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• Introduction
• 2. Development of Russia in the 17th century
• 2.2 Board of Boris Godunov, False DmitryIandII, Vasily Shuisky
• 2.4 Results of the Time of Troubles. The state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov
• Conclusion
• List of sources used

Introduction

In the 15th-17th centuries, the formation of a single Russian state took place. This problem is considered one of the key ones in historical science.

The Russian state was born in the 14th century under the yoke of an external yoke, built and expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries, in the midst of a stubborn struggle for its existence in the west, south and southeast. This external struggle kept internal hostility in check. The process of formation and development of the Russian centralized state took place in difficult conditions. Russia found its place in the world, its geopolitical space as a result of bloody victories and skillful politics. This process played an important role in the history of the state, predetermining its further position, development and was natural.

In the 17th century continued centralization of the Russian state. In the 17th century, there was a troubled time, which led to economic decline. It was the time of the formation of a new government and reforms.

In this work, we will cover both of these important periods in the history of Russia.

The purpose of this course work is to study the position of the Russian state in the 15-17 centuries.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set by the author:

consider the main events in the period of the 15th-16th centuries;

characterize the socio-economic development of Russia in the 15th-16th centuries;

to study the causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. and the main events of the turmoil;

characterize the reign of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky;

consider the reasons for the creation and results of people's militias;

sum up the troubled times. Consider the state of the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov.

To write this course paper, textbooks on the history of Russia were used by such authors as: Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova, Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M., Dvornichenko A.Yu., Kashchenko S.G., Kirillov V.V., Klyuchevsky V.O., Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. and others.

The structure of the course work is determined by the goals and objectives of the study and includes? introduction, two chapters divided into paragraphs, conclusion and list of references.

1. The formation of a unified Russian state in the 15-16 centuries

1.1 Main events in the period of 15-16 centuries

In the 2nd half of the 15th-1st third of the 16th centuries. most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of the unified Russian state.

The Grand Duke of All Russia Ivan III Vasilyevich (ruled in 1462-1505) annexed the principalities of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), the Novgorod Republic (1477), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485), Vyatka land (1489) to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. "Standing on the Ugra" troops of Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russo-Lithuanian wars of 1487–94 and 1500–03, the Verkhovsky principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, and others, ceded to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the 15th century developed a landownership system. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and the feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. Sudebnik 1497 legalized a single term for the transition of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of folding the central state apparatus was going on. The Boyar Duma became a permanent deliberative body under the supreme authority. It included duma ranks: boyars, roundabouts, from the beginning of the 16th century. - duma nobles, later duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities attached to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationship between the princely-boyar aristocracy of Moscow and the region was regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courts were still preserved (Tver land until the 1640s, Novgorod land until the first quarter of the 17th century). There were central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces). Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the institute of governors and volostels that had developed in Russia, supported by feeding, the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaiologos served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milants), Aleviz Fryazin to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow (New), Aristotle Fioravanti and others.

Under Ivan III, the struggle of 2 currents in the Russian Orthodox Church escalated: the Josephites (the founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). At the church council of 1503, the attempt of the non-possessors to put into practice the idea of ​​the monasteries giving up land ownership provoked active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the land fund of the state through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: "Church acquisition is God's acquisition." He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F.V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which had developed at the court of his son and co-ruler (since 1471), Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy (1458-93) and his wife (since 1483) Helena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to the Archbishop of Novgorod Gennady and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments of representatives of the so-called. Novgorod-Moscow heresy.

Grand Duke of All Russia Vasily III Ivanovich (reigned in 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510), the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. He conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the territory of the state increased from 430 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 60s of the 15th century) to 2800 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 30s of the 16th century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the specific princes, a number of appanages were liquidated. He began construction beyond the Oka of the Great Zasechnaya Line and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim Grek, and others. To justify the divine origin of the grand ducal power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the theory "Moscow - the third Rome". Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya aggravated relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.

During the years of the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death, under the juvenile Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1533) Ivan IV Vasilyevich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I.F. Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky (died in prison), princes Belsky, Shuisky, boyars Vorontsov, princes Glinsky. During this period, the inheritances of the brothers Vasily III, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky, were liquidated (both died in prison). Monetary reform (1535-38), description of lands (1536-44), lip reform (1539-41), etc. were carried out. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

In the 1st half of the 16th century. landownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. There was an increase in trade and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became large iron-making centers; they were engaged in salt-making in Salt-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the coast of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with Eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the largest market in the country. In the middle of the 16th century in the country there were already up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The closest adviser to the king was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s of the 16th century. Ivan IV together with the so-called. The elected council (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, and others) participated in the compilation of the Code of Laws of 1550, completed the lip and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feeding was canceled), began to convene Zemsky sobors, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions. There was a formation of a class-representative monarchy. The tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. The sovereign's court included the upper strata of the ruling class (including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: duma, as well as close to them, including representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" were formed. Localism regulated the system of tribal and service relations of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of the norms of parochialism in military service to military merit. In the middle of the 16th century a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 archery regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local system of manning the army was formalized by the "Code of Service" (1555-60).

The most important result of foreign policy in the 1550s. was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Western Urals in the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the 16th century. in Russia, in addition to Russians, lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Maris, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Komi, Karelians, Saami, Veps, Nenets and other peoples.

In order to prevent the raids of the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country in 1556-59, campaigns of Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559 governor D.F. Adashev landed on the Crimean coast, captured a number of cities and villages, and returned safely to Russia. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the aim of seizing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of the Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Russia was opposed by Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 - the Commonwealth).

Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some members of which opposed the conduct of the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathy for his cousin, the specific prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of the Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564) the tsar put disgrace and executed princes M.P. Repnina, Yu.I. Kashin, governor N.P. Sheremeteva and others. Trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, in December 1564 Ivan IV set about organizing the oprichnina. On January 3, 1565, having retired to Alexandrov's settlement, he announced his abdication, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and clerks. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing their consent to granting emergency powers to the tsar. The king established a "special" court with his army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina, the oprichnina thought, financial orders (Cheti) operated. Zemshchina continued to be controlled by the Boyar Duma. There were evictions of feudal lords who were not enrolled in the oprichnina, with the transfer of their lands to the guardsmen. From February 1565, the oprichnina terror began. In 1568, the boyar I.P. was executed. Fedorov and his alleged "supporters", in 1569 the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip and others were exterminated. In January - February 1570, the tsar led a campaign against Novgorod, which was accompanied by the devastation of Tver and Novgorod lands and the defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A.D. and F.A. Basmanov, clerk I.M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. At the same time, zemstvo governors, princes M.I. Vorotynsky, D.I. Khvorostinin and others inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed Simeon Bekbulatvich, the Kasimov Khan, the Grand Duke of All Russia, he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lutsin, Zesswegen, Schwanenburg, and others in 1577) gave way to a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish King Stefan Batory and the Swedish King Johan III. In 1581-82 the Pskov garrison headed by Prince I.P. Shuisky withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.

The internal policy of Ivan IV and a protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population with taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large areas of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on the peasant exit on St. George's Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported the campaign of Yermak Timofeyevich against the Siberian Khanate (about 1581), initiating the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. The Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky in 1582, the Truce of Plus in 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed "The Terrible", ended in the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar, connected with the murder of his son - Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have not been able to unambiguously explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, outstanding education and the sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.

Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries. It is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of book printing (printing houses of Ivan Fedorov, P.T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), applied art. In the 16th century compiled Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles, the Front chronicle code. The problems of power, the relationship between church and state, the socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Philotheus, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Yermolai-Erasmus, I.S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A.M. Kurbsky and others.

1.2 Socio-economic development of Russia in the 15th-16th centuries

The Mongol invasion led to the death of huge masses of people, the desolation of a number of regions, the displacement of a significant part of the population from the Dnieper region to North-Eastern and South-Western Russia. Epidemics also caused terrible damage to the population. Nevertheless, the reproduction of the population had an expanded character, over 300 years (from 1200 to 1500) it increased by about a quarter. The population of the Russian state in the 16th century, according to D.K. Shelestov, amounted to 6-7 million people.

However, population growth lagged significantly behind the growth of the country's territory, which increased by more than 10 times, including such vast regions as the Volga region, the Urals, and Western Siberia. For Russia was characterized by low population density, its concentration in certain areas. The most densely populated were the central regions of the country, from Tver to Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod land. Here was the highest population density - 5 people per 1 sq. km. The population was clearly not enough to develop such vast spaces.

The Russian state was formed as a multinational from the very beginning. The most important phenomenon of this time was the formation of the Great Russian (Russian) people. The formation of city-states only contributed to the accumulation of these differences, but the consciousness of the unity of the Russian lands was preserved. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

The Slavic population of the interfluve of the Volga and Oka experienced first hand

strong influence of the local Finno-Ugric population. Once under the rule of the Horde, the inhabitants of these lands could not but absorb many features of the steppe culture. Over time, the language, culture and way of life of the more developed Moscow land began to increasingly influence the language, culture and way of life of the population of all North-Eastern Russia.

The development of the economy contributed to the strengthening of political, religious and cultural ties between the inhabitants of cities and villages. The same natural, economic and other conditions helped to create certain common features among the population in their occupations and character, in family and social life. In sum, all these common features and made up the national characteristics of the population of the north-east of Russia. Moscow in the minds of the people became a national center, and from the second half of the XIV century. there is also a new name for this region - Great Russia.

Throughout this period, many peoples of the Volga region, the Bashkirs, and others became part of the Russian state. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

After the Mongol invasion, the economy of North-Eastern Russia was in crisis, starting only approximately from the middle of the 14th century. slowly revive.

The main arable implements, as in the pre-Mongolian period, were a plow and a plow. In the XVI century. the plow is replacing the plow throughout Great Russia. The plow is being improved - a special board is attached to it - the police, which carries along with it the loosened earth and rakes it to one side.

The main crops grown at this time are rye and oats, which replaced wheat and barley, which is associated with a general cooling, the spread of a more advanced plow and, accordingly, the development of previously inaccessible areas for plowing. Orchard crops were also widespread.

Farming systems were diverse, there was a lot of archaic here: along with the recently appeared three-field, two-field, shifting system, arable land were widespread, and in the north the slash-and-burn system dominated for a very long time.

In the period under review, soil manure begins to be applied, which, however, somewhat lags behind the spread of the three-field system. In areas dominated by arable farming with manure fertilizer, livestock occupied a very large place in agriculture. The role of animal husbandry was also great in those northern latitudes where little grain was sown. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

When discussing agriculture and the economy, it must be taken into account that the lands of the Non-Black Earth region became the main proscenium of Russian history. Infertile, mainly soddy-podzolic, podzolic and podzolic-marsh soils dominate throughout this area. This poor quality of the soil was one of the reasons for the low yields. The main reason for it is in the specifics of natural and climatic conditions. The cycle of agricultural work here was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days. That is why the peasant economy of the indigenous territory of Russia had extremely limited opportunities for the production of marketable agricultural products. Due to the same circumstances, there was practically no commercial cattle breeding in the Non-Chernozem region. It was then that the centuries-old problem of the Russian agrarian system arose - peasant land shortages.

As before, ancient crafts played a big role in the life of the Eastern Slavs: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. On the scale of the use of "gifts of nature" up to the 17th century. evidenced by many materials, including notes by foreigners about Russia.

