be divided into prefixes and postfixes. Postfixes, in turn, are divided into suffixes- postfixes with derivational meaning, and inflections- P with relational.

There are other types of affixes:

1) Interfixes- these are service morphemes that do not have their own meaning, but serve to connect roots in compound words. (connecting vowels in r / i)

2) Confixes- combinations of two affixes: a prefix and a confix, which, although they represent two morphemes, act together.

3) Infixes- affixes inserted in the middle of the root.

4) Transfixes- these are A, which, breaking the root, consisting of only consonants, break themselves and serve as a "layer" of vowels among consonants, defining the word form and grammatically shaping it.

5) Zero affix- the absence of A in one form of the paradigm in the presence of A in other forms of the same paradigm.

I exist in the languages ​​of the world two types of affix:

Inflection

2. Agglutination a method of forming word forms or derivative words by mechanically attaching standard affixes to immutable (devoid of internal inflection) stems or roots.

Main difference between them- the nature and functional load of affixes with a form base. With Agl, each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a standard affix, and each affix has one function. Inflection - inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection. Inflection at the same time can convey several grammatical meanings at the same time + one grammean can be transmitted by different inflections. The connection between the form-image of the base and the affix is ​​so close that there is an interpenetration of contacting morphemes, those fusion. Inflectional languages ​​are also characterized by internal inflection.

In addition to affixation, gram values ​​can also be conveyed by morphemes-operations:

stress

3) meaningful alternation ( phonetic, non-phonetic ), in which the difference in the quality of the last consonant of the stem is an indicator of grammatical characteristics

4) suppletivism- the combination into one grammatical pair (or into a single grammatical series) of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words, when, despite the difference in roots or stems, the lexical meaning does not change, and the “word difference” serves only as a grammatical way to distinguish grammatical meanings.

5) reduplication - full or partial repetition of the root. In Russian, with the help of reduplication, the value of strengthening the signs of an object is transmitted: blue-blue, or actions: barely reached. In some languages, it is used for a weakened attribute.

All these means of expressing grammatical meaning refer to synthetic way- a simple form formed by merging the stem and formative affixes.

To the analytical method- a compound form formed by a combination of official and significant words includes:

1) Service words- words that give additional semantic or emotional shades to sentences and individual words.

2) Word order- an analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning. In this way, the meaning of approximateness is conveyed in Russian (Cf: forty cats and cats forty), this method is especially productive in languages ​​with a fixed order of sentence members. Here word order is the only way to determine syntactic role name in a sentence, i.e. they perform a semantic function.

3) Intonation- can also be used as a way (analytical) of expressing grammatical meaning. With the help of intonation, a question, motivation, enumeration, explanation, etc. are transmitted.

There is also a mixed way of expressing grammatical meaning, when it is conveyed by both a significant word that has inflection forms, and auxiliary, or two significant words (I carry).

Vowels and consonants are subject to positional changes. Positional changes of consonants are associated, as a rule, with the position of the consonant at the beginning or end of a word. For example, at the beginning of a word, a special prosthetic sound: Russian eight ( cf. unfold octopus of bread) dial. wake up ( cf. litas. smallpox), Belarusian yana ( cf. Russian she is)); at the end of a word, a voiced consonant can be stunned ( Russian forehead, meadow, year, horn [lop, bow, goth, rock], German der Sand).

An example of positional vowel changes is reduction(from lat. reduction - "reduction, reduction").

Reduction is a change in the sound characteristics of vowels caused by their weak phonetic position in the word. A weak phonetic position of a vowel is its position in an unstressed syllable.

The reduction can be quantitative and qualitative.

At quantitative reduction vowels are weakened, lose some of the longitude, but do not change their qualitative characteristics. High vowels ( and, s, y): world¢r - world¢t - world¢war.

At qualitative reduction there is a change in the characteristic qualitative features of the sound.

