Position is the position of the sound in the word. This is a condition for pronouncing a particular sound.
In Russian speech in different positions one sound is replaced by another.
The regular change of sounds within the same morpheme, caused by positional conditions, is called positional alternation: [m / dew], [m / roses].
We will consider the positional alternations of consonant sounds according to the main 2 features: voiced-deafness, hardness-softness.
1. Change of consonants on the basis of sonority-deafness.
A voiced consonant changes to a voiceless one in the following cases:
a) at the absolute end of the word: friend [k], oak [p];
b) before deaf consonants: low cue [s]
A deaf consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one: a request [pro / z "bb], from the mountain [zg / ry].
2. Change of consonants on the basis of hardness-softness.
This exchange primarily occurs on the basis of softness.
The change of a hard sound to a soft one is observed primarily within words and usually occurs in the position of a dental consonant before a soft dental one:
make [z "d" e / lt "], guest [go / s" t "], forge [ku / z" n "b]
The sound [l] is not subject to this pattern: to gain weight [n / ln "et"]
3. Change of whistling sounds [h] [s] before hissing to hissing squeeze [at "], stitch [yt "].
The likening of one sound to another in relation to the conditions for its formation is called assimilation.
4. The system of consonant sounds of the Russian language is also characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of groups of consonants.
Such a phenomenon is observed in combinations of stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, ntsk, stl, vstv: local [m "e / dreams], late, sun, heart, giant, envious, feeling, then unpronounceable consonants.
They depend on the following factors:
1. from the place of stress of words;
2. From the position of the consonant in relation to the stressed syllable;
3. From the hardness-softness of neighboring consonants.
1. Positional change of vowels under stress.
A solid consonant before vowels does not affect it in any way: the vowel is pronounced the same way as after a pause (the beginning of a word).
Compare: sleep - he; noise is mind.
A hard consonant after a vowel also does not affect: gift - yes.
Thus, for vowel phonemes<а, о, э, у>under stress at the beginning of a word and after solid consonants a strong position. Hard consonants do not affect the realization of these phonemes. The exception is<и>.
Strong position:
a) after a pause (the beginning of a word);
b) after soft consonants: silt - drank.
And after hard consonants<и>implemented in<ы>: game - [sy] play.
Soft consonants, on the contrary, affect the implementation of phonemes<а, о, э, у>.
In resemblance to soft consonants, each of these phonemes is realized by a more closed and more forward vowel. The tongue rises to the top. In this case, articulation (from Latin articulatio - to articulate, the work of the organs of speech, aimed at producing sounds) changes.
For example:
[spat"] - articulation at the end of the sound [a] is shifted forward and up;
[sp "at] - articulation at the beginning of the sound. The soft consonant most strongly affects the initial part of the vowel;
[s "p" a / "and] - sleeping. This is how soft consonants affect [. a.] covered by the entire process of articulation.
[n / sa / tk] - [s "a / du]
[pa / sa / d "im] - [s" a / d "bm]
[a]:[a], ["a", [a"], ["a"]
A parallel type of phonemic series, its members are variations. Members of this series can never coincide with members of another phonemic series.
Such a process is called accommodation (from Latin accomdatio - adaptation). Those. - this is an adaptation of the organs of speech for pronouncing a vowel sound in the vicinity of a soft consonant. So the vowels [a, o, y, e] after soft consonants become more front, and higher by ear.
In transcription, the phenomenon of accommodation is denoted by Y [and] - accommodation can not be denoted, since it is always in the upper rise.
2. Positional change of vowels in unstressed position.
In an unstressed position, vowels undergo reduction (from Latin reductio - bring back, return; reduce, reduce). Reduction- this is a weakening of the articulation of sound and a change in its sound (reduction of sound in strength and duration).
The reduction concerns mainly vowel sounds in an unstressed position.
The stressed position is always strong and the vowel sounds do not change.
AT weak positions high vowels [and] [s] [y] undergo only quantitative reduction, i.e. the time of their pronunciation is somewhat reduced, but the quality does not change: let's compare smoke - smoke - smoke [smoke / smoke].
Vowels [a] [o] [e] are subjected not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative reduction.
Main positional changes unstressed vowels can be represented in the table:
At the absolute beginning of a word, the position of the vowel sound is equated to position I of the prestressed syllable.
herbs grass herbal
[tra / you] [tr / va] [tr / in "and e / but]
<а>: [a] - - [b]
water water water
[water] [in yes /] [in / d "and / but]
<о>: [o] - - [b]
These are intersecting types of the phonemic series, since some of their sounds coincide. The members of these series are options.
six six by six
[shesh "t"] [shy e / one hundred] [on / sh's "t"]
<э>: [e] [s e] [b]
chalk chalk chalk
[mel] [m "and e / lok] [m "b / l / in]
<э>: [e] [u e] [b]
Historical alternations of sounds.
