Guinea (Guinee), the People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea (Republique Populaire et Revolutionnaire de Guinee), is a state in Western. It borders Senegal in the north, Mali in the north and northeast, Ivory Coast in the east, Sierra Leone in the southwest, Guinea-Bissau in the northwest. Washed in the west. The area is 245.8 thousand km 2. Population 6.4 million people (1980, est.). It is divided into 29 administrative districts. The capital is Conakry. The official language is French. The monetary unit is forces. Guinea is a member of the Organization of African Unity (OAE), is a member of the Economic Community of West African Countries (1975).

General characteristics of the economy. Guinea's GDP is $800 million (at current prices, 1978). In its structure, agriculture accounts for 21%, industry for 25% (including 18% for mining). In the structure of the fuel and energy balance, the share is 98%, hydropower 2% (1979). The total length of roads is 30.0 thousand km, the length of railways is 1.1 thousand km (1980). Major seaports - Conakry, Kamsar.

Nature. In the relief of Guinea, the following stand out: the Atlantic Lowland (height up to 70 m), the Futa-Jallon stepped plateau (height 150-1300 m, maximum - 1538 m), the North Guinea Upland (average height about 800 m, maximum - 1752 m) and plains Upper Niger (height 300-400 m). The climate is equatorial-monsoon, hot, summer-humid. The average temperature of the warmest month (March or April) is 27-30°С, the coldest (August) 24-26°С. The annual amount of precipitation on the coast is over 4000 mm, in other areas 1200-1500 mm. The most significant rivers are: Niger, Cogon, Nunez, Fatala, Konkure (the mouths of some rivers are navigable). Forested vegetation predominates, the southern slope of the North Guinea Upland is covered with moist equatorial dense forests (about 4% of the territory), in the west of the country - mangroves.

The main gold reserves associated with quartz veins have been explored in the eastern part of Guinea and are small (deposits; Tinkiso, reserves 24 tons, Au content 0.4 g / m 3; Sigirini-Ko, 1 t, 17.4 g / m 3) . Diamond deposits are located in the southeast of the country in the basins of the Baule, Macon, and Diani rivers. They are confined to kimberlite pipes (content 0.6-4.5 carats/m3), dikes and small ones (0.2-4.8 carats/m3). Placers of ilmenite, zircon, rutile, and monazite (Verga deposit, etc.) are concentrated along the ocean coast in deposits of the first sea terrace, sea spits, and beaches. The width of individual placers is 250-300 m, the length is about 1.5 km. The average total content of valuable minerals is 40-60 kg/m 3 . The reserves of individual placers are estimated at 20-76 thousand tons (for example, at the Verga deposit, the total reserves of ilmenite are 60 thousand tons, zircon 10 thousand tons, rutile 5 thousand tons). Small deposits are known (Kurunde, Amaraya, Lebekere) of limestone, as well as beryl and kaolin (near the city of Kaya), graphite schists (near the village of Lola).

Mining. General characteristics. The mining industry is one of the leading industries, accounting for 60% of the employed in industry, 87% of the gross industrial output. (The location of the main mining facilities is shown on the map.) The basis of the mining industry in Guinea is the extraction of bauxite (Table 2).

There are 3 bauxite mining companies in the country: "Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée" (49% of the shares are owned by the state), the mixed society "Friguia" (49% of the shares are owned by the state), "Office des Bauxites de Kindia" (entirely owned by the state). Mining products provide 97% of the value of exports. The country mainly exports bauxite (over 10 million tons, of which 2.9 million tons to the USA, 0.85 million tons to Canada, 4.1 million tons to socialist countries) and alumina (0.6 million tons). ), imports oil products (283 thousand tons), a small amount of coal, building materials (1978). The main trading partners of Guinea are the EEC countries,.