Qualitative reduction of vowels after hard consonants

Qualitative reduction of vowels after soft consonants

Exercises

1. In the text below, find cases of assimilation and diaeresis. Which word combines assimilation and dissimilation?

Warmed by the warm spring sun,

Waking up from a long sleep

Dressed in young leaves

How light and elegant she is!

(N. Belousov)

2. Determine the assimilation in the given words, indicating: a) progressive and regressive, b) complete or partial (according to deafness - sonority, hardness - softness), c) contact or distact: sharply, rarely, approach, pityingly, discarded, as if, get up, drive, tired, do, give away, wedding, fearless, mowing, spoon, dried out, beat off, harness, heartburn, sewn, without fat, Tuesday.

3. Determine what sound changes are observed in words: weave, revenge, lead, a handful (cf. gartt), weather vane (German Flügel), case (German Futeral), easel (German Malbrett), dial. witch, Ukrainian kapost (cf. dirty trick), Ukrainian. bgati - “crumple, crumple” (from gbati), Ukrainian. zhevreti - “smolder” (cf. old-timer Zhervier), manganese (German Marganerz), February (February), camel (other Russian velb), patrimony, Romania.

4. Explain, as a result of which phonetic phenomenon, the following words have changed: porcupine > porcupine, myopic > myopic, mineralogy > mineralogy, root-nosed > snub-nosed.

5. Thanks to what phonetic law is the vernacular pronunciation of the following words possible:

a) omman, last, sixteen, komsomolets (cf. lit. deceit, last, sixteen, komsomolets); b) asphalt, ice hole, laboratory, tramway (cf. lit. asphalt, ice hole, bomb, laboratory, tram).

6. Select all combinatorial changes in the text. Transcribe the text. Find a word that has a positional change in the consonant.

There are no guys in the world

More valiant than you

Youths and children

From the banks of the Neva.

I met you in schools

In circuses and gardens

On the skating rinks are funny,

On suburban trains.

(S. Marshak)

7. In these proverbs, sayings and riddles, highlight all cases of changes in consonant sounds.

Your eye is a diamond. Everything has its time. Where there is snow, there is a trace. Pies with peas are good for the path. Better late than never. The heart gives the message to the heart. The mountain does not converge with the mountain. Learning is always helpful. An old friend is better than two new ones. There would be no happiness, but misfortune helped. For a sweet friend and an earring from an ear.

8. What explains the same listening comprehension outside the context of the following words:

frequency - purity; forests - fox; milok - chalk; firewood - bustard; cat - code; pillar - pillar.

9. Using the table of positional changes in vowels, find in the text all cases of positional changes in vowels. Transcribe the text.

Migratory birds fly

Gone summer to seek,

They fly to hot countries

And I don't want to fly away.

And I stay with you

My native side!

I don't need someone else's sun

Foreign land is not needed.

(Isakovsky)

10. Find in the text all cases of reduction, divide them into two groups: a) quantitative reduction; b) qualitative reduction:

The first thing that caught my eye was a cab horse, well-fed like a rhinoceros, and a dry old man on a goat. And, it is not known why, I understood instantly that it was Drykin. This made me even more excited. Inside the theater, I was struck by a certain excitement, which was reflected in everything. Fili had no one in his office, and all his visitors, that is to say, the most stubborn of them, languished in the yard, shivering from the cold and occasionally glancing out the window. Some even tapped on the window, but to no avail. I knocked on the door, it opened a little, Bakvalin's eyes flashed through the cracks, I heard Fili's voice:

Let in immediately! (M. Bulgakov)

11. Transcribe the following German words and indicate what positional change of consonants is observed in them: Das Tand, lag, das Lob, der Tag, sind, das Land.

12. Determine the nature of the sound changes in the following German words: Lamm (old lamb), Zimmer (old zimber), krumm (old krumb).

13. In the German words below, highlight the cases of phonetic alternation of consonants: Schreiben - schrieb, loben - Lob, lesen - las, bringen - brachte.

