Adams John
Adams, John (November 30, 1735-07/04/1826) - 2nd President of the United States, successor to George Washington, in contrast to which can be attributed not so much to political practitioners as to political theorists. Born in Massachusetts to a farmer's family, he graduated from Harvard University, practiced law, and became one of the most popular lawyers in Boston.
Adams John Quincy
Adams, John Quincy Adams (07/11/1767-23/02/1848) - 6th President of the United States. Studied in Holland, France, USA (Harvard). In con. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, he joined the federalists (as a federalist he criticized T. Payne's pamphlet "The Rights of Man"), but in 1807 he broke with them. US Envoy to Holland and Prussia (1794-1801); congressman (1802); Senator from Massachusetts (1803-1808); the first US envoy to Russia (1809-1814). Through Adams, Alexander I in 1813 offered Russian mediation in settling the Anglo-American conflict.
Admiral Nelson Horatio
Nelson, Horatio (129.09.1758-21.10.1805) - English naval commander.
Horatio Nelson was born into a priestly family in north Norfolk. At the age of 12 he went to the Navy. In 1773, as part of an expedition, Horatio sailed along northern seas. His military naval service began during the war with France. In 1793
Nelson was appointed captain of the 64-gun ship Agamemnon. As part of the English squadron, Agamemnon guarded the Mediterranean Sea from French ships. Already in the first months of the war appeared best features Nelson's character - courage and strategic talent. On February 14, 1797, he participated in the battle of St. Vincent, did a lot for the victory of the English fleet, and became a rear admiral. In one of the battles, Horatio was wounded and lost his right arm.
Andrassy Gyula
Andrassy, Gyula, Count (03.03.1823-18.02.1890) - Hungarian politician and diplomat. After the defeat of the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849, in which he took an active part, Andrássy emigrated to France. Gyula was sentenced to death in absentia, but subsequently amnestied and in 1858 returned to Hungary.
Benjamin Disraeli
Disraeli, Benjamin (December 21, 1804-April 19, 1881) - famous British statesman and politician, writer. The son of the writer I. Disraeli, a Jewish emigrant who converted to Christianity. In the works "Vivian Gray", "The Young Duke" and others, Disraeli skillfully noticed the peculiarities of the country's political life and advocated conservative principles (protection of the crown, church, aristocracy).
Blanquis Louis Auguste
Blanqui, Louis Auguste (02/08/1805-01/01/1881) - French revolutionary, utopian communist. Louis was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris. Passion for republican-democratic ideas led him into the ranks of opponents of the Restoration regime (1814-1830). An active participant in the July Revolution of 1830, the Republican Blanqui became an implacable opponent of the Louis Philippe monarchy. In the 1930s was the organizer and leader of secret republican societies that advocated the creation of a democratic republic and the destruction of exploitation.
Alex Gromov
After the discovery, not only Spaniards and Portuguese rushed to Latin America. Its history is connected with the famous French of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Among them are such legendary names as the great Admiral de Coligny, the leader of the French Huguenots, who was killed on St. Bartholomew's night, described in the novel by Alexandre Dumas Sr. - "Marguerite of Navarre".
Coligny, foreseeing religious wars in advance, tried to find a way out by finding French Huguenot Protestants, taking them away from Europe on fire. And for this, he planned to establish outpost bases in America.
Soon the first ships set off. So Protestant settlements were established in Brazil. In 1555, Fort Coligny was built on an island off the coast of the Brazilian coast - in honor of the tireless admiral. It lasted only ten years, and was taken by storm by the Spanish Catholics, who with wild joy killed the "infidel Huguenots."
Thus ended France's first attempt to settle in distant Latin America.
The next French attempt to settle in South America was associated with the name of the famous French politician, Cardinal Richelieu.
Worried about the increasing dominance of England on the seas, he created the Naval Council in 1626, and immediately began the construction of 45 ships and the modernization of existing seaports.
Numerous trading companies were soon created and launched a great activity in Latin America. At the head of them, on behalf of the French king, was Richelieu himself, who carefully monitored that a share of the profits was deducted to the French treasury.
Thanks to all these measures taken, already under Richelieu, France captures the islands of St. Christopher, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominique and others not far from the coast of Latin America.
Until now, numerous French names have remained on the map of Latin America - as a memory of the former greatness and connection of distant lands and cultures.
If France had once conquered Latin America first, the history of the world would have been completely different.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.americalatina.ru were used.