However, the craft is gradually beginning to revive. There are a number of significant shifts in handicraft technology and production: the appearance of water mills, deep drilling of salt wells, the beginning of the production of firearms, etc. In the XVI century. the process of differentiation of the craft is very intensive, workshops appear that carry out sequential operations for the manufacture of the product. Handicraft production grew especially rapidly in Moscow and other major cities.

Marketable products circulated mainly in local markets, but the trade in bread was already outgrowing their scope.

Many ancient trade relations have lost their former importance, but others have appeared, and trade with the countries of the West and the East is developing quite widely. However, a feature of Russia's foreign trade was the high proportion of crafts such as furs and wax. The scale of commercial transactions was small, and trade was carried out mainly by small merchants. However, there were also rich merchants who in the XIV-XV centuries. appear in the sources under the name of guests or deliberate guests.

In the XIV century. patrimonial land ownership begins to develop.

The church patrimony turned out to be in more favorable conditions. After the invasion, the church enjoyed the support of the khans, who showed religious tolerance and pursued a flexible policy in the conquered lands.

From the middle of the XIV century. in the monasteries there is a transition from the "keliot" charter to the "hostel" - the life of the monks in separate cells with a separate meal and housekeeping was replaced by a monastic commune, which had collective property.

russian state turmoil of novels

Over time, the head of the Russian Church, the metropolitan, became a large landowner, in charge of an extensive and multifunctional economy. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

However, the main body of land in the XIV-XV centuries. constituted the so-called black volosts - a kind of state land, the manager of which was the prince, and the peasants considered it "God's, the sovereign's and theirs." In the XVI century. "palace lands" gradually stand out from the array of black lands, and the Grand Duke becomes one of the largest landowners. But another process was more important - the disintegration of the black volost due to the distribution of land to church and secular landowners.

The estate, which has been widespread since the end of the 15th century. and becomes the economic and social pillar of power until later times.

Before the widespread use of estates, the main income of the boyars was all kinds of feeding and holding, i.e. remuneration for the performance of administrative, judicial and other socially useful functions. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

The remnants of the former princely families, boyars, "landlords" gradually form the backbone of the "upper class". The bulk of the population in the XIV-XV centuries. still constituted a free people, who received the name "peasants".

Peasants, even found themselves within the patrimony, enjoyed the right of free transfer, which is formalized as large land ownership develops and is included in the first all-Russian Sudebnik of 1497. This is the famous St. George's Day - the norm according to which peasants, having paid the so-called elderly, could transfer from one landowner to another.

The dependent peasants were in the worst position: ladles and pieces of silver. Apparently, both of them found themselves in such a difficult life situation that they were forced to take loans and then work them off. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

Slaves remained the main labor force of the patrimony. However, the number of whitewashed serfs decreased, and the contingent of bonded serfs increased, i.e. people who found themselves in slavish dependence on the so-called service bondage.

At the end of the XVI century. the process of intensive enslavement of the peasants begins. Some years are declared "reserved", i.e. during these years, the transition to St. George's Day is prohibited. However, the main way to enslavement of the peasants is "lesson years", i.e. the term of detecting fugitive peasants, which is becoming longer and longer. It should also be borne in mind that from the very beginning the process of enslavement captured not only the peasants, but also the townspeople of the country.

Citizens - black townspeople - are united in the so-called black townsman community, which existed in archaic forms in Russia until the 18th century. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

Another important feature that characterizes the estates of the East Slavic lands of that time is their service character. All of them had to perform certain official functions in relation to the state.

2. Development of Russia in the 17th century

2.1 Causes of the political and economic crisis in Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries and the main events of the turmoil

At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. The Muscovite state was going through a severe and complex crisis, moral, political and socio-economic. The position of the two main classes of the Moscow population - servicemen and "hard" people - was not easy before either; but at the end of the sixteenth century the situation of the central regions of the state deteriorated significantly.

With the opening for Russian colonization of the vast southeastern spaces of the Middle and Lower Volga regions, a wide stream of peasants rushed here from the central regions, seeking to get away from the state and the landlord "tax", and this drain of labor led to a shortage of workers and to a severe economic crisis within the state. The more people left the center, the harder the state and landowner tax burdened those who remained. The growth of landownership placed an increasing number of peasants under the rule of the landlords, and the lack of workers forced the landowners to increase peasant taxes and duties and strive by all means to secure the existing peasant population of their estates. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

The position of "full" and "enslaved" serfs has always been quite difficult, and at the end of the 16th century. the number of indentured servants was increased by a decree, which prescribed that all those formerly free servants and workers who had served their masters for more than six months be turned into indentured serfs.

In the second half of the XVI century. special circumstances, external and internal, contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent. The severe Livonian War (which lasted 25 years and ended in complete failure) demanded huge sacrifices from the population in people and material resources. The Tatar invasion and the defeat of Moscow in 1571 significantly increased casualties and losses. The oprichnina of Tsar Ivan, which shook and shook the old way of life and habitual relations (especially in the "oprichnina" regions), increased the general discord and demoralization; in the reign of Ivan the Terrible "a terrible habit was established not to respect the life, honor, property of one's neighbor."

On top of all the troubles at the beginning of the century, the country was struck by a terrible crop failure. It was a powerful impetus for the open manifestation of broad social dissatisfaction with the existing political regime. This disaster brought the main draft population of the country to complete ruin. The peasants, fleeing from famine and epidemics, left their homes and headed for the cities. The landlords, not wanting to feed their serfs, often kicked them out themselves without giving them the required vacation pay. Crowds of hungry and destitute people roamed the country.

Trying to ease social tension, the government in 1601 temporarily allowed the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another. State work was organized in Moscow, including the completion of the construction of the Ivan the Great Bell Tower in the Kremlin. Bread from the royal granaries was distributed free of charge. But this could not save the population of the country from extinction. In the capital alone, 127,000 people died in two years.

At the same time, there was bread in the country. Usury and rampant speculation flourished. Large landowners - boyars, monasteries, and even Patriarch Job himself - kept huge grain stocks in their pantries, expecting a new rise in price.

Mass escapes of peasants and serfs, refusals to pay duties continued. Especially a lot of people went to the Don and Volga, where the free Cossacks lived. The difficult economic situation inside the country led to a fall in the authority of the government.

In 1603, a wave of numerous uprisings of the starving common people was growing, especially in the south of the country. A large detachment of rebels under the command of Khlopko Kosolap operated near Moscow itself. Government troops with great difficulty managed to suppress such riots.

While the sovereigns of the old habitual dynasty, the direct descendants of Rurik and Vladimir the Holy and the builders of the Muscovite state, were sitting on the Moscow throne, the vast majority of the population meekly and unquestioningly obeyed their "natural sovereigns". But when the dynasty ceased and the state turned out to be "no one's", the earth was confused and went into ferment. The upper layer of the Moscow population, the boyars, economically weakened and morally belittled by the policy of Grozny, began the turmoil by the struggle for power in the country, which had become "stateless". Radugin A.A. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization). Lecture course. M., 2001. - 352 p.

Open unrest in the Muscovite state began with the death of the childless Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1598). It is customary to think that it ended with the accession to the throne of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (1613). During this period of time, Moscow life was full of the struggle of various social and political forces. Peering into the course of this struggle, we notice that at first the Moscow throne serves as its subject. Various "wishers of power" serve for possession of it: the Romanovs with the Godunovs, then the Godunovs with the self-proclaimed Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, and finally, having killed the impostor, the prince Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky from Rurik's offspring seizes the throne. This time (1598 - 1606) is the period of the dynastic Troubles. Soon after the accession of Shuisky, a series of uprisings began against Tsar Vasily and the "dashing boyars" surrounding him. Although the rebels hide behind the name of Tsar Dmitry, whom they do not consider killed, it is clear that the movement is no longer guided by dynastic motives, but by motives of class hostility. The social ranks - the Cossacks - rise to the slave-owning pinnacle of society in the hope of a political and state coup. This open civil strife lasts from 1606 to 1610 and may be called the time of social struggle. All sorts of foreigners begin to intervene in the Moscow civil strife, soon after it arises, in order to take advantage of Moscow's weakness in their own private interests or for the benefit of their states - Sweden and the Commonwealth. This intervention leads to the fact that the Novgorod and Smolensk outskirts of the state come under the rule of the Swedes and Poles, and in Moscow itself, after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily from the Moscow throne, the Polish-Lithuanian garrison is installed. Thus, social Troubles lead to the disintegration of the social order in the Muscovite state and to the fall of state independence. The intervention of foreigners and their triumph over Moscow arouse national feeling in Russians and direct all sections of the Moscow population against the people's enemies. Since 1611, attempts to overthrow foreign power begin; but they do not succeed as long as they are harmed by the blind intransigence of the social strata. But when in 1612 a militant organization was formed in Yaroslavl, uniting the middle classes of Moscow society, things take a different turn. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

The Yaroslavl Provisional Government succeeded in influencing the Cossack masses to such an extent, both by suggestion and force, that it achieved unity of all popular forces and restored tsarist power and a single government in the country. This period of the Troubles (1611 - 1613) can be called the time of the struggle for nationality.

2.2 Board of Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and II, Vasily Shuisky

The period of Troubles in time is closely connected with the moment of election to the Russian throne of Boris Godunov (1598 - 1605). Upon the death of the childless Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (in January 1598), Moscow swore allegiance to his wife, Tsarina Irina, but Irina renounced the throne and became a monk. When Moscow suddenly found itself without a tsar, it was natural that everyone's eyes turned to the ruler Boris Godunov. His candidacy for the throne was strongly and persistently pursued by Patriarch Job, but Boris refused for a long time, assuring him that it had never occurred to him to assume the highest throne of the Russian Tsardom. The Zemsky Sobor was convened from representatives of all ranks, people of all cities of the Moscow state, and the council unanimously elected Boris Fedorovich to the kingdom, who reigned at the request and election of "the entire consecrated cathedral, and the boyars, and the Christ-loving army and the multitude of Orthodox Christians of the Russian state ". The solemn wedding of Godunov to the kingdom in September 1598, which marked, it would seem, the triumph of his political career, was the beginning of the collapse of the policy of state centralization, which Boris Godunov pursued after Ivan the Terrible. The accession of Godunov, who by origin did not belong to either the Rurikovichs or the Gediminoviches, unlike his competitors, the Mstislavskys and Shuiskys, further intensified the strife among the highest nobility. Rumors grew that Tsarevich Dmitry had been killed in Uglich on the orders of Godunov. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

Tsar Boris, both in domestic and foreign policy, developed the trends that emerged in the last years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. First of all, the Godunov government took care of meeting the urgent needs of the service nobility, in which it saw its main support. For this purpose, the regulation on the abolition of tarkhans (land exempted from taxes) of 1584 and the law on the allocation of the master's plowing of feudal lords of the early 90s were adopted. A decisive limit was placed on the growth of the possessions of the church. It was planned to improve the economy of military service landowners. A targeted series of events was designed to end the depopulation of the center of the country. For example, the so-called township structure was carried out - accounting for the population of township settlements and hundreds, the purpose of which was to return people who had gone to privately owned yards and settlements in cities. The decrees of 1597 on a five-year search for peasants and on serfs were intended to secure their servants for service people.