bauxite mining industry. In terms of bauxite mining, Guinea ranks second (17%), and in their exports, first place (30%) among industrialized capitalist and developing countries (1979). The export of bauxite in 1978 compared with 1970 (811 thousand tons) increased more than 10 times (10.3 million tons). Bauxite deposits are being developed using. The deposits are stratal in shape (layer thickness is 6-12 m), overburden thickness is on average 0.5 m. In the Fria Sodiore area (Cimbo deposit), development has been carried out since 1959. The production capacity of the quarry is over 2 million tons of ore per year. Processing since 1960 - at the alumina refinery in Fria, extraction of alumina 85-90% (1978), production of alumina over 600 thousand tons (1980). Export by rail (length 145 km) and through the port of Conakry. The deposit in Sangaredi in the Boke-Gaval region has been developed since 1973. The production capacity of the quarry is 9 million tons. By rail (length 138 km), ore is delivered to the port of Kamsar and then transported by ore carriers with a displacement of 45-60 thousand tons. Kindia (Debele deposit) began in the late 70s by open pit mining. The quarry was built with the participation of Soviet specialists. The production capacity of the open pit is 2.5 million tons of ore per year. Ore is transported by railroad (length 98 km) to the port of Conakry. To develop new bauxite deposits, 3 open-pit mining enterprises have been established: at the deposits of the Tuge region (design capacity is 8 million tons of ore per year), at the Aekoe deposit in the Boke-Gaval region (9 million tons of ore per year), where it is planned to build an alumina a plant with a capacity of 1.2 million tons and an aluminum plant, and at the deposits of the Dabola region (6.5 million tons of ore per year), on the basis of bauxite of which it is planned to build an alumina plant. The increase in alumina production is constrained by the difficulties with electricity, which will probably be overcome with the commissioning of a hydroelectric power plant on the Konkur River.

Extraction of other minerals. Iron ore mining in Guinea began in 1953 and until 1967 the Kalum deposit was developed. The development of large deposits of iron ore in the southeast in the cities of Nimba and Simandu is planned. The full development of these deposits is planned after the construction of railways from the city of Conakry to the border with Liberia.

Diamond mining in Guinea began in the 1930s and was carried out by private companies and prospectors. In the early 1960s, diamond mining enterprises were nationalized; in the mid-1970s, industrial production was suspended due to the depletion of reserves and the lack of new enrichment equipment. It is planned to resume.

Gold mining in Guinea has been carried out for a long time in an artisanal way. At the beginning of the 20th century, European entrepreneurs repeatedly tried to develop dredges (for example, 218 kg of gold was mined on the Tinkiso River in 1909-14). However, due to the insignificance of the reserves, commercial production was stopped.

Geological Survey. Personnel training. The organization of mining and geological work in Guinea is carried out by the Ministry of Mining and Geology. Mining and geological personnel are trained at the Mining and Geological Faculty (in the city of Boke) of the Polytechnic Institute in the city of Conakry.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http:// www. all best. en

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is located in Central Africa and is one of the smallest countries in Africa with a population of just over 1 million people.

The basis of the country's economy until the last decades of the twentieth century. were agricultural products (cocoa beans, coffee) and timber. Most of this production was exported to France and Spain. The vast majority of cultivated land used to be distributed among African small farms. Europeans owned large plantations where most of the cocoa beans were produced.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the economy of Equatorial Guinea has changed significantly due to the active development of oil and gas fields discovered in 1991 and 1996. Thanks to this, per capita income has increased dramatically in recent years and amounted to almost 38 thousand dollars - the 26th place in the world. guinea africa geological tectonic petroleum

The main source of income in the country's GDP, which grew by 154% in 1997 alone, is currently the extraction and processing of oil and gas. This factor is important for a country the size of Equatorial Guinea, despite the fact that the exact amount of existing oil and gas reserves in the republic is still unknown.

The current situation in the country's economy requires a sufficiently large number of qualified personnel capable of performing work on technically and technologically complex equipment of companies engaged in the production and processing of oil and gas. This problem is compounded by the fact that Equatorial Guinea has an underdeveloped system of vocational technical education. Therefore, a significant proportion of qualified employees of the company are hired from other countries.

aim thesis is the study and analysis of the geological structure and oil and gas potential of Equatorial Guinea.

To achieve this goal, it was necessary:

To study the geological structure of Equatorial Guinea;

Conduct an analysis of the results of geological exploration and development of oil and gas fields;

To study the prospects for the development of the oil and gas industry in the republic.

Since these prospects directly depend on their own qualified personnel, the paper also considers the ways of building a personnel training program for enterprises in the oil and gas processing industry of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea.