Peruvian port of Callao. This victory ended the war for independence. The New World, discovered by Columbus and conquered by the conquistadors, ceased to be Spanish and gained freedom. Chapter 4. Consequences of the liberation of Latin America and the collapse of the Colombian Federation. The peoples of the Spanish colonies gained freedom. In particular, Venezuela, New Granada, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia threw off the Spanish oppression and...
At the thought of some alien civilization that visited the state of the Incas. The size of one of the depicted people is only 33 meters, although the symbolism of this figure leads to other thoughts. In Latin America, the myth of the winged serpent is very common, which was the subject of worship among the ancient Aztecs and Mayans in Mexico. In a slightly modified form, the image of the snake hit and...
And they will rely on their support, just as the youngest of the sons in the family relies on the patronage of the eldest. "Chapter 3. "Racism in Latin America on present stage and the point of view of the Catholic Church on this issue” The Catholic Church condemned racism and segregation only at the Second Vatican Council (1962-1966). Pope Paul VI's encyclical "The Evolution of Nations"
Dependence on the United States, more than 50% of whose capital investments are in developing countries, supplying them with 70% of strategic raw materials and most of the oil, non-ferrous and rare metals. Latin America plays a significant role in the global mining industry, but over the past decades, there has been a decline in the share of the mining industry in national income, as well as agriculture ...
Dictatorships, coups, revolutions, the terrible poverty of some and the fantastic wealth of others, and at the same time - violent fun and optimism of ordinary people. This is how you can briefly describe most of the countries of Latin America in the 20th century. And do not forget about the amazing synthesis of different cultures, peoples and beliefs.
The paradoxes of history and exuberant color inspired many writers of this region to create genuine literary masterpieces that have enriched world culture. We will talk about the most striking works in our material.
Sand Captains. Jorge Amado (Brazil)
One of the main novels of Jorge Amado, the most famous Brazilian writer of the 20th century. "Captains of the Sand" is the story of a gang of street children who hunted theft and robbery in the state of Bahia in the 1930s. It was this book that formed the basis of the film "Generals of the Sand Pit", which was very popular in the USSR.
Adolfo Bioy Casares (Argentina)
The most famous book of the Argentine writer Adolfo Bioy Casares. A novel that deftly balances on the verge of mysticism and science fiction. The protagonist, fleeing from persecution, finds himself on a distant island. There he meets strange people who do not pay any attention to him. Watching them day after day, he learns that everything that happens on this piece of land is a holographic movie recorded long ago, a virtual reality. And it is impossible to leave this place ... while the invention of a certain Morel is working.
Senior President. Miguel Angel Asturias (Guatemala)
Miguel Angel Asturias - laureate Nobel Prize in Literature for 1967. In his novel, the author portrays a typical Latin American dictator - the Senior President, in which he reflects the whole essence of the cruel and senseless authoritarian rule aimed at enriching himself by oppressing and intimidating ordinary people. This book is about a man for whom ruling a country means robbing and killing its inhabitants. Remembering the dictatorship of the same Pinochet (and other no less bloody dictators), we understand how accurate this artistic prophecy of Asturias turned out to be.
Kingdom of the Earth. Alejo Carpentier (Cuba)
In his historical novel The Kingdom of the Earth, the Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier tells about the mysterious world of the people of Haiti, whose life is inextricably linked with mythology and Voodoo magic. In fact, the author put this poor and mysterious island on the literary map of the world, in which magic and death are intertwined with fun and dancing.
Mirrors. Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina)
A collection of selected short stories by the eminent Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. In his short stories, he refers to the motives of the search for the meaning of life, truth, love, immortality and creative inspiration. Masterfully using the symbols of infinity (mirrors, libraries and labyrinths), the author not only gives answers to questions, but makes the reader think about the reality around him. After all, the meaning is not so much in the search results, but in the process itself.
Death of Artemio Cruz. Carlos Fuentes (Mexico)
In his novel, Carlos Fuentes tells the life story of Artemio Cruz, a former revolutionary and ally of Pancho Villa, and now one of the richest magnates in Mexico. Having come to power as a result of an armed uprising, Cruz begins to enrich himself furiously. To satisfy his greed, he does not hesitate to resort to blackmail, violence and terror against anyone who gets in his way. This book is about how, under the influence of power, even the highest and best ideas die off, and people change beyond recognition. In fact, this is a kind of response to the “Senior President” of Asturias.
Julio Cortazar (Argentina)
One of the most famous works postmodern literature. In this novel, the famous Argentine writer Julio Cortazar tells the story of Horacio Oliveira, a man in difficult relationship with the surrounding world and reflecting on the meaning of his own existence. In The Classics Game, the reader himself chooses the plot of the novel (in the preface, the author offers two reading options - according to a plan specially developed by him or in the order of chapters), and the content of the book will depend directly on his choice.
