Quality is a set of properties that indicate what an object is, what it is. Quantity determines the size, the magnitude of this quality. Quality is traditionally revealed through the description of signs, and quantity is identified with measure, number. Analyzing the quality, the researcher determines to which class of already known phenomena the given belongs and what are its specifics, then establishes cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. The task of quantitative analysis is reduced to measuring and counting the identified properties. By resolving it, they are looking for an answer to the question, what measure of quality is included in the established measure. Complementing qualitative ideas about their subject with formalized generalizations, pedagogical theory acquires the necessary rigor and stability.

It is necessary to distinguish between two main directions in the use of quantitative methods in pedagogy: the first - for processing the results of observations and experiments, the second - for modeling, diagnostics, forecasting, and computerization of the educational process. Methods of the first direction:

- registration- identifying a certain quality in phenomena of a given class and counting the number by the presence or absence of this quality (for example, the number of successful and unsuccessful students);

- ranging- the arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence (decreasing or increasing the recorded indicators), determining the place in this series of studied objects (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of missed classes, etc.);

- scaling- assigning points or other numerical indicators to the characteristics under study, which achieves greater certainty. Four main gradations of measuring scales are known: scales of names (or nominal); scales of order (or ranking); interval scales; relationship scales.

Name scales are the “weakest”, numbers and other designations are used purely symbolically in them. Their only mathematical characteristic is membership: whether the object under study belongs to a given class or not. Classifications according to various criteria can be considered examples of nominal scales - a list of specialties, a list of characteristics of trainees, names of reasons for poor progress, etc.

In the ordinal (rank) scales, the order of succession, the relations "more" and "less", the general hierarchy are established. Examples of their use are rankings such as "higher", "more fives", "fewer gaps", etc.

"Strong" scales - the interval and ratio scales - have all positive qualities"weak" scales, but at the same time, the interval scale provides for certain distances between individual (any two) numbers on the scale, and in the ratio scale, in addition, a zero point (reference point) is also defined. The scales of thermometers, voltmeters, of course, are “strong”.

An increasingly powerful transformative tool for pedagogical research is modeling. A scientific model is a mentally represented or materially implemented system that adequately reflects the subject of research and is able to replace it so that the study of the model allows obtaining new information about the object. Simulation is successfully applied to solve important tasks structure optimization educational material, improved scheduling educational process, control cognitive activity and educational process, diagnostics, forecasting, designing training.

Modeling is a complex and controversial technique. In essence, it serves three useful purposes: heuristic - for classification, designation, finding new laws, building new theories and interpreting the data obtained; computational - for solving computational problems using models; experimental - to solve the problem of empirical verification (verification) of a hypothesis by operating with certain models.

Data processing is aimed at solving the following tasks:

1) ordering the source material, converting a lot of data into an integral system of information, on the basis of which further description and explanation of the object and subject under study is possible;

2) detection and elimination of errors, shortcomings, gaps in information;

3) revealing hidden from direct perception trends, patterns and relationships;

4) discovery of new facts that were not expected and were not noticed during the empirical process;

5) finding out the level of reliability, reliability and accuracy of the collected data and obtaining scientifically based results on their basis.

Data processing has both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Quantitative processing there is a manipulation with the measured characteristics of the studied object (objects), with its properties "objectified" in the external manifestation. Quality processing- this is a way of preliminary penetration into the essence of an object by identifying its non-measurable properties on the basis of quantitative data.

Quantitative processing is mainly aimed at formal, external study of the object, quality - mostly meaningful, internal study. In quantitative research, the analytical component of cognition dominates, which is also reflected in the names of quantitative methods for processing empirical material, which contain the category "analysis": correlation analysis, factor analysis, etc. The main result of quantitative processing is an ordered set of "external" indicators of the object (objects). Quantitative processing is implemented using mathematical and statistical methods.