Structure and scope of work. The thesis consists of four chapters, introduction, conclusion and bibliography.

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUATORIAL GUINEA

1.1 Geographical position

Fig 1. Overview map of Guinea

Equatorial Guinea is a small country located in equatorial Africa. It has an area of ​​28051 km², mainly located in the continental part of the country or Mbini (Rio Muni), which stretches for 130 km along the coast and for 300 km. inland and bordered in the north by Cameroon, in the east and south by Gabon and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean with the capital city of Bata.

The other part of the country consists of the so-called island regions with an area of ​​2034 km². These regions include Bioko Island (former Fernando Poo), where Malabo, the capital of Equatorial Guinea, is located, Annobón Island, Corisco Islands, Elobei Grande and Elobei Chico, to name a few. The most important island of Bioko (2017 km I) is located north of the mainland, 40 miles off the coast of Cameroon in the Gulf of Bonny (Biafra), which is part of the Gulf of Guinea. The island is of volcanic origin, with a mountainous surface mainly with a height of 600-900m, covered with dense forests, with steep and rocky shores, 195 km long. The maximum height of the mountain peak, also known as the peak of Santa Isabel Bisila, is 3,007 m. At its foot lies the capital of Equatorial Guinea - the city of Malabo. The island has fertile soils of volcanic origin, on which cocoa is grown. Rivers and lakes are located mainly in the mountains.

Both the mainland and Biyoko Island have coastal plains and dense rainforests. The main crops grown here are cassava, bananas and sweet potatoes. Most of the locals are engaged in agriculture and fishing. On the territory of the state there are evergreen moist equatorial forests in which ficuses, breadfruit grow; in total over 150 valuable species of trees.

Characteristic representatives of the animal world of the state are the leopard, crocodile, buffalo, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, monkeys, antelope, a large number of snakes and birds.

The national flag was adopted in Equatorial Guinea at the time of independence on October 12, 1968.

Green symbolizes the flora of the country, blue - the sea, white - peace and red - independence.

• CHAPTER 2

2.1 Tectonic processes and stages of development of oil and gas basins in West Africa

The sedimentary cover of the West African passive margin is represented by Mesozoic-Cenozoic deposits. On the Precambrian basement, at the base of the sedimentary cover of the basins, rocks of the rift complex occur, which were formed at the stage of splitting of the ancient continental crust. Continental rifts, along which the split of the ancient supercontinents - Pangea and Gondwana, occurred, crossed the deep inner regions of the ancient continents for a long time, so the composition of the sediments accumulated in them was very specific and surprisingly uniform over vast expanses.

Overview diagrams of the oil and gas geological zoning of the South Atlantic are shown in the figure

The lowering of the ocean level and tectonic shifts, apparently, often led to the loss of the connection between these troughs, which in an arid climate inevitably caused salinization of water bodies, a reduction in their area, and even complete evaporation of water. All this favored the deposition of various evaporites, which over time formed thick salt-bearing strata, the presence of which has now been established on the passive margins of West Africa. A belt of salt-bearing deposits stretches along the outskirts of Gabon and Angola (Upper Aptian salts). The appearance of marine carbonate and, in some cases, terrigenous formations marks a new stage in the development of these passive continental margins - the stage in the development of primary oceanic depressions and the initiation of continental slopes. In sedimentary sections, carbonate deposits rest either on salts or on continental reds.

Figure 2.1 - Petroleum and gas geological zoning of the South Atlantic (overview schemes) A - oil and gas provinces of the coasts (hatching); B - oil and gas bearing basins on the east coast Southeast Brazil; B - oil and gas basins on the western coast of Central Africa.

The Early Cretaceous epoch became the time of wide distribution of marine and deltaic terrigenous deposits. On many shelves, river deltas began to grow rapidly, where strata were formed, in the sections of which sandstones, siltstones and clays alternate, sometimes with interlayers of brown coals and limestones. The thickness of these strata reaches several kilometers. Toward the continental slope, deltaic deposits give way to siltstone clays with interlayers of siderite nodules, which were formed on the slope of deltas or in prodelta settings. The multi-kilometer terrigenous sequence has a cyclic structure. In the lower part of many cyclites, composed of sandy-silty sediments, gradation layering is observed. The tops of the same cyclites are represented by black clays, i.e., the presence of turbidites is noted. Often these turbidites are formed by ancient submarine fans.