In addition to positional alternation, historical alternations (non-positional, morphological) are observed in the Russian language.
The main difference from positional alternations is that they are not determined by the position in the word: but ha - foot
but sit - bears
vowel position is the same: stressed
Historical alternations arose in the process of language development.
1. Sleep - sleep O / / in the XI - XII centuries, the fall of reduction
day - day E / / sun - day - day - day?
2. o//a asks - begs
ber//beer take - choose
erased / / erase erase - I erase
3. b / / bl (love - love)
v//vl (catch - catch)
f//fl (graph - graph)
4. g//f leg - leg
k//h hand - pen
5. st / / d lead - lead
st//t revenge - meta
6. d / / f walk - I walk
What is called positional alternation of sound units? When can it be argued that sound units alternate positionally?
We will start from the concept of alternation. Alternation is always found in the composition of a particular morpheme. If the same morpheme in different words (or in different forms of the same word) has a partially unequal sound composition, then alternation is evident. Spin - twist. Forms of one verb, they have one root; its meaning in these two forms is the same; the sound composition is also partially the same: there is a common part of the kru-, but the last sound of this root is in one form [t '], in another [h ']. This is alternation.
The alternation is radically steep / twisted in writing. But there are alternations that are not imprinted in the spelling of words. For example, spelling does not reflect the alternation in word forms moro [s] - moro [s] s; but it's still an alternation.
Position - a condition for the pronunciation of sounds. There are, for example, such positions: vowels - under stress, in an unstressed syllable after a soft consonant, before [l], before a pause, consonants - at the end of a word, before [e], before a soft dental, after a sonorant consonant. Each sound in a word is in a certain position.
Some alternations are determined by position, and they are called positional. For example, mena
[h] to [s] occurs at the end of a word before a pause. Indeed: Moro [s] s - Moro [s], story [s] s -
story [s], ro [s] a - ro [s1, va [s] a - va [s]; black-eyed [s] a - black-eyed [s], plague [s] yy - plague [s], si [s] yy - si [s]; bury [s] la - bury [s], froze [s] la - froze [s], oblast [s \ li - oble [s], head of ho [s '] egg - manager [s], Kamsky auto [s] ] plant - KamA [s], higher educational [h] institution - vu \ s]. There is no word, there is no form of the word in which [h], hitting the end of the word, would not be replaced by deaf [s].
In itself, from a purely acoustic or articulatory side, a pause does not at all require that the noisy consonant in front of it be deaf. There are many languages (Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian, French, English) where the final noisy remains voiced. The alternation is not due to the acoustic or articulatory nature of the sound, but to the laws of a given language.
On what basis do we conclude that alternation is positional? Maybe we take into account the articulatory and acoustic visualization of the interaction of sounds? For example, a tooth before a soft tooth must itself be soft (in the Russian literary language), cf. .
But the opinion about the need for a visually obvious assimilation of sounds to each other is wrong. In order to recognize the pattern of positional alternation, sound similarity is not necessary. As a special case it is possible, but precisely as a special case. There are cases when the phonetic alternation is alive, acting, positional, but there is no similarity between the sounds that have entered into interaction.
Example. In the Russian literary language, [o] (stressed vowel) in the first pre-stressed syllable after a solid consonant is replaced by a vowel [a]: new - newer, house - at home, stop - stand, etc. Alternation is positional. However, there is no acoustic need for such an alternation. One cannot even say that [o] is replaced in an unstressed syllable by the sound [a], because [a] is articulatory weaker than [o] (this would explain why it is appropriate to have [a] in weak unstressed syllables). On the contrary, [a] requires a larger solution of the oral cavity, i.e., more energetic articulation.
In general, to present (as a general law) the cause of sound alternation in the fact that one sound requires an acoustic or articulatory adaptation to itself of another sound is a great delusion. So, the fact that the position requires a certain alternation cannot be guessed from the acoustic-articulatory essence of sounds.
By what reliable criterion is it possible to separate positional alternations from non-positional alternations? Only one at a time: positional alternations know no exceptions. If the position N2 appears instead of N1, then the sound a always changes to the sound P; it is natural to consider position N2 as the reason for the exchange.
On the contrary, if the position N2 in some words is accompanied by the appearance of p (instead of a), and in others it is not accompanied (but remains without replacement), then the position N2 cannot be considered as the reason for its alternation || R. She does not cause it. Therefore, the alternation that the exception knows is not positional.