3. What is the point of assessing the reliability of the differences in the indicators of the subjects?

Literature

1. Kulikov L.V. Psychological research. - SPb., 2001.

2. V. V. Nikandrov Non-empirical methods of psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

3. Mathematical methods of analysis and interpretation of sociological data. - M., 1989.

4. Sidorenko E.V. Methods of mathematical processing in psychology. - St. Petersburg, 1996.

5. Tyutyunnik V.I. Basics psychological research. - M., 2002.

6th stage the focus group is dedicated to the qualitative processing and interpretation of data. Processing of the focus group data (previously compiled transcript) is carried out in accordance with the purpose, objectives and hypothesis of the study, which is reflected in the questions posed. The following analysis strategies can be used.

Strategy A

First, the available answers for each of the questions are analyzed, and then the conclusions for individual questions are compared.

Strategy B

Based on the results of the first (possibly incomplete) acquaintance with the transcript, certain assumptions are formed, then statements are recorded in the entire text of the transcript that confirm or refute this assumption.

Other analysis strategies are also possible, the choice of which depends on the tasks set, the experience and scientific intuition of the researcher. It should be noted that when analyzing focus group data, it is possible to use not only qualitative, but also quantitative approaches. When working with a significant volume of transcript material, it is possible to use a qualitative-quantitative method of document analysis - content analysis. The conditions for its implementation are described in the 3rd chapter of the manual.

An example of the use of qualitative content analysis or focus group data categorization can be found in a study conducted by psychology students in the spring of 2005. The study looked at the perceptions of morality among undergraduate psychology students. The main hypothesis was the assumption that morality is a personal category, individually formulated.

The developed topic guide included the following questions.

• 1. How do you understand morality? What is morality for you?
• 2. Please give some example from life where morality is manifested?
• 3. Compare the concepts of "morality" and "conscience": how do they differ, what is common?
• 4. What role do parents play for you in shaping ideas about morality?
• 5. Do you consider yourself a moral person?
• 6. How do you feel about abortion?

In the content analysis of the focus group transcript data, the category of analysis was “definition of morality”. An analysis of the transcript made it possible to identify such subcategories as “individual factors for determining morality” (indicators of the category: “I myself formulated, composed, determined”, “for me”, “I follow”, etc.) and “public factors for determining morality” (indicators : "general", "public", "common", "for all", etc.).

As a result, it was revealed that although the participants in the discussion pay great importance the opinion of parents in the formation of ideas about morality, yet “morality” for them is, first of all, an individual category. Students determine the rules of behavior for themselves independently, evaluating their morality in accordance with individually formulated ideas about morality. The results obtained are important for analyzing the attitude of modern youth to the problem of morality, as well as for studying the dynamics of ideas about moral behavior.

Using content analysis on final stage focus group research allows you to formalize the data obtained, to facilitate the process of their processing. Content analysis allows you to identify the degree of expression of a particular position among the participants in the discussion. However, it should be remembered that a significant number of statements in favor of one of the positions does not always reflect the actual representation of this opinion in the group under study. Considering the possibilities of applying content analysis in the processing of focus group data, S. A. Belanovsky gives an example of a study by D. Morgan and M. Spanish, devoted to the study of risk factors for heart attacks. According to the authors, the most commonly cited causes of seizures were stress, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle. The legitimacy of the conclusion about the significance of these factors is questioned due to the fact that these factors are mentioned in the explanatory work of doctors with patients. Therefore, when analyzing the discussion data, it is necessary to identify not only the most common statements, but single ones. The analysis of such unique representations can help in the critical evaluation of the studied representations.

Classifications is the distribution of a set of objects into groups (classes) depending on their common features. Reduction into classes can be carried out both by the presence of a generalizing feature, and by its absence.

Typology- grouping of objects according to the most significant systems of features for them. Such a grouping is based on the understanding of type as a unit of division of the studied reality and a specific ideal model of objects of reality. As a result of the typology, we get typology, i.e. totality types. There are two fundamental approaches to understanding and describing a type: 1) type as average(extremely generalized); 2) type as extreme(extremely idiosyncratic).

Systematization- this is the ordering of objects within classes, classes among themselves and a set of classes with other sets of classes. Such structuring of elements within systems of different levels (objects in classes, classes in their set, etc.) and the pairing of these systems with other single-level systems, which makes it possible to obtain systems of a higher level of organization and generalization. In practice, this allows obtaining multilevel classifications.

periodization– chronological ordering of the existence of the studied object (phenomenon). It consists in dividing the life cycle of an object into significant stages (periods).