The stable tendency to sag and deep extension into the interior of the continent contributed to the transformation of continental rifts into the center of vast drainage basins. Therefore, in humid zones, they began to serve as natural channels for the flow of river waters, and in the era of ocean level rise, they began to serve as ways for the promotion of marine transgressions. The channels of large and largest rivers of our time are confined to crushing zones - deep faults inherited from the period of active rifting - these are the rivers Niger, Ogowe, Congo, Kwanza, Sanga, Kunene, and others. Their deltas were formed at the outlets to the ocean of these fault zones.

The removal of huge masses of terrigenous material from land for a long time led to the accumulation within narrow sections of the continental margin of West Africa, significant masses of sediments, which are concentrated, as a rule, not only in the delta, but also in large, and sometimes giant underwater fans - so-called deep sea fans.

Another characteristic group of formations for the late Mesozoic in this region are the formations of carbonaceous terrigenous-carbonate and carbonate sediments, called "black clays". This is a rather diverse group of deposits, united by one - the only sign - enrichment in organic matter, which determined their black color. The “black clays” reached great distribution at the end of the Early Cretaceous and the beginning of the Late Cretaceous (Aptian - Albian and Cenomanian - Turonian). Among the formations of `black clays` there are strata of coastal and shelf genesis, as well as deep-water counterparts that accumulated within the continental slope and foot, as mentioned above.

The end of the Late Cretaceous and the first half of the Paleogene were marked by the appearance of specific chemogenic formations - evaporites, which have no analogues in previous geological history, zones transitional from the continent to the ocean. We are talking about formations of magnesian clays - palygorskites and sepiolites, occupying an intermediate position between the continental and salt-bearing series of coastal plains and hemipelagic, siliceous or carbonate sediments of the continental slope and foot.

The fall in the ocean level in the early and late Miocene, which were very significant, although inferior to the Middle Oligocene, was accompanied by the advance of the deltas of large and small rivers onto the shelf. In addition, this process took place against the backdrop of tectonic activation, which captured many parts of Africa. All this led to the removal of significant amounts of terrigenous clastic and clayey material to the shelf and continental foot. These terrigenous deltaic and coastal-marine formations are excellent natural reservoirs for hydrocarbon deposits.

On the whole, in the composition of the sedimentary filling of the basins stretching along the western margin of Africa, three structural stages can be distinguished, usually separated by unconformities or large stratigraphic breaks. The lower stage corresponds to a rift complex of sediments, most often continental reds.

The middle, structural stage consists of rocks of carbonate and terrigenous-carbonate complexes, corresponding to the period of formation and initial stages of development of the passive continental margin of West Africa. These complexes compose the present continental slope scarp and most of the sedimentary lens within the outer shelf. Finally, the upper, structural stage includes young sediments that overlie the shelf and many parts of the slope and form a sedimentary lens at the foot of the continental slope.

On the outskirts, which arose during the breakup of Gondwana, the lower, structural stage is represented by rocks of the Late Jurassic and Aptian age. The middle, structural stage consists of deposits of the Upper Cretaceous - Paleogene, and the sediments of the Miocene and younger age belong to the upper stage.

The boundaries of sedimentary basins are drawn somewhat arbitrarily, since the sedimentary lens usually wedges out only in the direction of the inner regions of the continent. It is practically continuous along the strike of the margin itself (the edge of the continent), changing, however, in thickness. In a similar way, the sedimentary cover of the margin gradually passes into the cover of the abyssal basin of the ocean. This transition is recorded both by facies changes and by a sharp reduction in thickness. However, a reliable criterion has not been established here, although it is proposed to consider the outer boundary of the basin as the boundary beyond which turbidites do not spread on the continental foot, or the thickness of the sedimentary stratum is reduced to 1.5 or even 1 km.