Some weakening of internal social tension in the country was facilitated by Godunov's foreign policy activities, which favored the development of the south and southeast of the country and advancement to Siberia. In the Volga region, in the southern and Siberian lands, a stream of peasants, serfs and artisans poured in, fleeing hunger and oppression. Fortresses and cities were erected on new frontiers, uninhabited lands were developed.

In foreign policy, the desire to find peaceful solutions to conflicts in 1584-1598 turned into the principle of maintaining friendly relations with neighboring countries. During the reign of Boris Godunov, Russia practically did not wage bloody wars.

In the implementation of his political program, Godunov could not have done without a well-coordinated state apparatus. He attracted many prominent administrators to state activities and streamlined the operation of orders. Boris sought to destroy the generic principle of the formation of the Boyar Duma, replacing it with a family-corporate one, when proximity to the board played a decisive role in appointment to the Duma. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

The achievements of Boris Godunov's policy were fragile, because they were based on overstretching the country's socio-economic potential, which inevitably led to a social explosion. Discontent encompassed all sectors of society: the nobility and the boyars were outraged by the curtailment of their tribal rights, the service nobility was not satisfied with the policy of the government, which was unable to stop the flight of the peasants, which significantly reduced the income of their estates, the townsman population opposed the township building and increased tax oppression, even the Orthodox clergy were dissatisfied with the curtailment of their privileges and strict submission to autocratic power.

In the neighboring Commonwealth, they were only waiting for a reason to intervene in the internal affairs of a weakened Russia. In 1602, a man appeared there, posing as the miraculously survived Tsarevich Dmitry, son of Ivan IV, who died in Uglich on May 15, 1591. In reality, the impostor was the Galich nobleman Yuri (Grigory) Otrepyev, who was tonsured a monk at the Chudov Monastery and then fled to Lithuania. Perhaps he was a protege of the disgraced boyars of the Romanovs.

At first, the Polish king Sigismund III helped the impostor secretly. False Dmitry I, who converted to Catholicism, with the help of the Sandomierz governor Yuri Mnishek, whose daughter, Marina, he promised to marry, managed to gather a detachment of mercenaries from 4 thousand people.

In October 1604, False Dmitry entered the southern outskirts of the country, engulfed in unrest and uprisings. A number of cities went over to the side of the impostor, he was replenished with detachments of Zaporozhye and Don Cossacks, as well as local rebels. By the beginning of 1605, more than 20 thousand people had gathered under the banner of the "tsarevich". Radugin A.A. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization). Lecture course. M., 2001. - 352 p.

On January 21, 1605, in the vicinity of the village of Dobrynichi, Kamaritskaya volost, a battle took place between the detachments of the impostor and the royal army, led by Prince F.I. Mstislavsky. The rout was complete: False Dmitry I miraculously escaped to Putivl. During this critical period for the impostor, on April 13, 1605, Tsar Boris Godunov suddenly died and his 16-year-old son Fyodor Borisovich Godunov ascended the throne. The boyars did not recognize the new tsar. On May 7, the tsarist army, led by governors Peter Basmanov and princes Golitsyn, went over to the side of False Dmitry. On June 1, 1605, the boyars-conspirators organized a coup d'état and provoked popular indignation in the capital. Tsar Fedor was dethroned and strangled along with his mother.

On June 1, 1605, Moscow swore allegiance to the impostor, who settled in the Kremlin. However, hopes for a "good and just" tsar soon collapsed. A Polish protege sat on the Russian throne. The foreigners who flooded the capital behaved as if they were in a conquered city. All over the country it was openly said that a fugitive monk had taken possession of the Monomakh's cap. The boyars also no longer needed the king-adventurer. The new conspiracy was preceded by the wedding of Otrepyev with Marina Mnishek - the Catholic was crowned with the royal crown of the Orthodox state. Moscow boomed. On the night of May 17, 1606, an uprising of the townspeople began. The conspirators broke into the Kremlin and killed False Dmitry I. The corpse of False Dmitry, after being scolded, was burned and, having mixed the ashes with gunpowder, they shot him from a cannon in the direction from which he came.

Three days later, the well-born boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky (1606 - 1610), the organizer of the conspiracy, was "called out" from the Execution Ground on Red Square as the new tsar. Formally, power passed into the hands of the Boyar Duma, but this power was ephemeral.

The internal political state of the state continued to deteriorate. The country was disturbed by rumors about the rescue of "Tsarevich Dmitry". In the south, a mass uprising began, the center of which was the city of Putivl.

The rebellious Cossacks, peasants and townspeople elected in Putivl a "great governor" who arrived with a detachment of Cossacks Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, a former military servant of Prince A. Telyatevsky from the Chernihiv region. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov, at the head of a 10,000-strong army of rebels, began a campaign against Moscow. The fortresses of Kromy and Yelets were taken, under which the regiments of Vasily Shuisky were defeated. By October 1606, Bolotnikov was joined by large detachments of service nobles, the archer centurion I. Pashkov and the Ryazan governor P. Lyapunov, as well as the nobleman G. Sumbulov, who opposed the boyar tsar. The Putivl voivode Prince G. Shakhovskoy also helped the rebels.

Despite significant forces, the rebel detachments were unable to capture the capital. In the battle near the village of Kolomenskoye on December 2, 1606, the tsarist troops defeated the rebels, which was facilitated by the transfer of noble detachments to the side of Tsar Vasily. After that, the rebel detachments had to retreat and in December 1606 fortify themselves in Kaluga. In May 1607, Bolotnikov withdrew to Tula, where he sat down under siege. On May 21, the hastily assembled government troops, led by Tsar Vasily, marched to defeat the besieged rebels. The besiegers built a dam on the Upa River and flooded the city. Only after that the rebels surrendered (in October 1607). At the same time, Vasily Shuisky promised to save the lives of all those who surrendered. However, the boyar government did not keep its promise - cruel reprisals were perpetrated on the participants in the peasant-noble turmoil. Ivan Bolotnikov himself was exiled to distant Kargopol, where he was soon secretly blinded and drowned. Arslanov R.A., V.V. Kerov, M.N. Moseykina, T.M. Smirnova. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Allowance for entering universities. - 2000 519 p.

A new impostor showed up in Starodub in the summer of 1607. Contemporaries built a lot of conjectures about its origin. In the Barnulab Chronicle, the Belarusian chronicler most reliably calls him Bogdanka, a teacher of children at the priest in Shklov. It was he who became the new henchmen of the Polish interventionists. In May 1608, the tsarist troops were defeated near Bolkhov, and False Dmitry II, at the head of large detachments of Polish and Lithuanian magnates, moved to Moscow. On the way, he was joined by the recent Bolotnikovites, as well as the Cossack detachments of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. In early June 1608, the troops of the new impostor approached Moscow, but, having been defeated at Khimki and Presnya, they set up a fortified camp in the village of Tushino, from whose name False Dmitry II received the nickname "Tushinsky Thief". The siege of the capital began. Part of the capital's nobility went over from Tsar Vasily Shuisky to a new contender for the Russian throne, and their own Boyar Duma and orders began to operate in Tushino. Capturing Rostov in October 1608, the Polish detachments captured Metropolitan Philaret Romanov and, having brought him to Tushino, proclaimed him patriarch. Radugin A.A. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization). Lecture course. M., 2001. - 352 p.

Released from Moscow in July 1608 under the terms of a truce with the Poles, Marina Mniszek, along with her father, also ended up in Tushino and recognized her husband in the new impostor.

During this period, a virtual regime of dual power was established in the country. The Tushino detachments controlled a significant part of the Russian state, robbing and ruining the population. In the Tushino camp itself, the impostor was completely controlled by the leaders of the Polish detachments. Their robbery actions caused an armed rebuff of the surrounding peasants and townspeople. For 16 months (from October 1608 to January 1610), the Polish-Lithuanian detachments of Jan Sapieha besieged the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but its defenders repulsed all the attacks of the enemy.

During this period, Tsar Vasily Ivanovich decided to ask for help from Sweden, the throne of which was claimed by the Polish king. The tsar's nephew, 24-year-old Prince M.V., was sent to the north to gather troops. Skopin - Shuisky. On February 28, 1609, he concluded an agreement with Sweden in Vyborg, according to which, instead of a 15,000-strong military detachment, instead of a 15,000-strong military detachment, she sent only 7,000 mercenaries led by Ya.P. Delagardie.

The army of Skopin - Shuisky moved through Novgorod and Tver, replenished along the way with local militias. It was able to defeat the Tushins and lift the siege from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. On March 12, 1610, the commander entered Moscow. The impostor fled to Kaluga. Most of the Polish detachments went to King Sigismund III. In Moscow, during the celebration of the victory, in April 1610, Skopin-Shuisky died unexpectedly. It was believed that he was poisoned by royal relatives. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history: Full course of lectures: In 2 books: Book. 1. - Mn.: Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 1056 p. - Classics of historical thought.

2.3 Creation and results of the people's militias

The Polish occupation of Moscow dragged on, Vladislav did not accept Orthodoxy and did not go to Russia, the rule of the Poles and Polish minions in Moscow aroused ever greater displeasure. Now the service people, and the “zemstvo” people in general, and those Cossacks who had a national consciousness and religious feeling, had one enemy left - the one who occupied the Russian capital with foreign troops and threatened the national Russian state and the Orthodox Russian faith. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Book I. M., 2001. - 347 p.

Patriarch Hermogenes became the head of the national-religious opposition at that time. He firmly declares that if the prince does not accept Orthodoxy, and the "Lithuanian people" do not leave the Russian land, then "Vladislav is not our sovereign." When his verbal arguments and exhortations had no effect on the behavior of the opposing side, Hermogenes began to turn to the Russian people with direct calls for an uprising in defense of the church and the fatherland.

The voice of the patriarch was soon heard. The "great ruin" of the Russian land caused a wide upsurge of the patriotic movement in the country. Letters of appeal from the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Hermogenes, and the Ryazan governor, Prokopiy Lyapunov, did their job.

Prokopy Lyapunov became the organizer of the First People's (or, as it is called, the Zemstvo) militia, which at the beginning of March 1611 came out to Moscow.

However, on March 19, a new uprising of Muscovites broke out in the capital. Street battles broke out, in which the invaders began to fail. Then they set fire to the city. The Polish garrison hid behind the walls of the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod.

When the militia entered Moscow, they found ashes in its place. By that time, Tushino nobles, led by D.T., had already joined Lyapunov. Trubetskoy and the Cossacks under the command of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. The siege of the enemy garrison began. Shortly after the murder of Prokopy Lyapunov by the Cossacks in June 1611, the First Zemstvo Militia disintegrated. Only Cossack detachments remained under the capital.

Meanwhile, Sigismund III took the bloodless Smolensk. The Swedes began negotiations with the Novgorod boyars on the recognition of the son of the King of Sweden, Karl Philip, as the Russian tsar.

The failure of the First Zemstvo Militia upset, but did not discourage the Zemstvo people. In the autumn of 1611, the Russian state, which did not have a central government and troops, was on the verge of a national catastrophe. But there was a force that saved the country from foreign enslavement. The entire Russian people rose up in an armed struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention. In the provincial cities, a movement soon began again to organize a new militia and march on Moscow. Radugin A.A. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization). Lecture course. M., 2001. - 352 p.