Consequently, positional alternation can be explained in two ways: it is an alternation that occurs in a given language system without exception; it is an alternation due to position. Both definitions are essentially the same.
Different sounds with completely different characteristics can be in positional alternation. For example, [o] (middle vowel, back row, labialized) and [a] (lower vowel, middle row, non-labialized) alternate. Significant qualitative differences do not prevent them from being alternating sounds (Table 4):
Table 4
Examples
Position
Members
alternation
At home, newer, stand
stressed syllable
First prestressed syllable after a hard consonant
There are no exceptions, that is, there are no cases (among the commonly used full-valued words of the Russian literary language) when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, therefore, the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5
| Position | Members alternation | Examples |
| Before the pause | 1i] | stop, build, hero, your |
| After a vowel before a vowel | zero | standing, building |
| nym [and] | heroes, their | |
The positional change of consonants is observed according to the following features:
1) change of consonants according to voicedness - deafness.
A voiced sound changes to a deaf one in the following cases:
a) at the absolute end of a word:
Friend - friend, oaks - oak
[g] // [k], [b] // [n]
b) before a deaf consonant:
all - everything, low - low
[in '] // [f], [z] // [s]
A voiceless consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one:
ask - request, from the window - from the mountain
[s’] // [s’] [s] // [s]
2) change of consonants according to hardness - softness.
Wed: Bridge - bridge, ride - ride, bow - bow.
[st] - [s’t’], [zd] - [z’d’], [nt] - [n’t’].
3) change of consonants [h], [s] to hissing before hissing sounds [g], [w].
Often this exchange is accompanied by a change of consonants in sonority - deafness.
For example: sew - [shit ']:[c] [w] + [w] = [w] long,
squeeze - [zhat ']:[s] [s] [g] + [g] = [g] long.
4) The consonant system of the Russian language is characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. The so-called unpronounceable consonants are observed in combinations: stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, stl, ntsk, vstv.
For example: [g'i / ha / nsk 'ij].
Thus, the consonants [d], [t], [l], [c] alternate with zero sound -.
SECTION "GRAPHICS"
The concept of graphics. Development of writing
Graphic arts- This is a branch of linguistics that considers the relationship of letters of the alphabet to the composition of phonemes. Also, this word is a set of letters or styles that are used in writing.
Russian literary language It exists in two forms: oral and written.
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of descriptive characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It has come a long way in its development.
We use sound, or rather phonemic writing. In it, signs (letters) serve to convey phonemes in a strong position, as well as the sounds of Russian speech.
The list of all letters is arranged in a certain order, which is called alphabetically(from the name of the Greek letters "alpha" and "vita") or alphabet(from the name of the first letters of the Slavic alphabet "az" and "beeches").
Our writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, an alphabet created at the end of the 9th-10th centuries by Byzantine missionaries Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius. The Cyrillic alphabet was compiled for the translation of Greek church books into Old Church Slavonic (the Macedonian dialect of the Bulgarian language).
In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet appeared at the end of the tenth century in connection with the adoption of Christianity in 988. It was based on the Greek alphabet
Since 988, all aspects of the language have changed (vocabulary, phonetics, grammar). Along with the language, Russian writing developed and improved.
Until the 16th century, our writing was continuous - there were no spaces between words. At the end of the words were put "b" and "b".
In the development of graphics and orthography, the reforms of Peter I played an important role, on the initiative and with the participation of which the Civil Alphabet was created in Russia (1708-1710). The ecclesiastical font was replaced by a civil one: the letters of the civil alphabet, unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, were simpler in geometric outlines and closer to those of the Latin alphabet. Some letters have disappeared from the alphabet.
For more than 1000 years, only three letters have appeared in the Russian alphabet: the letter "yo" introduced by N. Karamzin in 1797, letter "e" legitimized by Peter I, but was used in Russian writing earlier, the letter "th" introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735
With minor changes, this alphabet is still used today.
To late XIX century, a draft graphic and spelling reform was prepared, but it was approved on December 10, 1918 by a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars. The graphics were simplified, the letters were eliminated from it: “yat”, “and decimal”, “fita” and others.
For the period from 1918 to the present, no changes have been made in the composition of the Russian alphabet.
Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letter and phoneme
The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The arrangement of letters in alphabetical order is conditional, but knowledge of it is necessary in order to freely use dictionaries, alphabetical lists and indexes.
Each letter has its own name, equal to one sound or two: a - [a], b - [be] etc.