Conventions

Province of the Gulf of Guinea

Boundary between oceanic and continental crust

Major fault zones

Sedimentary layer thickness, in kilometers

Figure 13 - Diagram of the Gulf of Guinea province showing the main fault zones, sedimentary layer thicknesses and the boundary between oceanic and continental crust. Edited by Emeryand Uchupi (1984), MacGregor and others (2003)

Figure 4

General stratigraphic column showing reservoir age, major geological events, lithology and source rocks, also tectonic stages of the Rio Muni basins, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa

Figure 5

General geological section, which shows the occurrence of possible source rocks of the Rio Muni basins, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa. Formation names and lithology are shown in Figure 10 for reef formations. Modified from the Ministry of Mining and Energy of Equatorial Guinea (2003). The location of the cut is shown as red lines on the index map. The horizontal scale is generalized; not given.

CHAPTER 3. EXPLORATION AND OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL Equatorial Guinea

Hydrocarbon system

Swimming pool rio muni contains a thick promising sequence of Senonian deposits, overlain by Tertiary sediments, the thickness of which increases from south to north. Reservoir intervals with good reservoir properties have been proven in both Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits, but commercial productivity has so far been established only in the Cretaceous sequence of deposits. On Block G, turbidite deepwater Campanian deposits act as reservoirs for hydrocarbons migrating from Middle Albian source rocks, with Maastrichtian mudstones and the rift surface of unconformity on which they overlie transgressively along

3.1 BlockJand N water areasEquatorial Guinea

General information

Block J is located within the outer area of ​​the pool delta niger(Delta of the Niger River), west of Bioko (Bioko). To the north of this block, giant deposits of safiro and alba were discovered. (Zafiro,Alba) To the west of the block's borders are the Fortuna and Lykos gas fields. (fortune, Lykos) , recently opened by the company Ophir on Block R (see Fig. 1). The area of ​​the block is 1305 sq. km. The license was obtained by the company Atlas(100% equity participation on the terms of the PSA) in 2000. During several extensions of the initial period of geological study, prospecting and exploration, permissions for which were obtained from the relevant regulatory authorities, Atlas fulfilled their obligations under the work program.

Fig.1 - Overview map of the location of Block J and nearby oil fields (green) and gas (red) in the territorial waters of Equatorial Guinea

knowledge

Seismic surveys of CDP 2D on the territory of this block were carried out in 2002 in the amount of 1084 linear meters. km. The results obtained helped to identify several potentially promising objects associated with significant amplitude anomalies. To prepare these objects for deep drilling exploration, detailed seismic surveys of CDP ZD were required. In 2008 TGS Nopec and BGP under contract with Atlas completed 865 sq. Km of seismic data in the western part of the block. The obtained data were processed by the method PSTM(pre-stack time migration) by a company geotrace. Also by the company Weinman geoscience(Dallas) carried out special studies to process the obtained results, including DUO analysis, to obtain more complete information on the structures identified and prepared for drilling. In the area of ​​promising objects covered with 3D seismic data, the water depth is 750 - 1500 m. Positive results of seismic surveys allowed the company Atlas start the second period of geological study of this block. Commitments of the second period include the drilling of one exploratory well.

Rice. 2 - Examples of amplitude anomalies of seismic data in Block J, presumably associated with the presence of hydrocarbons (time section along the meridional cross-line)

Block H is located in the north of the offshore part of the basin Rio Muni. Oil fields discovered south of this block Venus, Okite Complex, Ceiba.(see fig. 1). The area of ​​the block is 991 sq. km. The license was obtained by the company Atlas(100% equity participation on the terms of the PSA) in 1999-2000. In 2004 with the participation of an Australian company Rock Oil seismic exploration work was carried out MOP "ZD in the amount of 1403 sq. km and one well was drilled (Bravo-1, depth 3200 m). According to the results of drilling, the presence of good reservoirs in the Tertiary deposits of the Oligocene-Miocene age was established, but they turned out to be isolated from the underlying hydrocarbon system of the Cretaceous age. In the fourth quarter of 2015, it is planned to drill the second well on the block (Aleta-1, design depth 5000 m, water depth 1240 m, estimated resource base over 500 million barrels. oil, the probability of geological success is 33%). Estimated costs for the "dry hole" option are 75-85 million US dollars with a planned drilling duration of 50 calendar days. At present, the entire territory of the block is covered by 3D seismic survey data (exploration ~2.8 km 2 /km 2).