The banner of the struggle for national liberation was raised in Nizhny Novgorod. Here, in October 1611, the zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin - Sukhoruk, a small meat and fish merchant, appealed to the townspeople with an appeal to assemble a people's militia to liberate Moscow. The patriotic appeal found a warm response from the people of Nizhny Novgorod, who decided to give "third money" to the creation of the militia, i.e. one third of personal property. At the initiative of Minin, the "Council of All the Earth" was created, which was the interim government. Prince D.M. is invited to head the Zemstvo army. Pozharsky, who distinguished himself during the Moscow uprising against the Poles. In early March 1612, the militia began a campaign against Moscow through Yaroslavl, which became a gathering place for military forces.

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Main questions

5.1.1. Prerequisites and features of the formation of Russian absolutism

5.1.2. Expansion of the territory of the Russian state. Reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia

5.1.3. Church reform of the 50-60s. 17th century and its consequences

5.1.1 .Prerequisites and features of the formation of Russian absolutism. The political system of Russia has undergone during the XVII century. significant changes, embarking on the path of formation absolutism. February 21, 1613. Zemsky Sobor elected Russian Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. A new dynasty appeared on the throne, which needed to strengthen its authority. If the representatives of the Rurik dynasty could assert the originality and divine origin of their power, then the Romanovs needed the support of the entire “land”. That is why the first ten years of their reign Zemsky Sobors sat almost continuously.

However, with the strengthening of power and the strengthening of the dynasty, Zemsky Sobors are convened less and less often and, as a rule, decide foreign policy issues. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, which decided the issue of joining Ukraine to Russia, turned out to be the last. In recent years, in historical science, the opinion has been increasingly expressed that the significance of the Zemsky Sobors in Russian history it is exaggerated that the participation of the townspeople in them was irregular, and the black-haired peasants were episodic. Many historians believe that the cathedrals were in fact a kind of information meetings that allowed the authorities to learn about the mood in the country. In this regard, the definition of the Russian monarchy in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries is called into question. how class-representative.

An important step towards the transformation of the Russian monarchy into absolutism was the Council Code, adopted by the Zemsky Sobor in 1649. According to this document, "Lesson Summers" and the search for runaway peasants became indefinite. Harboring fugitives was punishable by fines. The "Code" actually enserfed the townspeople, attaching them to their places of residence. Meeting the demands of the townspeople, the government included the "white" settlements (which had not previously paid taxes) in the tax and forbade the townspeople to continue to leave their communities, becoming serfs and even moving to other towns.

The tsar ruled on the basis of an advisory body - the Boyar Duma. Royal decrees began with the words "The Great Sovereign indicated and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma consisted of boyars, okolnichy, duma nobles and duma clerks. All members of the Duma were appointed by the tsar. In the Duma, the number of nobles and clerks gradually increased; immigrants not from the aristocracy, but from the middle nobility and townspeople. The total number of the Duma grew, which had a negative impact on its performance. A number of important matters began to be decided bypassing the Duma, on the basis of discussions with some close associates. Created with Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) the Order of the Secret Affairs was not controlled by the Duma at all, but was directly subordinate to the tsar.

The role of orders in the management system of the 17th century. increased, and their number increased. More than 80 of them are known throughout the century. Orders were divided into temporary and permanent. Permanent orders included palace orders (they managed the royal estates and served the royal court), patriarchal orders (they managed church estates and the personal property of the patriarch) and state orders. State orders were divided into territorial (Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian) and functional.

The latter included Posolsky (in charge of relations with foreign states), Local (in charge of local distributions and land transactions), Discharge (in charge of the noble service, military reviews and the suitability of service people), Rogue (engaged in the fight against robberies and state crimes) orders. There were a number of nationwide financial orders, including the order of the Great Treasury, which was in charge of trade and industry, as well as minting coins.

A large group of orders dealt with military issues: Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Reitarsky were in charge of the respective branches of the military (infantry, artillery and cavalry). With the development of the command system, the number of command people increased. In 1640 there were less than 900 of them, and by the end of the 17th century - more than 3 thousand. The clerks and clerks who worked in the orders were from the townspeople, clergy, and merchants. Their career depended not on nobility, but on personal merit. Formed a professional administrative apparatus - the bureaucracy.

The system of local government has also changed. After the abolition of feeding in the 1550s. local power was concentrated in the hands of elected representatives of the local population: labial and zemstvo elders, favorite heads, etc. This was due to the fact that the state did not yet have sufficient apparatus to appoint its representatives to the localities. In the 17th century governors became such representatives.

At that time, the attitude towards the person of the sovereign became almost religious. The king was emphatically separated from his subjects and towered over them. In the "Cathedral Code" there was a whole chapter devoted to "how to protect his sovereign health." Even with brief absences from the Kremlin, a special decree was written to whom, during the absence of the sovereign, “the state was in charge”. On solemn occasions, the tsar appeared in a Monomakh's hat, barm, with signs of his power - a scepter and an orb. Each appearance of the tsar was an event; when he went out to the people, he was led under the arms of the boyars. All this was an external manifestation of the formation in the country in the second half of the 17th century. absolutism.

Russian absolutism took shape in an atmosphere of acute social struggle between various strata of Russian society. The 17th century in Russian history gained a reputation as "rebellious". The most important reasons for such a scale of social conflicts, unprecedented before in Russia, were the development of serfdom, the strengthening of state taxes and duties. In 1646, a duty was introduced on salt, which significantly increased its price. Following salt, other products rose in price. This caused discontent among both merchants and consumers.

June 1st 1648 The so-called "Salt Riot" took place in Moscow. The crowd stopped the carriage of the tsar, who was returning from pilgrimage, and demanded that the head of the Zemsky order, Leonty Pleshcheev, be replaced. On June 2, the pogroms of boyar estates began. The clerk Nazariy Pure, who was considered the initiator of the salt tax, was killed. The rebels demanded that the closest associate of the tsar, boyar Morozov, and the head of the Pushkar order, boyar Trakhaniotov, be extradited for reprisal. Not having the strength to suppress the uprising, which was joined by "servicemen on the instrument", the tsar yielded and betrayed Pleshcheev and Trakhaniotov, who were immediately brutally killed. Morozov Alexei Mikhailovich "prayed" from the rebels and exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.

Following the Salt Riot, urban uprisings swept through other cities: Veliky Ustyug, Kursk, Kozlov, Pskov, Novgorod. The strongest were the uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod, caused by a rise in the price of bread due to its deliveries to Sweden. The urban poor, who were threatened by famine, expelled the governor, defeated the courts of wealthy merchants and seized power. In the summer of 1650, both uprisings were crushed by government troops.

AT 1662. again there was a major uprising in Moscow, which went down in history as the "Copper Riot". To compensate for the huge costs of the wars with Poland and Sweden, the government put copper money into circulation, equating it with silver in price. At the same time, taxes were collected in silver coins, and goods were ordered to be sold with copper money. Not wanting to trade for copper money, the peasants stopped bringing food to Moscow, which caused prices to skyrocket.

On July 25, 1662, part of the townspeople rushed to smash the boyar estates, while others moved to the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, where the tsar was. Alexei Mikhailovich promised to sort it out, and the crowd began to calm down. But at this time, new groups arrived, who began to demand the extradition of royal dignitaries for reprisal. The archers, summoned by the king, fell upon the unarmed crowd and drove it to the river. Over 100 people drowned, many were hacked or captured. By royal order, 150 rebels were hanged, the rest were branded with iron and beaten with a whip.

The largest popular performance of the second half of the XVII century. happened on the Don and Volga. In 1666, a detachment of Cossacks under the command of ataman Vasily Us invaded Russia from the Upper Don, reached almost Tula, destroying noble estates on its way. Only the threat of a meeting with a large government army forced Mustache to turn back. Numerous serfs went with him to the Don.

AT 1667. a detachment of a thousand Cossacks went to the Caspian Sea for "zipuns", i.e. for prey. At the head of them was the ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razin. His detachment during 1667-1669. robbed Persian and Russian merchant caravans, attacked coastal Persian cities. With rich booty, the Razintsy returned to the Don. The campaign was purely predatory in nature, but it was in it that the core of the Razin army was formed, and the generous distribution of alms to the common people made it very popular.

In the spring of 1670, Razin began a new campaign. This time he decided to go against the "traitor boyars". Without resistance, Tsaritsyn was captured, the inhabitants of which gladly opened the gates to the Cossacks. The archers sent against Razin from Astrakhan went over to his side. The governor who resisted and the Astrakhan nobles were killed.

After that, Razin headed up the Volga. Along the way, he sent out "charming letters", calling on ordinary people to beat the boyars, nobles, governors and clerks. To attract supporters, the ataman spread a rumor that Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich and Patriarch Nikon were in his army. The main participants in the uprising were peasants, Cossacks, serfs, townspeople and workers. The cities of the Volga region surrendered without a fight. In all the captured cities, Razin introduced management along the lines of the Cossack circle.

Failure awaited Razin only near Simbirsk, the siege of which dragged on. Meanwhile, the government sent a 60,000-strong army to suppress the uprising. On October 3, 1670, near Simbirsk, the tsarist army under the command of governor Yuri Baryatinsky inflicted a severe defeat on the Razints. Razin was wounded and fled to the Don. There, the homely Cossacks, led by the military ataman K. Yakovlev, realizing that Razin's actions could incur royal wrath on all the Cossacks, seized him and handed him over to the government. Razin was tortured in the summer 1671 executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow. The participants in the uprising were subjected to cruel persecution and executions.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Razin uprising were its spontaneity and low organization, the fragmentation of the actions of the peasants, and the lack of clearly conscious goals for the rebels.

5.1.2. Expansion of the territory of the Russian state. Reunification of Left-bank Ukraine with Russia. The authorities had to act not only in a difficult domestic political situation, but also in a foreign political situation. After the end of the Troubles and the signing of the Deulino truce, Russia's relations with Poland remained difficult. In 1632, the truce expired, at the same time the Polish king Sigismund III died. The Russian government decided to take advantage of the inevitable weakening of the Commonwealth in connection with the election of a new king and return the lost lands. Thus began the Smolensk war. Russian troops under the command of voivode M.B. Shein captured a number of cities and laid siege to Smolensk. However, they themselves soon found themselves surrounded by the army of the new Polish king Vladislav and were forced to capitulate. According to the Polyanovsky Peace of 1634, Poland received back what was conquered by the Russian army, but Vladislav was forced to renounce his claims to the Russian throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as a “brother”, i.e. equal to itself.

In the 17th century Russia continued to move south. Taking advantage of the gradual weakening of the Crimean Khanate and the cessation of raids on its part, the Russians built the cities of Tambov and Kozlov. Along the borders, ramparts, ditches, and notches were built, connecting many fortified towns. In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov. The attempts of the Turks to recapture the fortress were unsuccessful - the Cossacks withstood the siege. In 1641, the Cossacks asked the tsar to take Azov under their authority. But this was fraught with war with Turkey. Convened in 1642, the Zemsky Sobor spoke out against the war. The Cossacks were forced to leave Azov.