14. Transcribe the sentences below and establish which characteristic of the Russian language phenomenon of pronunciation of consonants at the junction of words is absent in German.

1) Was fragt der Lehrer? 2) Stellt der Lehrer Fragen? 3) Aufs Land fährt er mit dem Auto. 4) Brauchst du disses Buch?

15. Compare the pronunciation of English words: cap and cab, set and said, leaf and leave, white and wide. What pattern of pronunciation of final consonants, characteristic of the Russian language, is absent in English language?

16. From nouns back (back), bag (bag), belt (belt), bed (bed), cat (cat), card (ticket), egg (egg) form the plural. When does assimilation occur? What character does she have?

17. The absence of what Russian-specific consonant change determines the pronunciation of the following English words and word combinations? What mistakes do Russian students make in pronouncing these words and why do these mistakes occur?

Absent, blackboard, good time, red tie, that dog, that book, this bag, white door.

18. Compare the Russian pronunciation of words borrowed from English and German with the pronunciation of the corresponding English and German words. What is the effect of substitution? Find examples of sound changes that are characteristic of the Russian language and alien to English.

a) emergency (over all), out (out), blockade (blockade), bulldozer (bulldozer), volleyball (Volleyball), jumper (jumper), combine (kom-bine), crossword (cross-word), match (match ), pudding (pudding);

b) paragraph (Absatz), watchman (Wächter), bill (Wechsel), wunderkind (Wunderkind), curtain (Gardine), tour (Gastrolle), guardhouse (Hauptwache), glaze (Glasur), landscape (Landschaft), flask (Kolben ), reserved seat (Platzkarte), poodle (Pudel);

c) landing (descente), ensemble (ensemble), installation (montage), fitter (monteur).

The concept of a phoneme

Phoneme(from Greek. phōnēma - “sound”) is a unit of the sound structure of the language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish between significant units of the language (words, morphemes). Phonemes are characterized by certain phonological features, with the help of which they are opposed to each other. Such signs are called differential. For example, a phoneme<б>has the following differential features: hardness (was-beat), sonority (bar-steam), roundness (bar-dar), absence of nasality (nasal overtone) (pain-zero).

Differential signs phonemes are different in different languages. For example, in Russian, an important differential feature is hardness / softness (angle-coal, steel-steel, tok-tek), in German, English - longitude / shortness of vowels ( German Staat (state) - Stadt (city); English. be (to be) - bee (bee)), in French - openness / closeness of sound (le sol (soil) - le saule (willow)).

Phonemes that differ in only one differential feature are called correlative: s / z`, s / s, g / k.

Number of phonemes and their composition in different languages ​​is different.. In Russian, there are 5 vowel phonemes and 34 consonant phonemes; German has 18 consonants and 15 vowels, English has 24 consonants and 13 vowels, and French has 17 consonants and 18 vowels.

Differential features of phonemes are determined by the strong position of the phoneme in the word.

Position- this is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. The phoneme can be in strong and weak positions.

Strong position is the position of distinguishing phonemes. For vowel phonemes this position is the position under stress. For voiceless / voiced consonants- position before vowels ( Wed. [t] om - [d] om), sonorant consonants ( cf.[n] forest - [b] forest). For hard / soft consonants- position of the end of the word ( cf. bra [t] - bra [t¢]) and before all vowels except e (cf.[n] os - [n¢] os). For front lingual consonants, the strong position is before back lingual ones ( Wed. go [r] ka - go [r ¢] ko) and labial ( Wed. ko[rm¢]e - tyu[r¢m¢]e). The composition of the phonemes of a particular language is determined by strong positions, i.e. according to the positions in which the phonemes are most stable

Weak position- this is the position of indistinguishability of phonemes: soma - sama (in a weak position, vowel phonemes are not distinguished<а>and<о>). In Russian and German weak position for voiced and deaf consonants is the end of the word (stack [stock] - stock [stock]; German Rad - Rat). Wed. in English: bed - bet - the end of the word is a strong position in which voiced and deaf consonants are opposed.