Well S-3 located in block S(fig.2.) , is located on the territory of the Rio Muni deep-water basin in Equatorial Guinea with coordinates: 1°-2° north latitude and 8°-10° east longitude. The area is 1.369 km 2 , depth from 30 to 1900 m.

Fig. 2. Well S-3, located in block “S”

The block belongs to the G-13 tectonic structure, located among salt domes with at 1° 18" 11.293" N and 9° 3" 57.471" E, S-3 is located approximately 1.71 km southwest of the Hess well 13-2 G and approximately 274 km southeast of Puerto K5 Malabo(Fig. 3.).

Rice. 3. Geographic location of well S-3

Table 1. Geological age of rocks at different depths of well S-3.

Rice. four Seismic interpretation of well S-3

CHAPTER 4.OIL AND GAS OF CENTRAL AND WEST AFRICA THE BASIC BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE NEW AND OLD WORLD

Gas is the basis for the economic development of the countries of the new and old world. Central and West Africa as a whole and the Gulf of Guinea in particular have in recent years become one of the directions of a special geo-strategic policy to ensure energy security in the consumption of many countries of the world's hydrocarbons. Among the reasons are: 1) the excellent quality of African oils (30-40° API 2 and low sulphur), 2) the potential of the new gas industry is high, 3) (currently large oil reserves (4.3 per 100 of the world average in 2009) and gas, 4) safety and ease of operation at sea, 5) proximity to Western markets without any narrow geographic or other transit restrictions, 6) importance as the center of global production of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 7) - increase in input times of production capacity (one 27.7 100 during the last decade) and 8) relative security and political stability in the area. These factors have greatly boosted foreign investment, which is expected to increase further in the 21st century to keep funding for new discovery.

Spain, the Gulf of Guinea is strategic, due to its geographical proximity, (boat travel is about 33,100 below the Persian Gulf) 3; being the main supplier of LNG, to be the second region to increase its market share - the market as an oil supplier in the past decade, and its contribution to the diversification of traditional power sources America, North Africa, the Middle East and Europe.

The Gulf of Guinea is home to 4.4 100 of the world's oil reserves (Map 1 and Table 1 of the summary figures), representing 46,100 of Africa's total oil reserves. It produces 4.8 million barrels per day, representing 6.1 100 World Production, 50 100 African, and equivalent to 19.9 100 Eastern Average Production. In addition, the Gulf of Guinea region has had more increased oil production in the last decade (100 +32.4) as exemplars of Figure 1 against an increase of 6.9 100 in global production, although follow being the penultimate production area after the Asia-Pacific.

For gas (LNG), the only producers of the Gulf of Guinea are Angola and Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria is much less dimensional, Equatorial Guinea (one Fraction liquefaction train), although there are several projects in various stages of pregnancy to include more country-producing countries and increase capacity existing. In an environment where natural gas has established itself as one of the next energy sources, the Gulf of Guinea is already one of the main poles of global LNG production along Qatar, Malaysia, Indonesia, even if a significant percentage of natural gas has not taken advantage. The region has a great TIAL potential for future growth (more than 100 years of reserves in some countries), much higher than in other areas in the world.

As oil exports (Map 1) a significant portion goes to the US (42,100, Energy Survey According to BP) due to the presence of the majority of US oil companies in the region. The Asia-Pacific region goes 27.7\100, which absorbs China's 17,100 total becoming the second largest oil buyer I've read. For China, the Gulf of Guinea, in addition to being a supplier of raw materials, is the most important market for government orders and confrontation in general. Europe is destined for 21.6 100, South America and Central America 6.5 100 and a low 1.9 100 is re-absorbed by Africa.

Although Spanish imports of hydrocarbons have fallen given the unfavorable economic, environmental those from Africa in 2010 accounted for almost 40,100 of the total, 40.7 of which 100 came from the Gulf of Guinea 4. Imports from the region represented - They sat 13.6 100 of the world volume . while the remaining hydrocarbon producing regions of ROS are losing weight in total, imports of this region are becoming larger.