AT 1648. the largest Cossack uprising against the Poles took place under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky. The rebels successively defeated the Polish troops in the battles of Zhovti Vody, Korsun and Pylyavtsy, captured part of Volhynia and Podolia. At the end of 1648 they occupied Kyiv. Masses of Ukrainians joined the uprising. Cossacks and the peasantry. In August 1649, the rebels defeated the Polish army near Zborov. However, an ally of Khmelnitsky - the Crimean Khan - went over to the side of the Poles.

Having lost the support of the Crimeans, the rebels were forced to sign the Zborovsky peace treaty with Poland. The Cossack register was increased to 40 thousand people, three provinces - Kiev, Bratslav and Chernigov - came under the hetman's control. The power of the gentry was limited here, all positions could only be occupied by the Orthodox. However, the peasants remained dependent on the lords, which forced Khmelnitsky to soon resume hostilities.

In 1651, in the battle near Berestechko, the Zaporozhian army suffered a severe defeat. Khmelnytsky signed the less favorable Bila Tserkva treaty. Now under control hetman only the Kiev province remained, the register was halved. In 1652, the rebels won a victory near Batog, but their strength was running out. It became clear that Ukraine would not win without outside help. Khmelnytsky's appeal was considered in 1653 by the Zemsky Sobor, which decided to accept Ukraine "under the high hand" of the tsar. January 8, 1654 The Ukrainian Rada in the city of Pereyaslav approved the transition under Moscow patronage and swore allegiance to the tsar.

The decision of the Council of 1653 meant war. In 1654, Russian troops captured Smolensk and part of Belarus. In 1661, negotiations began, which dragged on. AT 1667 Andrusovo truce was concluded, according to which Russia received Smolensk and Left-Bank Ukraine. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained with Poland. Kyiv passed to Russia for two years, and in 1686, according to the "Eternal Peace", the city became completely Russian.

At the same time, at the insistence of A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin in 1656, Russia began a war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The Russians took Derpt and laid siege to Riga, but they could not take it. The war simultaneously with Poland and Sweden was beyond the power of Russia. In 1661, the Treaty of Cardis was signed, according to which Russia renounced its acquisitions in the Baltic states.

5.1.3. Church reform of the 50-60s. 17th century and its consequences. The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rules and rituals. Significant discrepancies remained in the liturgical books, often caused by scribal errors. The elimination of these differences became one of the goals created in the 1640s. in Moscow, a circle of "zealots of ancient piety", which consisted of prominent representatives of the clergy.

The spread of printing made it possible to establish the uniformity of texts, but first it was necessary to decide on which models to make corrections. Political considerations played a decisive role in resolving this issue. The desire to make Moscow the center of world Orthodoxy demanded rapprochement with Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek clergy insisted on correcting Russian church books and rituals according to the Greek model.

The Greek Church, since the introduction of Orthodoxy in Russia, has gone through a number of reforms and differed significantly from the ancient Byzantine and Russian models. Therefore, part of the Russian clergy, led by "zealots of ancient piety," opposed the proposed reforms. However, Patriarch Nikon (since 1652), relying on the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, resolutely carried out the planned reforms.

The most important ceremonial changes were: baptism not with two, but with three fingers, the replacement of prostrations with the waist, the singing of hallelujah three times instead of twice, the movement of believers in the church past the altar not in the direction of the sun, but against it. The name of Christ began to be written in a different way - “Jesus” instead of “Jesus”. Some changes were made to the rules of worship and icon painting. All books and icons painted according to old models were to be destroyed.

For believers, this was a major departure from the traditional approach. The "zealots of ancient piety" accused the patriarch of introducing "Latinism", because the Greek Church since the time of the Union of Florence in 1439 was considered "spoiled" in Russia. Moreover, the Greek liturgical books were printed not in Turkish Constantinople, but in Catholic Venice.

Nikon's opponents - Old Believers- refused to recognize the reforms he had carried out. At church councils in 1654 and 1656. Nikon's opponents were accused of split excommunicated and exiled. The most prominent supporter of the schism was Archpriest Avvakum, a talented preacher and publicist. After a 14-year imprisonment in an "earth prison", Avvakum was burned alive for "blasphemy against the royal house." The most famous monument of Old Believer literature was "The Life of Avvakum, written by him."

Church Cathedral 1666-1667 cursed the Old Believers. A brutal persecution of the dissenters began. Supporters of the split were hiding in the hard-to-reach forests of the North, the Urals, and the Volga region. Here they created sketes, continuing to pray in the old way. Often, in the event of the approach of the royal punitive detachments, they staged a "burn" - self-immolation. The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery did not accept Nikon's reforms. Until 1676, the rebellious monastery withstood the siege of the tsarist troops.

The reasons for the fanatical stubbornness of the schismatics were rooted, first of all, in their belief that "Nikonianism" is a product of Satan. However, this confidence itself was fed by certain social reasons. There were many clerics among the schismatics. For the ordinary priest, the innovations meant that he had lived his whole life incorrectly. In addition, many clergy were illiterate and not prepared to master new books and customs.

Posad people and merchants also widely participated in the split. Among the Old Believers were also representatives of the ruling strata, for example, the noblewoman Morozova and Princess Urusova. The bulk of the schismatics were peasants who left for sketes not only for the right faith, but also for freedom, from the lordly and monastic requisitions.

There were no bishops among the schismatics, so there was no one to ordain new priests. In this situation, some of the Old Believers resorted to "re-baptizing" the Nikonian priests who had gone into schism, while others abandoned the clergy altogether. The community of such "priestless" was led by "mentors" - the most versed in the Scriptures believers.

The question of the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities was one of the most important in the political life of the Russian state. The role of the church increased dramatically under Patriarch Filaret, the father of Mikhail Fedorovich. The imperious Nikon sought to revive the influence of the church, lost after the death of Filaret. He argued that the priesthood is superior to the kingdom, because it represents God, and secular power is from God. Nikon actively intervened in secular affairs.

Gradually, Alexei Mikhailovich began to be weary of the power of the patriarch. In 1658 there was a gap between them. The king demanded that Nikon no longer be called the great sovereign. Then Nikon declared that he did not want to be a patriarch and retired to the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery on the river. Istra. He hoped that the king would yield, but he was mistaken. On the contrary, the patriarch was demanded to formally resign, but he refused.

Neither the tsar nor the church council could remove the patriarch. Only in 1666 did a church council take place in Moscow with the participation of two ecumenical patriarchs - Antioch and Alexandria. The council supported the tsar and deprived Nikon of his patriarchal rank. Nikon was imprisoned in the monastery prison, from where he was released in 1681, but soon died.

Russia during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. The reign of Ivan IV Vasilyevich lasted more than half a century (1533 - 1584) and was marked by many important events. This period of Russian history, as well as the personality of the monarch himself, has always provoked discussions. According to N.M. Karamzin, "this era is worse than the Mongol yoke." ON THE. Berdyaev wrote that "in the atmosphere of the 16th century everything sacred was suffocated."

a) domestic policy and reforms of Ivan the Terrible. Years of life Ivana IV - 1530 - 1584 . He was 3 years old when his father - Vasily III (1533) died. The mother, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, (from the princes of Glinsky, immigrants from Lithuania) became the regent for the young Grand Duke. A struggle for power breaks out between the boyar factions. Ivan's paternal uncles, Yuri and Andrei Ivanovich, were imprisoned and died a "suffering death" (because they claimed the throne). In 1538, Elena dies (perhaps she was poisoned by the boyars). The era of boyar rule begins - unrest, the struggle for influence on the young grand duke, especially at the same time the princes Shuisky and Belsky were zealous.

Ivan boyars were poorly fed and dressed, humiliated in every possible way, but at official receptions they showed him signs of respect. Hence, since childhood, he developed distrust, suspicion, hatred for the boyars, but at the same time - disregard for the human person and human dignity in general.

Ivan had a natural inquisitive mind, and although no one cared about his education, he read a lot, knew all the books that were in the palace. His only friend and spiritual mentor is the Metropolitan Macarius(since 1542 the head of the Russian church), compiler of the Four Menaia, a collection of all church literature known in Russia. From the Holy Scriptures, Byzantine writings, Ivan brought a high idea of ​​\u200b\u200bmonarchical power and its divine nature - "the king is the vicar of God." He himself later also engaged in writing, his famous "Messages" to Prince A. Kurbsky, the English Queen Elizabeth, the Polish King Stefan Batory and others have been preserved.

Boyar rule led to a weakening of the central government, which in the late 40s. caused discontent in several cities. In addition, terrible fires broke out in Moscow in the spring and summer of 1547, and "the black people of the city of Moscow shook from great sorrow." The Glinskys were accused of arson, many boyars, incl. relatives of Ivan, "pobisha". Ivan was frightened, repented of his sins and promised to atone for them with his transformative work. In the same 1547, he came of age and, on the advice of Macarius, was married with the "cap of Monomakh" for the reign, officially taking the title "the king and Grand Duke of All Russia. The independent reign of the young king begins. Then Ivan married the boyar Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva, having lived with her for 13 years. Anastasia was probably the only one of Ivan's wives whom he truly loved, she had a beneficial effect on him.

The reign of Ivan IV is usually divided into two periods: the first - internal reforms and foreign policy successes; second - oprichnina.

First period - 1547 - 1560 - associated with activities Chosen Rada, which included Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Ivan Viskovaty, Archpriest Sylvester, Alexei Adashev (head of the Petition Order, which gave him knowledge of the real state of affairs in the country), Prince Andrei Kurbsky. They made up the inner circle of the king, who sought to rely on trusted people when carrying out reforms.

In 1549 - the first was convened Zemsky Sobor, which included the Boyar Duma, the clergy, the nobility, the top of the cities. At the councils, issues of reforms, taxes, and the judicial system were resolved. Ivan denounced the abuses of the boyars and promised that he himself would be a "judge and defense" for the people. boyar turmoil formidable

AT 1550 new Sudebnik, which limited the power of governors . The old custom was confirmed that in the court of governors and volosts appointed by the king, there were elders and "best people" from the local population, who began to be called "kissers"(because they took the oath by kissing the cross). It was decided that "without the headman and without kissers, the court cannot be judged." Sudebnik also confirmed St. George's Day and established a single rate of taxation - a large plow (400 - 600 hectares of land, depending on the fertility of the soil and the social status of the owner of the land).

In 1551, a church council was convened, called Stoglav, according to the number of answers to one hundred royal questions, exposing church orders. Stoglav- a code of legal norms for the inner life of the clergy and its relationship with society and the state. The main decisions of the cathedral: an all-Russian list of saints was compiled; unified church rites; to oversee the clergy, "priest elders" were established; monasteries were forbidden to acquire patrimonial possessions "without a report" to the king. Objectively, this was another stage on the path of subordinating the church to the state.

Reform of the central administrative apparatus. Instead of the Sovereign Palace and the Treasury, a system of specialized orders. The first orders arose even before the reforms of Ivan IV (an order, i.e. an instruction to manage certain industries or territories); by the middle of the 16th century. there were already two dozen of them - Ambassadorial, Local, Bit, Petition, Sagittarius, Rogue, Serf etc .

Local government reform. In the mid 50s. governors are abolished, feeding is cancelled. Positions have arisen labial(from local nobles) and zemstvo(from wealthy peasants) elders, who began to head the local administration, carry out the court and collect taxes.