City and dogs. Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru)
The City and the Dogs is an autobiographical novel by famous Peruvian writer and 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature winner Mario Vargas Llosa. The action of the book takes place within the walls of a military school, where they try to make “real men” out of teenage children. The methods of upbringing are simple - first to break and humiliate a person, and then turn him into a thoughtless soldier who lives by the charter.
After the publication of this anti-war novel, Vargas Llosa was accused of betrayal and aiding the Ecuadorian emigrants. And several copies of his book were solemnly burned on the parade ground cadet school Leoncio Prado. However, this scandal only added popularity to the novel, which became one of the best literary works Latin America of the XX century. It has also been filmed multiple times.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia)
Legendary novel by Gabriel Garcia Marquez - Colombian master of magical realism, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. In it, the author tells the 100-year history of the provincial town of Macondo, standing in the middle of the jungle. South America. This book is recognized as a masterpiece of Latin American prose of the 20th century. In fact, in one work, Marquez managed to describe the whole continent with all its contradictions and extremes.
When I want to cry, I don't cry. Miguel Otero Silva (Venezuela)
Miguel Otero Silva is one of Venezuela's greatest writers. His novel "When I want to cry, I don't cry" is dedicated to the life of three young people - an aristocrat, a terrorist and a bandit. Despite the fact that they have different social origins, they all share the same destiny. Everyone is in search of their place in life, and everyone is destined to die for their beliefs. In this book, the author masterfully paints a picture of Venezuela during the military dictatorship, and also shows the poverty and inequality of that era.
§ 34. Modern civilization of Latin America
Racial composition of Latin America
The population of Latin America was formed from three main racial and cultural components. Firstly, these are the indigenous inhabitants of the region - Indians belonging to the American branch of the Mongoloid race. Secondly, European settlers, mostly natives of Spain and Portugal, but there were also many Italians, Arabs, Germans, Russians, Jews, Poles, etc. Thirdly, these are Negroids - descendants of slaves brought from Africa to work on plantations . All major countries Latin Americans have a mixed racial makeup. In addition to representatives of large races, there are many people belonging to transitional races. Recall that the transitional races are mestizos, mulattos and sambo.
The population of any Latin American country is a mosaic of different racial types. White population, called in Latin America Creoles, quantitatively prevails in the countries of the plains, islands and the most southern - in Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba.
Indian culture was able to survive only in hard-to-reach parts of the continent - in mountainous countries and the endless jungles of the Amazon and Orinoco. It was here that the Europeans pushed the Indian ethnic groups from more comfortable areas of residence. Therefore, now mestizos and Indians predominate in the population of the mountainous and inland countries of Central and South America - these are Mexico and Honduras, Panama and Venezuela, Colombia and Chile, Paraguay and El Salvador. The most Indian countries are Peru and Bolivia. Here, the proportion of Indians exceeds 40%, and the Quechua and Aymara Indian languages, along with Spanish, have official status.
Negroids and mulattoes are most common in countries located on the Atlantic coast in the tropical and equatorial belt - in Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia (everywhere more than 15% of the population). The vast majority of them are on the islands of the West Indies (except Cuba). All this territory is occupied by an area of tropical plantation agriculture, requiring hard physical labor. The Indians were little suited to the place of such workers, they were of little endurance and often died from disease or physical exhaustion. Therefore, the slave trade began to flourish in the Atlantic Ocean basin. Africans were either captured by force or purchased from local rulers for valuable gifts and taken to the New World. Since live goods were perishable and not all slaves endured navigation, ships with slaves almost never went around South America and did not appear in pacific ocean. The largest and most famous slave markets operated on the islands of the West Indies, such as Jamaica or Haiti. Already in the XIX century. former slaves became free, but most of them continue to belong to the poorest classes. The black population gives Latin America its unique flavor. Neither the colorful carnival in Rio de Janeiro, nor the Brazilian national football team can be imagined without blacks and mulattos.
Ethnic composition of Latin America
Most Latin American countries are racially heterogeneous but ethnically and religiously homogeneous. The reason for this is the resettlement nature of the formation of the population of the region. In each of the countries, the migratory culture (Spanish, Portuguese, French, British, etc.) almost completely suppressed the local Indian culture. But the new living conditions, the remoteness of the metropolises and, if not so noticeable, but the constant influence of the culture of the indigenous population led to noticeable differences in the ethnic self-consciousness and cultural baggage of the peoples formed in Latin America.