Data interpretation.

The analysis and description of the obtained results is carried out within the framework of such approaches as genetic, structural, functional, complex, systemic.

genetic method is a way of studying and explaining phenomena, based on the analysis of their development, both in ontogenetic and phylogenetic plans. This requires the establishment of: 1) the initial conditions for the occurrence of the phenomenon; 2) the main stages and 3) the main trends in its development. The purpose of the method is to reveal the connection of the studied phenomena in time, to trace the transition from lower forms to higher ones.

Structural method- a direction focused on identifying and describing the structure of objects (phenomena). It is characterized by: in-depth attention to the description of the current state of objects; revealing their inherent timeless properties; interest not in isolated facts, but in the relationships between them. The result is a system of relationships between the elements of the object at various levels of its organization.

Usually, the structural approach does not emphasize the ratio of the parts and the whole in the object, as well as the dynamics of the identified structures.

functional method- focused on identifying and studying the functions of objects (phenomena). The ambiguity of interpretation in science of the concept of "function" makes it difficult to define this approach, as well as to identify certain areas of psychological research with it. At the same time, a function can be defined as a manifestation of the properties of objects in a certain system of relations, and properties are a manifestation of the quality of an object in its interaction with other objects.

In this way, functional approach focuses on the connections of the object under study with the environment. It proceeds from the principle of self-regulation and maintaining the balance of the objects of reality (including the psyche and its carriers).

Complex method is a direction that considers the object of study as a set of components to be studied using an appropriate set of methods. components can be relatively homogeneous parts of the whole, as well as its heterogeneous sides that characterize the object under study in different aspects. Often an integrated approach involves the study of a complex object from the standpoint of different sciences, i.e. organization of interdisciplinary research.

System Method- this is a methodological direction in the study of reality, considering any of its fragments as a system. The system is a certain integrity interacting with environment and consisting of many elements that are among themselves in certain relationships and connections. The organization of these links between elements is called a structure. An element is the smallest part of a system that retains its properties within that system.

The properties of the elements are determined by their position in the structure and, in turn, determine the properties of the system. But the properties of the system are not reduced to the sum of the properties of the elements. The system as a whole synthesizes (combines and generalizes) the properties of parts and elements, as a result of which it has properties of a higher level of organization, which, in interaction with other systems, can appear as its functions. Any system can be considered, on the one hand, as an association of simpler (smaller) subsystems with their own properties and functions, and on the other hand, as a subsystem of a more complex system.

System research is carried out with the help of system analysis and synthesis. In the process of analysis, the system is isolated from the environment, its composition, structure, functions, integral characteristics and properties, system-forming factors, relationships with the environment are determined. In the process of synthesis, a model of a real system is created, the completeness of its composition and structures, the patterns of its development and behavior are determined.

Description of objects as systems, i.e. system descriptions perform the same functions as any other scientific descriptions: explanatory and predictive, and in addition, they perform the function of integrating knowledge about objects.

Classification l l l is the distribution of a set of objects into groups (classes) depending on their common characteristics. Result: a set of classes, which, like the grouping process itself, is called classification. Classification can be: A) natural - based on an essential feature (for example, a subject catalog in a library, introversion - extroversion) B) artificial - on the basis of a feature that is not essential for the objects themselves (for example, an alphabetical catalog)

Psychological portraits of workers with different levels of PS Comparison parameters An employee with a high level of occupational stress An employee with a low level of occupational stress Level of neuroticism high low Level of stress and overwork high low Ability to orient in time focuses only on one of the segments of the time scale (past, present or future) and (or) a discrete perception of one's life path lives in the present, i.e., experiences the present moment of one's life in its entirety, and not just as a fatal consequence of the past or preparation for the future "real life"; feels the continuity of the past, present and future, perceives the world as a whole Dependence on external circumstances high degree dependency, conformity, lack of independence (“directed from the outside” personality), the external locus of control is relatively independent in its actions, strives to be guided in life by its own goals, beliefs, attitudes and principles, which, however, does not mean hostility to others and confrontation with group norms; free to choose, not subject to external influence (“internally directed” personality) Level of self-actualization low high Ability to establish contacts Low level of subject-subject interaction capable of quickly establishing deep and close emotionally rich contacts with people

Typologization l l l is a grouping of objects according to the most significant systems of features for them. Result: typology as a set of types (types of temperament, types of personality, etc.) psychological science four types of typologies are known: 1) constitutional (typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon); 2) psychological (typologies of K. Jung, K. Leonhard, A. E. Lichko, G. Shmishek, G. Eysenck); 3) social (types of leadership and leadership); 4) astropsychological (horoscopes).