Military reform. The core of the army was noble militia. In 1550, "the tsar and the boyars were sentenced" to distribute estates in Moscow and neighboring districts to "children of the boyars, the best servants of a thousand people," who then formed a detachment of service people "according to the Moscow list." Was created archery army. In peacetime, the archers were engaged in agriculture, carried the protection of the Kremlin, participated in the suppression of riots, i.e. also performed police functions.

In 1556, a general Service regulations landlords (nobles) and estates. Specially sent officials "on the estates, they arrange land surveying for them, so arrange what is worthy for anyone, and divide the surplus among the poor." Landowners and votchinniki necessarily and equally carried out military service according to the general norm: "from a hundred-quarters of a good, pleasing land, a man is on horseback and in full armor, and on a long trip - about two horses" (1 quarter - 1/2 ha, 100 quarters with three fields - 150 ha). In addition to the estates, for the worthy and the needy, "the sovereign's monetary salary" was supposed. (If the possessions were less than 150 hectares, then the state compensated the lack to the owner; if more, then he himself paid extra to the treasury). Thus, the army was divided into two parts: " service people in the homeland", (i.e. by origin) - boyars and nobles who were part of the militia; " service people on the instrument", (i.e., by recruitment, conscription) - archers, gunners, city guards, Cossacks.

Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. strengthened the power of the king, streamlined local and central government, strengthened the military power of the country. However, their results did not quite suit Ivan the Terrible.

The second period of Ivan's reign IV - 1560 - 1584 Its main content was oprichnina(1560 - 1572). In 1560, Sylvester and Adashev fell into disgrace (the latter, among other things, was accused of the slow course of the Livonian War), and the activities of the Chosen Rada ceased. In August of the same year, Ivan's first wife, Anastasia, died; with her death, an important deterrent in the policy and behavior of the tsar disappeared. In 1563, his longtime mentor, Metropolitan Macarius, died. The tsar's indignation is also caused by the betrayal of Prince A. Kurbsky and his flight to Lithuania in 1564. There is a famous exchange of messages between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbsky: Ivan defends the principles of autocracy, and Kurbsky accuses him of terror. All these circumstances exacerbate the suspicion of the tsar, are for him a confirmation of the boyar "treason".

On December 3, 1564, Ivan, together with his family, elected boyars and nobles, went to the village of Kolomenskoye to celebrate St. Nicholas Day (December 6). He takes with him "Moscow holiness" (the main icons and crosses of Moscow churches), "his entire treasury", clothes, jewelry. He stayed in Kolomenskoye for two weeks because of the mud, then settled in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda (now it is the city of Aleksandrov, Vladimir Region, about 150 km northeast of Moscow).

A month later, on January 3, 1565, Ivan sent two messages to Moscow. The first was addressed to the metropolitan, where he accused the boyars and clerks of "treason" and causing damage to the state before reaching his majority. The second - to the townspeople that "there is no anger and disgrace" against them. The mob of Moscow still remembered the boyars' arbitrariness, so they asked the tsar to return and rule "as he pleased the sovereign", expressing their readiness to destroy the "traitors" themselves. In February 1565, Ivan returned to Moscow and announced his conditions: "to put disgrace on traitors, to execute others," and to take their property to the treasury.

Thus, Ivan the Terrible established oprichnin y. This word was borrowed from the terminology of the period of feudal fragmentation ("oprich" - "except"). In the XIV - XV centuries. this was the name of the landed property of the widow princesses, which was given to them in full ownership, in addition to " subsistence"- life-long use of her husband's land. Ivan created for himself a special court with boyars, clerks, courtiers, everything here -" inflict yourself especially. "He selected a thousand people from the service people (then their number increased to 5 thousand). “bad people and filled with all sorts of wickedness.” Special streets in Moscow were assigned to them for living, and their former inhabitants were evicted.

All guardsmen swore an oath of allegiance to the king - "not to know anyone." In black clothes, on black horses, to the neck of which dogs' heads were tied, and tow (imitation of a broom) on the whip, they, like dogs, had to "gnaw out treason" and sweep it with a broom. At the head of the guardsmen was Malyuta Skuratov.

Ivan singled out about 20 cities with districts for the maintenance of the oprichnina court. The lands there were distributed to guardsmen, the former owners moved to the outskirts. AT oprichnina part included the most economically developed regions of the country, trading centers along navigable rivers, important border outposts. The rest of the state Zemshchina- formally controlled by the Boyar Duma and orders. They reported to the king only on the most important matters.

Having established the oprichnina, Ivan began to "put disgrace" on the traitors. He began with the closest supporters of Kurbsky, six boyars were beheaded, another one was impaled. Has begun oprichnina terror, which immediately provoked resistance from both individual influential persons (the boyar Repnin), and in general opposition from the zemshchina, boyars and nobles. In 1566, the Zemsky Sobor, convened to resolve the issue of financing the Livonian War, instead demanded the abolition of the oprichnina.

Moscow Metropolitan Philip in 1568, publicly, during a service in the Assumption Cathedral, demanded that executions be cancelled. He was deposed from the metropolitan throne, exiled to one of the Tver monasteries and soon killed. In 1570, a terrible rout of Novgorod was carried out on a false slander about his betrayal in favor of Lithuania. This caused general outrage.

The king realized that it was time to cancel the oprichnina. In part, she achieved her goals, in part, he himself was afraid of what he had done. However, the foreign policy factor played a decisive role here - the attacks of the Crimean Tatars. In 1571, Khan Devlet-Girey captured and burned Moscow, the guardsmen failed to resist him, but in the next 1572 he suffered a crushing defeat, and the archers played the main role in his defeat. This showed the ineffectiveness of the oprichnina army, which was disbanded. By decree of 1572, it was even forbidden to use the word "oprichnina". Mass terror ceased, however, some historians (S.M. Solovyov, S.F. Platonov and others) believed that the oprichnina actually remained until the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, because. continued lawlessness, "brute force people."

Results of oprichnina rule: 1) Gain centralization; after the execution of Prince V. Staritsky, the last specific principality disappeared;

• 2) economic crisis; including . reduction in crop areas, which caused massive famine; on the whole, the economic resources of the country were undermined (for example, in 1565 Ivan took 100,000 rubles from the zemstvo to "uplift" himself, with this money one could buy 100,000 working horses);
• 3) population decline; losses from terror, plague and famine amounted to approx. 500 thousand (the entire population of Russia numbered approximately 7 - 9 million); all social strata were subjected to terror, for one executed boyar there were 3 - 4 noblemen, and for one "serving in the fatherland" - a dozen commoners (V.B. Kobrin); in addition, the peasants fled to the new eastern lands, to the Don, which caused the introduction in 1581 of the reserved years, when the transition of the peasants was forbidden on St. George's Day.

In general, the oprichnina can be viewed as forced centralization, the purpose of which was to strengthen the personal power of the tsar, and mass terror became the main method. The Russian monarchy under Ivan IV takes on the character despotism.

b) the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. The main tasks of Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 16th century: in the West- the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the east- the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the development of Siberia; on South- protection from the raids of the Crimean Tatars.

In 1552 conquered Kazan Khanate, then the peoples subject to Kazan (Mordovians, Chuvashs, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Tatars) were conquered. The accession of the southern Udmurts to the Russian state took place in 1558. In 1556 it was conquered Astrakhan. All the Middle and Lower Volga regions, the Kama region are included in Russia. In the 80s. there are new cities - Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov, Ufa.

Colonization begins Siberia. The merchants Stroganovs, who had a charter from the tsar for the development of lands east of the Urals, hired a large detachment of Cossacks led by Yermak to fight the Siberian Khanate. In 1581 Yermak defeated Khan Kuchum and occupied his capital Kashlyk. The fight against Kuchum ended in 1598 with the annexation of Western Siberia to Russia, which at the same time became the patrimony of the Stroganovs.

In the West, a struggle is unfolding for access to the Baltic Sea, incl. for the Baltic lands, formerly belonging to Veliky Novgorod and captured by the Livonian Order. In 1558 began Livonian War, which began successfully, Narva, Yuriev, 20 Livonian cities were taken. However, then the master of the Livonian Order, Kepler, surrendered under the patronage of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Revel and Estonia recognized the authority of the Swedish king, which meant war with Lithuania and Sweden. In 1563, Ivan devastated the Lithuanian possessions and took Polotsk, this was the last military success of Russia.

In 1582 it was concluded Yam-Zapolskoye truce with Commonwealth(formed in 1569 as a result of the unification of Poland and Lithuania), and Plyusskoe a truce with the Swedes in 1583 ended the Livonian War. Russia lost the conquered lands and did not get access to the Baltic Sea.

On the southern borders of the Muscovite state, it was possible to create a defensive line against Crimean Khanate. In this way, results of foreign policy are ambiguous. Russia achieved the greatest success in the east, destroying the remnants of the Golden Horde and annexing the Volga region, the beginning of the development of Siberia was laid.

In 1581 the tsar killed his eldest son Ivan in a fit of rage. The weak, sickly Fyodor Ivanovich became the heir to the throne.

• March 18, 1584 Ivan the Terrible suddenly died. Results his reign- contradictory. On the one hand - important reforms (during the first period of government), the expansion of the territory of the state. However, the failures in the Livonian War, the oprichnina led to the destruction of the country and actually prepared " Troubled time".
• in) features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century. The question of the form of the Russian state in the XVI century. is debatable. A number of historians believe that as a result of the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, estate-representative monarchy. However, while outwardly similar to the class-representative institutions of Western Europe (the English Parliament, the States General in France, the Cortes in Spain, the German Reichstags), Zemsky Sobors differed from them in the way they were formed (convened by the tsar, not elected), in composition (in they included senior officials appointed by the government), by function (they did not have the right to legislative initiative, did not protect the interests of the estates).

Thus, Zemsky Sobors did not limit the power of the sovereign, but rather served to strengthen it. According to a number of historians (V.F. Petrakov), the idea of ​​separation of powers is being affirmed in the West, and in Russia the idea catholicity authorities and society. The Russian state has acquired a special political form - autocracy,- when the only bearer of power was the king.

Russia at the turn XVI-XVII centuries Time of Troubles. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the king becomes Fedor Ioannovich(1584 - 1598). The struggle for influence on the weak, "crazy" (according to contemporaries) tsar begins. The king's brother-in-law comes first Boris Godunov(his sister Irina is Fyodor's wife). Godunov actually becomes the ruler of the state. He came from a minor boyar family, so they treated him like an upstart.

The main danger for Godunov is the tsarevich Dmitry, the son of the fifth wife of Ivan the Terrible, Maria Nagoy, is the last heir to the throne from the Rurik dynasty. He lived with his mother in Uglich and died in 1591 under unclear circumstances, and the rumor immediately blamed Boris for his death. In reality, the reasons for the death of the prince are unknown, but Godunov was followed by the trail of the murderer of the legitimate heir. It became one of psychological background Troubles.

In 1598 Tsar Fedor dies. The Moscow branch of the Rurikovich is interrupted, which caused dynastic crisis and the struggle for power, tk. state - " draw"In 1598, the Zemsky Sobor, with the assistance of Patriarch Job (the patriarchate in Russia was established in 1589 precisely on the initiative of Godunov), elects Boris to the throne. The period begins" Time of Troubles".