The observed increase in weight, which won the Gulf of Guinea as a supplier of oil to Spain in the period 1999-2010, with the second largest increase in Europe increased to participate in the same period by 34.4 per 100, due to do to increase imports from Ukraine, (1532 per 100), Russia (58.3 per 100), and Norway (99.8 per 100) - I overtake America as the fourth supplier area. In the future, apparently sim ment to continue this progression, if new discoveries are formed in the area and the weight of the Maghreb region continue to fall, as in the period under review.

Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea has become, in a few minutes more than 10 years, one of the great powers of regional hydrocarbon production and processing, as a result of the boom and economic transformation of an unprecedented case study and worldwide. Thus, and due to the importance to Spain for being a former colony, is As discussed in this article.

Despite the country being far from major producers such as Russia (ten million barrels), ranked 36th in the rankings of oil producers in 2009. It is, however, a relative entity: that same year was the 3rd sub-Saharan oil producer, the continent's second LNG (and one of three in the Atlantic Basin along with Nigeria and Trinidad and Tobago), and an LPG producer ( hereinafter, LPG) and methanol

2009, according to the Equatorial Guinean government, more than 35,000 million US dollars, peaking in the flow of investment in 2006, with more than 6,000 million US dollars. Officials said one of the largest issuers, the US, was valued at $17,000 million in cumulative investment flows from 1999 to 2006, reaching an asset value of $22,000 million in 2007.

In terms of its impact on public finances, according to the latest IMF data, the hydrocarbon sector (upstream and downstream) represents more than 90,100 government revenues and about 98,100 export earnings, having grown especially the contribution to the added downstream sector of gross national value from 7.1 to 13.2 per 100 domestic production from 2006 to 2009 in nominal terms and in light of existing projects this weight is likely to increase in the coming years.

Domestic production is only un0.4 of 100 in the world, but on a per capita basis is the highest in the world (nearly half per barrel per person per day), ahead of major producers such as Saudi Arabia and Oman, a consequence of the small size of the country (between 700,000 and 1 million people, the land area is only 28,000 km 2).

Current situation

The Republic produced in 2010 a total of 296,000 barrels per day (bbl/d) through 4 production areas (Zafiro, Alba, Ceiba and Okoume) in two separate basins (Niger Delta, and Rio Muni): 244 kb/d of crude oil (Brent equivalent, 134 kb/d in the Zafiro area, 80 kb/d in the Okoume field, and 30 kb/d in the Ceiba area), and 52 kb/d of condensate in the Alba area provided, according to government sources .

Field Zafiro. Located in the block NW of Bioko, with Nigerian waters, in the Niger Delta Basin. Managed by ExxonMobil (71.25/100) and GEPetrol (28.75/100). Started production in 1996, and was considered at the time West Africa's first deepwater oilfield, 5. Devon Energy was not part of the consortium until January 2008, when it sold its assets to GEPetrol worth 2,200 million.

Okume and Ceiba fields On the coast of the mainland, the Rio Muni basin. Managed by Hess (80.75 per 100), with participation from Tullow (14.25 per 100), and GEPetrol (5 per 100).

Ceiba is a country consisting of 10 production wells and other dedicated injection.

The Okoume complex occupies four oil fields (Okoume, Ebony, Oveng and Elon) known as block north G (off the mainland coast).

Alba field. And 25 km off the northwest coast of Bioko Island, in the Niger Delta Basin, 76 feet deep, and was discovered by the Spanish company Hispanoil in the eighties, now part of Repsol. This field is related to the production of gas and gas condensate oil, with recoverable gas reserves estimated at 125 billion cubic meters of gas (BCM), equivalent to a train liquefaction production for 25 years) and 400 million barrels of condensate. Marathon Oil is the operator with 63.3 per 100, along with Noble Energy, and 33.7 per 100 of 100 GEPetrol 3 percent, in terms of gas and gas condensate production from the Alba current field of 870 million cubic feet of gas per day (MMcf/d) and 52 kb/d condensate, with four feeder-crossing projects, described by cough in the next section.

As for the evolution of production, from its timid beginnings in 1992, has risen sharply since 1995 (always agree BP), going 7 kb/d this year, to 376 kb/d in 2005, record production. Since then, production has remained at these levels, falling in 2009-307 kb/d in 2010 to above 244 kb/d. Current proven reserves in 2009 are 1,700 million barrels, equivalent to 15.2 years at current production rates.