The basis of the population of each country in the region is the titular ethnic group. In Brazil, these are Brazilians, in Chile - Chileans, in Bolivia - Bolivians, in Cuba - Cubans, etc. Each of these ethnic groups has a complex racial composition. For example, 54% of Brazilians are Caucasians, 20% are mulattoes, 19% are mestizos, and about 6% are negroids. All the largest ethnic groups in Latin America, except for the Brazilians, are related to each other. After all, they were formed on the basis of the traditions of Iberian culture, the Spanish language, and the Catholic religion. An Argentine can easily understand a Cuban, and a Peruvian can easily understand a Mexican, which is why the cultural integration of the peoples of the region is so easy. Artists and musicians, artists and writers from one Latin American country feel welcome in another.
A large proportion of the ethnic composition of the population of Guyana is made up of immigrants from India and Pakistan, and in Suriname - Javanese and other peoples of Indonesia who came to the territory of the continent during the colonial period as contracted workers.
Spanish in Latin America
The distribution area of the Spanish language covers not only the territory of Spain, but also most of the states of Latin America, except for Brazil and a group of small island states. Spanish is recognized as official in 21 countries, including Spain, Mexico (more than 100 million speak Spanish here alone), Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador , Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Cuba. About 40 million Hispanics live in the US, mostly in the southwestern and southern states. Spanish is one of the working languages of the integration associations of Latin America: the Organization of American States, MERCOSUR, the Central American Common Market, etc.
Role of Catholicism in Latin America
The leading religion in Latin America is Catholicism; 86% of the region's population adheres to this direction of Christianity.
The Roman Catholic Church encourages fertility. This is manifested both in the ban on abortion, the recognition of the inadmissibility of same-sex marriages, the negative attitude towards divorce, and in the promotion of large families. The age-sex pyramids of Catholic countries are often easily recognizable by their pointed outlines and broad bases. The countries of Latin America, relatively recently entered the stage of demographic transition, in the second half of the twentieth century. dramatically increased their population. Now almost 250 million Catholics live in just two countries of the New World - Brazil and Mexico (Table 6). This is only slightly less than the number of European Catholics. The demographic center of gravity of the Roman Catholic world is rapidly shifting across the ocean to Latin America. It is no coincidence that in March 2013 the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, the Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected the 266th Pope. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, a non-European and Jesuit became a pontiff, who also for the first time adopted the papal name Francis.
Table 6
Distribution of Catholics by region of the world, 2005
Table 7
The largest Catholic communities in the world
Note. Countries in Latin America are in italics.
Southern nature - hot sun, warm sea, bright vegetation shaped the personal qualities of representatives of Catholic peoples - expansiveness, sociability, pride, self-confidence, the desire to live widely. Catholicism supports family values and patriarchal foundations, is suspicious of innovations in public life. This is how we imagine the life of Latin Americans. Life, in the center of which, and in the literal sense - in the central squares of cities and towns, is a Catholic church. Latin America surprises in the modern, in many respects already atheistic, world with a high percentage of believers and mass attendance at services.
Catholicism in Latin America is sometimes closely fused with Indian and African cults that have survived to this day, belief in spirits, and magical rituals. For example, in Brazil there is an Afro-Christian cult macumba. But much more famous in the world is the mystical Afro-Christian cult voodoo common in Haiti and Cuba. Another Afro-Christian belief system is Rastafarianism- originated in Jamaica among former African slaves. Adherents of this cult - Rastafarians, or Rastamans, believe that the representatives of the white race misunderstood the Christian Scriptures and usurped its interpretation. They see a way out in a return to the "golden age" of the black race. Rastamans perceive as the promised land Ethiopia - the oldest Christian country in Tropical Africa, deify the Ethiopian imperial family (the Solomonid dynasty, which considered King Solomon as its ancestor), widely use the colors of the Ethiopian flag - red, yellow and green. Due to musical style reggae the Rastafarian movement has spread throughout the world, largely losing its religious and racist basis.
Native American influence in Latin American culture
In recent decades, Indian traditions in culture have come into fashion in Latin America. More and more insistently they began to penetrate into architecture, music, painting. Indian elements in painting were first established at the beginning of the 20th century. in Mexico. Most clearly they manifested themselves in the murals. Mural (from Spanish. muro- wall) - a picture depicted on the entire plane of the wall, made in the form of a fresco, graffiti or other type of monumental painting. Mexican artist David Siqueiros (1896-1974) is recognized as an unsurpassed master of wall painting. Its giant murals are perhaps the brightest and most original thing that distinguishes Mexico City from other cities in the world. His compatriots, the painters Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, gained worldwide fame.