Causes of the Troubles of 1598 - 1613: 1) The desire of the big boyars to seize power, using the termination of the legitimate dynasty, and compensate for the losses and humiliations during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, especially during the oprichnina.

• 2) Severe socio-economic crisis at the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. as a result of the Livonian War and the oprichnina. A stream of people from the central regions rushed to the Middle and Lower Volga; The landowners sought to compensate for the resulting shortage of labor by increasing duties and even greater enslavement of the peasants. At the end of the XVI century. a decree is issued that all free servants and workers who have served the masters for more than six months become indentured serfs.
• 3) The consequences of the oprichnina. The destruction of old customs, the split of society, demoralization - the neglect of someone else's life and property.
• 4) The end of the old dynasty is both a pretext and a reason for the Troubles. While there were Rurikovichs, everyone, despite the problems and difficulties, basically obeyed the "natural sovereigns". But when the state is "no one's", then everyone starts pursuing their own interests. Boyars were dissatisfied with the unlimited power of the king; metropolitan nobility opposed the strengthening of the boyars; provincial nobility wanted to have their share in the government of the country; hard population, the peasantry fought against the oppression of the state and the landowners in general, etc. Each group nominated its own candidate for the throne. A phenomenon arises imposture. "The Pretender is baked in a Polish oven, but fermented in Moscow" (V.O. Klyuchevsky).
• 5) The policy of Godunov himself, who had a distrust of rival boyars, encouraged espionage and denunciations. In 1601, several boyars, accused of treason, fell into disgrace, incl. - the Romanov brothers, the most capable of them - Fedor Nikitich (father of the future Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich) - was forcibly tonsured a monk under the name Filaret.
• 6) Natural disasters - in 1601 there was a crop failure, repeated for the next two years. As a result - " great smoothness and pestilence". A lot of people went around the world, rich people released their servants "to freedom" so as not to feed them and, thereby, increased the number of homeless people, vagrants and robbers. In 1604, there was an uprising led by Cotton Clubfoot.

At this moment in Poland appears impostor, posing as a "miracle escaped" Tsarevich Dmitry. It is still not known exactly who he is. Godunov's official propaganda claimed that he was a boyar's son Grigory Otrepiev, who became a monk of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin and then fled to Lithuania. Help an impostor - False Dmitry I- provided by some Polish magnates, incl. governor Yuri Mnishek (for a promise to marry his daughter Marina), King Sigismund III (in exchange for part of Western Russian lands), the Pope (in the hope of spreading Catholicism in Russia).

In October 1604, False Dmitry I enters Russia, issues appeals to the people, and promises everyone freedom and privileges. One by one, the cities, the Dnieper and Don Cossacks, go over to his side. In April 1605, Boris suddenly dies, and the boyars do not recognize his son Fyodor as king. The Moscow army goes over to the side of False Dmitry, and in June 1605 Moscow solemnly welcomes the impostor.

However, Muscovites soon become dissatisfied with the new ruler, because. he did not observe the old customs (rarely took a bath, did not sleep after dinner), and the Poles who came with him behaved arrogantly. The culmination of discontent was the arrival of Marina Mnishek. False Dmitry married her, crowned her as a queen, but she refused to convert to Orthodoxy.

IN AND. Shuisky together with the boyars, he organizes a conspiracy and on May 17, 1606, convenes the people with a tocsin. False Dmitry I was captured and killed, his corpse was burned, the ashes were mixed with gunpowder, a cannon was loaded with this mixture and fired in the direction from which he came, i.e. in the direction of the Commonwealth.

Thus ended the first dynastic, the stage of the Time of Troubles (classification by S.F. Platonov), when there was an apex struggle for the throne. Then the second phase began social,- when mass unrest occurs, incl. rebellion led by Ivan Bolotnikov(1606 - 1607). In essence, this is Civil War.

It begins with the election of Vasily Shuisky as king, which was a signal for general disorder and chaos. He, like Godunov, had no legal rights to the throne. Strictly speaking, Shuisky was not elected, but " shouted out"by the tsar with his supporters on Red Square.

Soon appeared False Dmitry II. Everyone understood that this was an impostor, but no one was interested in his origin. The main thing is that he united all those who were dissatisfied against the boyar tsar, promised "uncomplicated wealth." The social rank and file, Cossacks, servicemen, Polish and Lithuanian adventurers joined the new impostor. Marina Mnishek agreed to become his wife. Approaching Moscow, False Dmitry II stopped in Tushino, hence his nickname - " Tushinsky thief".

To fight False Dmitry II, Vasily Shuisky turns to the Swedes for help. At the head of the united army - Vasily's nephew, Prince Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky. He cleared the north of Russia from the Tushinians and moved to Moscow. Tushinsky thief fled to Kaluga. Skopin-Shuisky enters Moscow, but in April he suddenly fell ill and died (perhaps he was poisoned by envious people).

The intervention of the Swedes caused an intervention from Poland, hostile to Sweden. IN AND. Shuisky finally lost all authority. On July 17, 1610, he was deposed from the throne and forcibly tonsured a monk. After that, "Prince F.I. Mstislavsky and his comrades rule" (" Seven Boyars"). In order to get rid of the "Tushino thief", they preferred a lesser evil - to nominate Prince Vladislav, the son of the Polish king Sigismund III Vaz, to the kingdom. On August 27, Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav and, at the same time, was occupied by the Poles, who caused general discontent, but they were tolerated because of fear of the “Tushino thief.” However, when in December 1610 the “thief” was killed in Kaluga as a result of internecine skirmishes, the Russians were left with one main enemy - foreigners.

Begins last period Troubles - fight with foreign intervention. At the head of the national-religious resistance - the patriarch Hermogenes. In his letters, he calls on the Russian people to rise up to fight against the common enemy - the Poles, for which he was sent to prison and died of starvation.

In response to the call of the patriarch, two zemstvo militias. First- led by Procopius Lyapunov - in the spring of 1611 besieges Moscow. However, disagreements arise between its participants, Lyapunov, on a false slander, was killed by the Cossacks, and the nobles who joined the militia went home.

Second militia create Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk(Zemsky headman from Nizhny Novgorod) and voivode prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. In September 1612, the second militia and the remnants of the first decided to "act together in everything" (a kind of "provisional government" arose). On October 22, the Cossacks took Kitai-Gorod, and on October 26 ( November 4 according to the new style) the Polish garrison in the Kremlin surrendered. Both militias solemnly entered Moscow.

At the initiative of Prince D.M. Pozharsky is convened Zemsky Sobor(January - February 1613). It was the most complete council in terms of representation (all classes were present, including state peasants, there were only lackeys and landlord peasants). The question of a new king was being decided. After much debate, we decided to choose a 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. He is a compromise figure, he was not a participant in the Troubles, he was not tainted with ties with the interventionists. The most important circumstance was his kinship with the former dynasty. Mikhail's father, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, is the cousin of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich on the part of Anastasia Zakharyina-Yuryeva, the first wife of Ivan the Terrible, thus Mikhail is the great-nephew of Ivan the Terrible. He was recognized as a "natural king", which ensured the legitimacy and continuity of power. There was another reason for the election of Mikhail, which the boyar Sheremetev frankly formulated in a letter to Prince Golitsyn in the famous phrase: "Misha Romanov is young and has not yet reached his mind, he will be familiar to us" (i.e., convenient).

The turmoil generally ends with the signing Stolbovsky world with Sweden (1617) and Deulino truce with the Commonwealth (1618). As a result, Russia lost many Western Russian lands, incl. Smolensk, Chernigov, and finally - access to the Baltic Sea.

Consequences of the Troubles: 1) further weakening of the boyars, whose positions were undermined during the oprichnina; 2) the rise of the nobility, who received new lands; 3) heavy damage to the economy, "death and desolation" reigned everywhere. However, unlike many civil wars, the Time of Troubles did not end with the establishment of a new socio-political system, the restoration of the former statehood is taking place: autocracy as a form of political government serfdom as the basis of the economy, orthodoxy like an ideology.

The relevance of the work is due to the saturation of economic events that occurred during this period of development of our country. In the XV century. Russia's economy developed rapidly. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century - centralized feudal state. Agriculture remained the basis of the economy, in which the vast majority of the population was employed. By the end of the 17th century, there was a significant expansion of sown areas associated with the colonization of the southern regions of the country by Russian people. The dominant form of landownership was feudal landownership. Feudal ownership of land was strengthened and expanded, and the peasants were further enslaved.

It was during this period of time that Russia entered a new period in its history, characterized by the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market and the emergence of elements of bourgeois relations.

The object of research is the Russian economy of the XV-XVII centuries.

The subject of the study is the features and components of the country's economic development in the 15th-17th centuries.

The aim of the work is to identify and review the main directions of development of the Russian economy in the XV-XVII centuries.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

1. To study the features of the development of agriculture and the strengthening of the feudal exploitation of the peasants in the XV-XVI centuries;

2. Get acquainted with the development of domestic trade of this period;

3. Consider the situation of agriculture, crafts and manufactories in the 17th century;

4. Describe the features of the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market.

1. Economic development of the Russian state in the XV-XVII centuries

1.1. The development of agriculture and the strengthening of the feudal exploitation of the peasants

Agriculture developed its own geography and areas of specialization. Agriculture was the dominant industry everywhere. The three-field and related use of fertilizers was used more widely. The steam system was used in parallel with the shifting system. We are talking primarily about the steppe regions, the northern lands were cultivated with undercutting. The yield was mostly samtri. The increase in the trade in grain caused the expansion of the strip of agricultural areas at the expense of the northern lands, the coastal territory of the Novgorod region, the Volga region. The lands of the Urals were mastered. The city's needs for marketable grain grew, which forced monasteries and landowners to get involved in the grain trade. The peasants had to sell part of the harvest in payment of state taxes and dues to the landlords.

The internal market stimulated the expansion of agricultural land. The feudal lords were looking for reserves at the expense of the land fund of peasant farms. This was the way of direct appropriation of the allotments of the peasants. State lands also suffered: the feudal lords forcibly annexed them to their possessions. The central regions of the Russian state were covered by the process of reducing peasant allotments, the number of which decreased by 40% by the end of the century. This equally applies to Novgorod and Pskov with their vast land. In the southern lands, this process was not so fast: the annexed Pomorie was black-mowed.

Forms of feudal landownership were transformed. The patrimonial landed property existed as the main one, along with this, the process of formation of the local property was going on. The votchinniki were still strong, the land fund formed the basis of economic power, although their rights were suppressed: they lost their political independence. The economic mechanism of the patrimony was based on the right of full inheritance. The landed form was a conditional form of ownership during the life of the owner. The service of the owner was often put at the forefront: with its end, the local legal right to own land also ceased. The stratum of dependent peasants was joined by those who had previously paid only the traditional quitrent in kind, as well as the newly enslaved peasants. This category, in addition to the already existing serfs, was now formed as a result of the introduction of a new form of debt relations. It was a form of dependence in the form of working off the sums of money taken by bonded serfs.

There was also a voluntary dependence, when a contract was concluded between the feudal lord and the worker, this category was called "new contractors". "Ladle", in the absence of his own, worked on the land of the feudal lord, paying off half of the harvest. There were also beans, exempt peasants who worked for food and money, and cubs who worked out duties within the church economy. As before, part of the peasants constituted the black-haired, state-dependent category.