Features of the characteristics of the value-semantic sphere of the personality of students with different type attitudes towards the profession II type IV type More or less adequate ideas, considered prestigious Underestimated (not prestigious, unable to meet important vital needs) Type I Ideas about the profession Overestimated (very prestigious, able to satisfy important vital needs) Underestimated Dominant values ​​Competence, creativity, stability , service, career development Respect, recognition, creativity, work stability, management, benefit to society High wages, autonomy, service, integration of all lifestyles Self-reliance, management, independence, entrepreneurship, high wages. Attitude towards studying at the university Positive, increased interest in the subjects of specialization. Sufficiently neutral Interest in all university subjects Dissatisfaction with the learning process, the disciplines of specialization are of the least interest Degree of involvement of the profession in the social life context High Medium Fairly high Low Satisfaction with some aspects of one's own life Dissatisfaction with various aspects of one's own life Features of self-esteem Satisfaction with various aspects of one's own life Satisfaction with some aspects of one's own life Professional plans Associated with the profession or close to it, there are intentions to continue education in graduate or master's programs Remotely related to the profession being acquired, aiming at obtaining a second higher education, not directly related to the first Associated with the profession or close to it Not related to the profession acquired Features of life prospects Optimistic Less optimistic Fairly optimistic Less optimistic

The difference between classification and typology l l A class is a set of similar real objects. A type is an ideal pattern that real objects resemble to some extent.

Systematization is the ordering of objects within classes, classes among themselves, and sets of classes with other sets of classes. This is the structuring of elements within systems of different levels (objects in classes, classes in their set, etc.) and the conjugation of these systems with other single-level systems, which makes it possible to obtain systems of a higher level of organization and generalization. l In practice, systematization results in a multi-level classification. Examples: taxonomy of flora and fauna; systematics of sciences (in particular, human sciences); systematics of psychological methods; taxonomy mental processes; systematics of personality traits; systematics of mental states.

Periodization l l l is a chronological ordering of the existence of the studied object (phenomenon). Essence: division of the life cycle of an object into significant stages (periods). Each stage usually corresponds to significant changes (quantitative or qualitative) in the object, which can be correlated with the philosophical category "jump". Examples of periodization in psychology: periodization of human ontogenesis; stages of personality socialization; stages and phases of group development (group dynamics), etc.

periodization mental development according to V. I. Slobodchikov Stages of development of subjectivity Period of formation of eventfulness Period of formation of identity Birth crises Stages of acceptance Crises of development Infancy 6 - 12 months I. Revitalization Birth crisis -2 months - +3 weeks Neonatality 0.5 - 4.0 months Neonatal crisis 3 , 5 - 7 months Infancy 6 - 12 months II. Animation Crisis of infancy 11 - 18 months Early childhood 1.5 - 3.0 years Early childhood crisis 2.5 - 3.5 years Preschool childhood 3 years - 6.5 years III. Personalization Crisis of childhood 5, 5 - 7, 5 years Adolescence 6, 5 - 11, 5 years Crisis of adolescence 11 - 14 years Adolescence 13 - 18 years IV. Individualization Crisis of youth 17 - 21 years old Youth 19 - 28 years old Crisis of youth 27 - 33 years old Adulthood 32 - 42 years old V. Universalization Crisis of adulthood 39 - 45 years old Maturity 44 - 60 years old Crisis of maturity 55 - 65 years old Old age 62 - Crisis of individual life

Psychological casuistry l l is a description and analysis of both the most typical and exceptional cases of differential and practical psychology. Example: the method of incidents in professiography.