Exercises

1. Indicate which phonemes serve to distinguish the following pairs of words: os - axis, garden - sit down, thread - whine, pole - six, climb - climb, heat - fry, they say - chalk, covered - cover, coward - (do not) be afraid.

2. Which of the following words begin with the same phoneme, and which from different ones: a) there, volume, three, bale, shadow; b) himself, full, again, breakdown, sieve, catfish; c) noise, peas, sorrel; d) pit, south, tree, morning, this.

3. How many different phonemes are in these pairs of words? With the help of what differential features are these phonemes opposed to one another: a) clan - glad, silk - sense, saw - ardor, house - godfather, gap - walked; b) an account - a cat, a gap - walked, a cloak - ivy, a tooth - soup, silk - sense, a brush - aunt; c) bed - bad; piece - cheese; kill - meat.

4. Group the given words in pairs; a) differing from each other by one phoneme; b) two phonemes; c) more than two phonemes:

Russian dispute, grass, house, century, firewood, fact, collection, scrap, tact, dream, cake, maple, dawn, water, captivity, hell, shine, trouble, mountain, canopy, crate, splash, yesterday, bullet, risk, mole.

English bad, fat, thin, luck, mean, sing, scene, take, dark, road, broad, time, brick, praise, look, mine, crook.

German Liebe, Traum, Band, Btihne, braun, Last, grau, Meer, Schild, Wand, Frau, Mast, Sinn, Erde, Auge, Bild.

Franz.étape, méche, date, mode, femme, pére, pain, pomme, trappe, messe, dame, tache, pont, mére, fumer, méchant, fond, faim, rame.

5. What signs of vowel sounds, indifferent to native speakers of the Russian language, are used to differentiate the sounds of words German language, i.e. included in its vowel phonemes?

Kamm (kam) crest - Kam (ka:m) has come; Kann (kan) mogu - Kahn (ka:n) boat; Bahnen (ba:nen) pave the way - Bannen (banen) drive out; Wir (vi:r) we are Wirk (vir) confused; In (in) in - Ihn (i: n) him; Riff (rif) riff - Rief (ri: f) called; Bett (bet) bed - beet (be: t) bed; Mitte (mite) middle - Miete (mi: te) rent.

6. What phonemes differ in the following German words: a) der Wolf - die Wölfe, der Hof - die Höfe, der Hut - die Hüte, die Maus - Maüse; b) der Band - die Bank, finden - der Finger.

7. Name the phonemes in the following English words: man, ten, tea, time, six, five, city, she, hat, page.

8. What phonemes differ in the following English words: pen-pan, lead-lid, seat-sit, lake-leak, bag-beg, man-men, steel-still, date-late, cap-cat, call-cord, color-cover, March-much.

9. What phonemes differ in the following French words: a) fou - vous, chat - jean; b) lit - les - lait - la, du - nu - tu?

10. What oppositions in the system of vowel phonemes are typical for French and alien to Russian?

LEXICOLOGY

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikos “related to the word” and logos “teaching”) is a science that studies word and vocabulary of the language.

Word- a unit that works at all language levels. Versatility, multidimensionality of the word, a wide variety of words both within the same language and when compared different languages explain the complexity of the scientific interpretation of this concept. There is no single definition of the word.

Speaking at different levels as a phonetic, grammatical or lexical unit, the word shows the following features that characterize it as a special language unit.

In the phonetic aspect, the word is characterized by: a) phonetic design (signs of the beginning and end of a word); b) one-hit (presence in most independent words one main accent); c) impenetrability (impossibility to insert another word in the middle of a word).

From a grammatical point of view - a) integrity and uniformity (words change as a single unit); b) lexical and grammatical reference of the word (belonging to some part of speech);

In terms of semantics: a) presence lexical meaning; b) nominativity (the ability to name objects, signs, actions); c) reproducibility (words constantly exist in the language and are only reproduced at the moment of speech, and are not created anew, like a phrase).