The priority in the invention of tango is disputed by the Argentines and Uruguayans, as well as the national identity of the "father of tango", the famous guitarist and singer Carlos Gardel. His thin profile looks out from the walls of restaurants and bars in Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Tango was born as a rebellious challenge to the disadvantaged, brave and courageous people who were not broken by life. Sanctuary morality declared obscene a dance performed by partners at a distance of a meter from each other. The dance, forbidden by the authorities, went underground, returned to the city suburbs, from where it began its victorious procession. But at that time, the whole of Europe was already dancing tango. The high society of Montevideo got acquainted with tango only after the tour of one Parisian troupe.
Information sources
1. Kaisarova L.I. The peoples of the world. People, cultures, ways of life. M., 2009.
2. Argentine tango in Russia and CIS countries: www.nuevo.ru
3. Brazil and Brazilians through the eyes of Russians: www.brasileiro.ru
Questions and tasks
1. What explains the distribution of the Negroid population and mulattoes mainly along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean?
2. Why are there so few Negroids and mulattos in the countries of the Southern Cone of Latin America: Argentina, Uruguay, Chile?
3. What countries of Latin America can be attributed to the most Indian? Why is there such a composition of the population?
4. Make a report about some piece of Latin American culture (literature, music, painting, sculpture, architecture). Specify in it character traits culture of the region.
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Today we will move from Europe to Latin America - we have not looked there for a long time and we will talk about the people who influenced the course of history.
We can say that in the history of Latin America, outstanding personalities are found almost on every corner: dictators and politicians, revolutionaries and rebels, artists and poets. How to choose the most important ones? In my opinion, the achievements of an outstanding person should play a huge role not only in the Latin world, but throughout the world (in my opinion, this is logical). Here are my ten Essentials, presented in chronological order (by date of life, of course0):
1. Bartolome de Las Casas (1484-1566)
Although he was not born in Latin America, his heart belonged to this land. This Dominican monk fought for the freedom and rights of the indigenous people of Latin America at the very beginning of the conquest and colonization, standing in the way of those who wanted to exploit and humiliate the natives of this continent. If not for him, the terrible consequences of colonization would have been immeasurably greater.
2. Simon Bolivar (1783-1830)
"George Washington of South America" paved the hard road for millions of South Americans to freedom. Charm, together with military acumen, made him the most prominent among the leaders of the Latin American Independence movement. The liberation of the "modern nations" of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is his work.
3. Rivera Diego (1886-1957)
Diego Rivera was not the only Mexican muralist, but he was certainly the most famous. Together with Alfaro Siqueiros and José Orozco, he brought art from museums to city streets.
Chilean broadcaster (1974-1990), Pinochet was a key figure in Operation Condor of these states, acting in a coordinated manner, organized abductions, torture and summary executions).
5. Fidel Castro (1926 -)
The fiery revolutionary had a strong influence on world politics for fifty years. A thorn in the bottom of American leaders since the Eisenhower administration, he has been a beacon of resistance for the anti-imperialists.
6. Roberto Gomez Bolañez (nicknamed Chespirito) (1929 -)
Not every Hispanic you meet will answer your "Who is Bolanes?" question, but everyone will know the Chespirito portrayed by Gomez for decades. Gomez has been working in television for 40 years, and meanwhile manages to act in films, write books and compose music.
7. Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1927 -)
He did not invent magical realism, but he became the most important master in it. Winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature, he is Latin America's most celebrated author.
8. Edson Arantes do Nascimento or Pele (1940 - )
The most beloved son of Brazil and, perhaps, the best football player of all time. The admiration of Brazilians for their idol was one of the reasons for the decrease in racism in his country.
9. Pablo Escobar (1949-1993)
The legendary Colombian drug lord at one time was recognized as almost the richest man in the world (according to Forbes - 7th place). At the height of his power, he was the most powerful man in Colombia and his drug empire extended its tentacles around the world. It is worth noting that he partly owes his ascent to the poor population of Colombia, who considered him as their Robin Hood.
10. Rogiberta Menchu (1959-)
A representative of the indigenous population of Guatemala from the Quiche people of the Maya group. Human rights activist, fighter for the rights of the indigenous people of Guatemala, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 and the Prince of Asturias Prize in 1998. Ambassador good will UNESCO. Author of autobiographical works "I, Rigoberta Menchu" (1983) and "Crossing Borders".