Ten letters are vowels, of which letters a, o, uh, i, u, s- simple (unambiguous), letters e, yo, yu, i- iotated (two-digit). Twenty-one letters are consonants. Letters b and b sounds are not indicated. The lettering has 2 varieties - printed and written. Each distinguishes between lowercase (small) letters and uppercase (capital) letters, with the exception of b, b, s.
Letter- an element of the alphabet, which is the inscription of a certain configuration, this is a drawing that cannot be pronounced.
In addition to letters, graphics also use non-letter graphics: accent mark, hyphen (dash), punctuation marks (the rules for their use refer to punctuation), apostrophe, paragraph mark, spaces between words, parts of text, as well as font selections (italic, bold, spacing, etc.), underlining, color highlighting.
Phoneme - this is an insignificant unit of language, which in speech is realized by a number of positionally alternating sounds. The main function of the phoneme is distinctive. In writing, we designate a phoneme in a strong position. As a result, it turns out that each morpheme (significant part of the word), since it contains the same phonemes, is always written the same way.
Water - water - water fungus - mushrooms
[in / dy] - [in a / yes] - [vb / d ’and e / noj] [r ’and p] - [g r’ and / b s]
<о>: [about] - [ a ] - [b]<б>: [P] - [ b ]
alternation- replacement of one sound by another, occurring in the same place of the same phoneme, but in different words or word forms (koz(z)a - goat(s)).
Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. Positional alternation called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system (stunning at the end of a word: friend-druk, leg-nok; "fatally total".).
At phonetic (positional) alternations positions, i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable, this is an alternation of sounds related to one morpheme.
Examples:
The alternation of sounds can be caused by the position of the beginning of the word, in dialects with incomplete okan "o" is replaced by "y" at the beginning of the word in the second pre-stressed syllable: clouds - ublaka, island - islands; operation, subjugation. The alternation may be related to the position of the sound in the syllable. So, in an undisguised unstressed syllable, the phoneme /o/ is realized by the sound "" (lake - azer). In a covered syllable, it appears after a solid consonant only in the first pre-stressed one, and in other unstressed syllables, after a solid consonant, ə is pronounced (in but in əzerk). Often the alternation is due to the position of one sound next to another (after the TV consonant “and” is replaced by “s” (game - play; knives, wide)). Before the deaf acc. voiced ones are replaced by deaf ones (knit - tie). Sounds can alternate depending on the position in relation to the stress (from above - navirhu).
But in the examples, a friend is friendly, paper is paper, this is not a phonetic alternation (the spelling “g” does not depend on the position of “n” after it (gon - drive, blink - blink)). Here is another positional conditioning: the alternation g/f knows no exceptions in the position before the suffix -n-. The position here is morphological, alternation - morphological positional(alternation in which the spelling depends on the morpheme). In borrowed words, too - catalog - catalog. With morph. alternations, not only a suffix, but also an ending can act as a special position (to destroy - I destroy, to drown - I drown, to poison - to persecute, to feed - I feed). There are no exceptions, and in loans. (graph - graph).
Positional alternations that know no exceptions - positionally conditioned(eyes - voice, girlfriend - friendly); aware of exceptions positionally fixed(bridge - bridge, sten - wall). Phonetic positionally conditioned - alternations of sounds related to one phoneme. Phonetic positionally attached can be an alternation of sounds related to one phoneme, and an alternation of phonemes (Kazan - Kazan; excl. June - June).
Non-positional alternations - alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality; are associated only with specific words and are inexplicable in modern language(girlfriend - friends, dry - dry - dry).
Historical alternations - alternations that are not due to the phonetic position of the sound, representing a reflection phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. These are morphological (they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although in themselves they are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of the modern phonetic system of the language) and non-positional phoneme alternation. Some call morphological alternations historical.
In word forms goat, goat, goat, goats, in words goats, goat, Capricorn the root is the same. But we pronounce that [h] (goat, goats) then [h "] (goat, capricorn) then [with] (goats), then [з°] (goat) or [z "°] (goat). The first vowel is also not the same: [o] (goats, goats),[a 0 ] (goat, goat, goat)[a] (Capricorn). Ns is the same and the first consonant: before [a 0], [e] is [k] (goat, capricorn) and before [o] it is [to 0] (goats, goats). Such a change of sounds that occupy the same place in the same morpheme, but in different words or different word forms, is called the alternation of m. Replacing [h] with [s] (or vice versa) in words ko[for, ko[sa, we will not get alternation: the roots are different here. In the word rein can be pronounced [zh "] and [zh]. Variants of the word tunnel and tunnel differ in sounds [a 0] and [y], but this is not an alternation, but a variation of sounds in the same word form.