Along with working off, there was also food rent. Until the end of the 16th century, natural quitrent was preserved in the south. These general characteristics must be supplemented with information about crop failures and famines that periodically occurred in Russia and complicated the situation of the plebeian part of the population.

1.2. The development of domestic trade and the prerequisites for the all-Russian market

All the cities of Russia, especially its central part, were interested in agricultural products. There was a deepening of the social division of labor. Handicraft production developed into small-scale production and was concentrated in urban centers. According to the 16th century, shoemakers, carpenters, potters, gunsmiths and silversmiths worked at the princely courts. In the staff of the Novgorod Sophia House, six carpenters, six bakers, and a charioteer are mentioned. There were mucosians, brewers and blacksmiths. Ikonniki and kotelniks are mentioned. Craftsmen of Volokolamsk served the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. Monastic needs were not provided only by the work of quitrents, but required hired labor. Craftsmen made oil from hemp, Romanov's "polstovals" made felt, Boldino tailors sewed fur coats. Among the common specialties of this time are saddlers, tanners, candle makers, window makers.

In cities where free craft was concentrated, some researchers count 186 types of craft qualifications and another 34 different specializations in the food industry.

The leading professions were crafts associated with the production of clothing. In large cities - Novgorod and Pskov - there were special rows: linen, homespun, fur coats. There is a mention of terlichny, single-row, caftan and koshur. From the shop books of Novgorod, it is clear that there are cap, cap, hat, dye and bleach rows. Specialization, for example, covered tanners engaged in the production of soles, saddles, belts. Rawhide and rawhide rows, respectively, were provided with products of artisans of this qualification.

After clothing and leather, the most widespread was the production of household items and metal tools to serve the strengthened industry and agriculture. In Pskov in the middle of the 16th century, there were 67 shops with products of this branch of craft. 222 silversmiths were registered in Novgorod. From the documents it becomes clear that these crafts served both urgent needs and were engaged in the manufacture of highly artistic objects of the liturgy. Plain cuts for cabbage and door checks, interior and hanging locks, "iron checks with iron caps, for dogs" are mentioned. Pskov and Novgorod had special rows - boiler houses, in which they sold copper products.

Since the end of the 10s - the beginning of the 20s, after the Stolbovsky peace and the Deulinsky truce, the end of the actions of the insurgent detachments, the Russian people begin to restore a normal economic life. Zamoskovny Krai comes to life - the center of European Russia, counties around the Russian capital, in the west and north-west, north-east and east. The Russian peasant is advancing to the outskirts - south of the Oka River, in the Volga and Ural regions, in Western Siberia. New settlements are emerging here. Peasants who fled here from the center from their owners - landowners and estates, monasteries and palace departments or transferred to these places, develop new land masses, enter into economic, marriage, household contacts with the local population. A mutual exchange of management experience is being established: local residents adopt the steam farming system, haymaking, apiary beekeeping, plows and other devices from the Russians; Russians, in turn, will learn from local residents about the method of long-term storage of unthreshed bread, and much more.

ART OF THE RUSSIAN STATE IN THE 17TH CENTURY

Introduction

The 17th century is a complex, turbulent and controversial period in the history of Russia. It was not for nothing that contemporaries called it "rebellious time." The development of socio-economic relations led to an unusually strong growth of class contradictions, explosions of the class struggle, which culminated in the peasant wars of Ivan Bolotnikov and Stepan Razin. The evolutionary processes that took place in the social and state system, the breaking of the traditional worldview, the greatly increased interest in the world around us, the craving for "external wisdom" - the sciences, as well as the accumulation of various knowledge, were reflected in the nature of the culture of the 17th century. The art of this century, especially its second half, is distinguished by an unprecedented variety of forms, an abundance of plots, sometimes completely new, and the originality of their interpretation.

At this time, iconographic canons are gradually collapsing, the love for decorative details and elegant polychromy in architecture, which is becoming more and more "secular", reaches its apogee. There is a convergence of cult and civil stone architecture, which has acquired an unprecedented scope.

In the 17th century Russia's cultural ties with Western Europe, as well as with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands are expanding unusually (especially after the reunification of left-bank Ukraine and part of Belarus with Russia). Ukrainian and Belarusian artists, masters of monumental and decorative carvings and “principled cunning” (multicolor glazed tiles) left their mark on Russian art.

With many of its best and characteristic features, its "secularization", the art of the 17th century. was indebted to wide sections of the townspeople and the peasantry, who left an imprint of their tastes, their vision of the world and understanding of beauty on the entire culture of the century. Art XVII in. quite clearly differs both from the art of previous eras, and from the artistic creativity of the new time. At the same time, it naturally completes the history of ancient Russian art and opens the way for the future, in which to a large extent what was laid down in the searches and plans, in the creative dreams of the masters of the 17th century, is realized.

stone architecture

Architecture of the 17th century it is distinguished primarily by elegant decorative decoration, characteristic of buildings of various architectural and compositional structures and purposes. This gives the buildings of this period a special cheerfulness and "secularism" as a kind of generic feature. A great merit in the organization of construction belongs to the "Order of stone affairs", which united the most qualified personnel of "apprentice stonework". Among the latter came the creators of the largest secular building of the first half of the 17th century. - Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin (1635-1636).

The Terem Palace, built by Bazhen Ogurtsov, Antip Konstantinov, Trefil Sharutin and Larion Ushakov, despite repeated later alterations, still retained its basic structure and, to a certain extent, its original appearance. The three-story building of the tower rose above the two floors of the former palace of Ivan III and Vasily III and formed a slender multi-tiered pyramid, crowned with a small “upper tower”, or “attic”, surrounded by a walkway. Built for the royal children, it had a high four-slope roof, which in 1637 the gold painter Ivan Osipov decorated with "burdocks" induced by gold, silver and paints. Next to the "teremk" was a tented "watching" tower.

The palace was richly decorated both outside and inside, carved on white stone with brightly colored "grass ornaments". The interior of the palace chambers was painted by Simon Ushakov. Near the eastern facade of the palace in 1678–1681 eleven golden onions rose, with which the architect Osip Startsev united several Verkhospassky tower churches.

In the architecture of the Terem Palace, the influence of wooden architecture is very noticeable. Its relatively small, usually three-window chambers resemble a row of wooden mansion cells attached to each other.

Civil stone construction in the 17th century. gradually acquires a large scale and is conducted in various cities. In Pskov, for example, in the first half of the century, the rich merchants Pogankins built huge multi-storey mansions (from one to three floors), resembling the letter “P” in plan. Pogankin's chambers impress with the stern power of the walls, from which small "eyes" of asymmetrically located windows "look" warily.

One of the best monuments of residential architecture of that time is the three-story chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya Embankment in Moscow (c. 1657), partially rebuilt in early XVIII in. Slightly asymmetrical in plan, they consisted of several spatially isolated choirs, covered with closed vaults, with the main, “cross chamber” in the middle. The building was richly decorated with carved white stone and colored tiles.

The passage gallery connected the mansions with the church (Nikola on Bersenevka), decorated in the same manner. So a fairly typical for the 17th century was created. an architectural ensemble in which religious and civil buildings formed a single whole.

Secular stone architecture also influenced religious architecture. In the 1930s and 1740s, the characteristic of the 17th century began to spread. a type of pillarless, usually five-domed parish church with a closed or ducted vault, with deaf (not luminous) drums in most cases and a complex intricate composition, which, in addition to the main cube, includes side chapels of various sizes, a low elongated refectory and hipped bell tower in the west, porch porches, stairs etc.

Among the best structures of this type are the Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1649-1652) and the Trinity in Nikitniki (1628-1653). The first of them is quite small in size and has tent-like endings. The picturesqueness of the composition, which included volumes of different heights, the complexity of the silhouettes and the abundance of decor, give the building dynamism and elegance.

The Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki is a complex of multi-scale, subordinate volumes, united by a magnificent decorative outfit, in which white stone carvings, architectural details painted with paints and gold, green tiled cupolas and white "German iron" roofs, glazed tiles "superimposed" on brightly colored brick surfaces . The facades of the main Trinity Church (as well as the chapels) are dissected by double round semi-columns, which intensified the play of chiaroscuro. Above them is an elegant entablature. A triple tier of profiled keeled kokoshniks “in a rush” gently brings up the heads. To the south is a magnificent porch with an elegant tent and double arches with hanging weights. The mansion asymmetry of the Trinity Church gives its appearance a special charm of continuous variability.

Nikon's church reforms also affected architecture. However, trying to revive the strict canonical traditions of ancient architecture, forbidding the erection of tent churches as not meeting these requirements, speaking out against secular innovations, the patriarch ended up building the Resurrection Monastery (New Jerusalem) near Moscow, the main temple of which (1657–1666) was an unprecedented phenomenon in ancient Russian architecture. According to Nikon, the cathedral was to become a copy of the glorified shrine of the Christian world - the temple of the "Holy Sepulcher" in Jerusalem in the 11th-12th centuries. Having quite accurately reproduced the model in terms of plan, the patriarchal architects created, however, a completely original work, decorated with all the splendor characteristic of the architectural decoration of the 17th century. The ensemble of the Resurrection Church of Nikon consisted of a gigantic complex of large and small architectural volumes (there were 29 aisles alone), in which the cathedral and the hipped rotunda of the “Holy Sepulcher” dominated. A huge, majestic tent, as it were, crowned the ensemble, making it uniquely solemn. In the decorative decoration of the building, the main role belonged to multi-colored (previously single-colored) glazed tiles, which contrasted with the smoothness of the whitewashed brick walls.

The restrictive "rules" introduced by Nikon are cited in the architecture of the third quarter of the 17th century. to greater orderliness and rigor of structures. In Moscow architecture, the mentioned church of St. Nicholas on Bersenevka (1656) is typical for this time. Temples in the boyar estates near Moscow, the builder of which is considered to be the outstanding architect Pavel Po-tekhin, are somewhat different in character, in particular the temple in Ostankino (1678). Its central rectangle, erected on a high basement, is surrounded by aisles standing at the corners, which, in their architectural and decorative design, represent, as it were, miniature copies of the main, Trinity Church. The centricity of the composition is emphasized by the architect with the help of a finely found rhythm of the domes, the narrow necks of which carry swollen high bulbs.

The richness of the architectural decor was especially characteristic of the buildings of the Volga cities, primarily Yaroslavl, whose architecture most clearly reflected popular tastes. Large temples of the cathedral type, built by the richest Yaroslavl merchants, retaining some common traditional features and general compositional structure, amaze with amazing diversity. The architectural ensembles of Yaroslavl usually have a very spacious four- or two-pillared five-domed temple with zakomaras instead of Moscow kokoshniks, surrounded by porches, aisles and porches, as the center. The merchants Skripins (1647–1650) built the Church of Elijah the Prophet in their yard near the banks of the Volga. The southwestern hipped chapel, together with the hipped bell tower in the northwest, gives the Ilyinsky complex its originality, as it were, forming the panorama of the ensemble. The architectural complex erected by the Nezhdanovsky merchants in the Korovnikovskaya Sloboda (1649–1654; completed by the end of the 1980s), consisting of two five-domed churches, a high (38 m) bell tower and a fence with tower-shaped gates, is much more elegant. A feature of the composition of the Church of St. John Chrysostom in Korovniki is its tented aisles.