Alternations can be positional and non-positional. II positional alternations are associated with certain positions, are caused by them. Phonetic position alternations (i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound) are phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable: girlfriend]a - friend[ to], [games - with [gran, knit [zat - ties] [ska, and [a] p - n[b*ry - n[e]rova. Morphological alternations have morphological positions - the position before a certain morpheme (suffix or ending), the word belongs to one or another morphological class: re [ka - re [h] noah(before the suffix -"-), lu6"]go- l / o [bl "] / 6 (before the end of the 1st person singular), ty [ho - ty [sh](for noun III cl.).
Positional alternations may not know exceptions in a given language system. Such alternations are called positionally conditioned and: for example, the phonetic alternation of a noisy voiced consonant with a deaf one at the end of a word (gla [s] a - gla c]) or before a deaf noisy (gla [z] a - gla [s] ki) morphological alternation [г||Ж] before adjective suffix -//- (friend [g] a - friend [f] ny), before the verb suffix -i- (friend [g] a - friend [f] yt) or before verb endings II conjugation (friend [g] a - friend [f] y, friend[f]ish etc.).
Positional alternations that know exceptions are called positionally attached. For example, the phonetic alternation of a hard dental consonant with a soft in position
in front of a soft tooth (bridge - bridge) ns necessarily at the junction of the prefix and the root (ra [c)] hack and ra[s] hew), at the beginning of a word ([with "tena and rarely [with ]tena), after a hard consonant ( sher [s" t and gier [s] t); morphological alternation [o||a] before the verbal suffix - yva-/-willow- (split off - breaks off, goes out - takes care, demolishes - wears out, catches - catches etc.) knows exceptions: tramples - tramples and i/l/- tramples, clapping - clapping and etc.
In addition to positional, there are also such alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend [g] a - friend [h "] I, sve [ t] - light "]at, dry up] - zas[s] hat - zas[u] sew. These are non-positional alternations that are associated only with specific words.
Phonetic positionally determined alternation is the alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme. A phonetic positionally attached alternation can be an alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme and an alternation of phonemes. So, if deviations from positional alternation are fixed in individual words, lexicalized and obligatory for speakers, then such alternations are alternations of phonemes. For example, alternation [n "|| n] in front of a hard dental (ko [n"] - kb[n]ny, Kaza[ n"] - Kazakh [n> Spaniard [n "]ets - Spaniards [tsy) knows the exception: june[ and"] - ju [n "] sky. Therefore, this alternation of sounds is an alternation of phonemes / n "|| n /. If deviations from positional alternation are optional, optional, then such positionally alternating sounds are considered as representatives of one phoneme. For example, alternating stressed [a] with unstressed [and e] after a soft consonant (p ["a] ty - p [and e] so, p [g h] d - p [i e] dy) represent the phoneme /a/, despite the fact that in words like speculative, assimilative in the pre-stressed syllable, along with [and e] there is a pronunciation ["a].
Morphological and non-positional alternations of phonemes are called historical alternations.
Phonetic positional alternations can be of two types: a) alternations that form parallel rows that do not have common members; b) alternations forming intersecting rows having common members.
Here is a schematic representation of these two types of alternation in positions R 1 and R/.
For example, the phonemes /p/, /l/ form parallel rows of sounds alternating in different positions:
The phoneme /р/ is represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds [р||р°||р]. The phoneme /l/ is represented by the series [l||l°||l]. Wherein
in each position /r/ and /l/ are represented by different sounds, these phonemes are different in all positions.
Phonemes /b/, /p/ form intersecting rows of alternating sounds:
The coincidence of two or more phonemes in a certain position is called neutralization. In the position of neutralization, these phonemes are realized by the same sound. Thus, the phonemes /b/, /p/, being realized by different sounds, differ before vowels and are neutralized at the end of the word, where they are realized by the same sound.
Positionally conditioned sounds are combined into one phoneme. M. V. Panov gives an example of positional alternation of sounds in accordance with the preposition With before nouns:
The last alternation is easy to check: it is pronounced the same turned out to be Shchukar and ended up with Shchukar. This is explained by the fact that before [nG] the sound [s] should be replaced by [w "]; a consonant of triple length [w "nGnG] would be obtained, since [IG] \u003d [w "w"]. Such sounds are impossible in Russian: in place of [sch "uGtsG] [sh" sh ") is pronounced.
The phoneme /s/ is realized by the following series of positionally alternating sounds: [s | c° || s" || s || s" || sh || w || w"|w"|| -]. Consequently, a phoneme can be represented by sounds that are completely different from one another (for example, [с°] and [g "]), including zero sound.
- Cm.: Panov M.V. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1979.