This is oil production, according to the American Energy Agency (EIA), in 2009, about 28,100 of the total were allocated to the USA, Spain 22,100, China un16,100, France 9 per 100, Italy 7 per 100, Taiwan and 6 per 100 targeting 12,100 remaining in other markets. The figure, of course, changes from year to year depending on the conditions of supply and demand in each one of the areas that make up the world oil market.

Current situation

In this area there is a whole industrial complex in Punta Europa, Malabo, with 4 refineries hydrocarbon derivatives Alba PSC condensate processing oil plant, Alba LPG plant, methanol plant AMPCO ; and EG- LNG train.

First, the Alba PSC processing plant began operation in July 1991, processing about 52 kb/d of condensate and 870 MMcf/d of gas from the Alba field, serving as the mother plant for the other three mentioned.

Secondly, the GPP Alba plant began operations in 1997, currently producing 13 kb/d of propane, 7 kb/d of butane and 6 kb/d of condensate. It is owned by the American multinationals Marathon Oil Company (40 per 100), Noble Energy (40 pr. 100) and the Guinean Society of Sonagas (20 100).

Thirdly, AMPCO (Atlantic Methanol Production Company) is a plant with a methanol production capacity of 1 million tons (MT), equivalent to about 3 per 100 methanol consumed in the world. It is owned by the American multinational corporations Marathon Oil Company, Noble Energy and Sonagas of Guinea Society.

Finally, fourthly, E.G. LNG is the first train liquefaction company in the country, capable of supplying about 4.5 billion cubic meters (equivalent to about 3.4 million tons per year), equivalent to about 10,100 current Spanish natural gas consumption. It is owned by the American multinationals Marathon Oil Company (60 per 100), the Guinean Society of Sonagas (25,100), and Mitsui (8.5 per 100) and Marubeni (6.5 per 100) Japanese.

Since its construction since 2007, Equatorial Guinea has become the third largest LNG producer in the Atlantic Basin, after Trinidad and Tobago and Nigeria, and has been successful in terms of construction speed. British Gas Marketing Ltd. (BGGM), a subsidiary of the British BG Group, has a contract to purchase long-term gauze, which in 2009 sold mainly to Asia (89 per 100 by volume), highlighting Japan (40,100) and Korea (36,100) , and the rest in Chile, Portugal and France.

Downstream

In this area, the country imports 100 100 refined oil needs, because it really has a refinery. Basically there are two suppliers of these products, and the general branch of the local oil GEPetrol Finally, the company is responsible for supplying GEOGAM LPG for household needs.

The Equatorial Guinean government has announced several projects in recent years: a new gas turbine power plant in Malabo (under construction) and the proposed construction of a combined cycle plant (CCGT) for export, the construction of an oil refinery with a capacity of 20 kb/d, and the construction of a petrochemical industry.

There are several projects to use gas for electricity generation.

First, the construction of a 120 MW gas turbine power plant in Punta Europe, near Malabo will clearly meet the energy needs of the island over the next few years. This expands the existing centre, which at 28 MW is insufficient to meet the needs of the current electricity demand.

Secondly, it is possible to build a combined cycle of 400 MW of power, export calling Cameroon and Nigeria, in the immediate vicinity of Punta-Europe or Banee (Bioko).

The latter project will be closely related to the achievement of regional gas reserves and hence the 3G project described above, which is the key to the concept of mutual dependence between the exporting country, selling surplus unused gas and After purchasing the electricity generated from the above. In Equatorial Guinea, the authorities to protect the profitability of the project (with a return on capital close to 22,100) and demand (excessive demand in the electricity market in the region is estimated at tens of gigawatts), it should turn to other similar value generation industrialization projects based out of gas and in Nigeria and Cameroon (Kribi region).

Second, the design is provided by a refinery south of the mainland, in Mbini City, with a capacity of 20,000 barrels / day to produce gasoline, diesel, Jet A-1 fuel oil, lubricants and asphalt, in order to visually cover domestic needs and exports to neighboring countries. The estimated cost of the project is about 300 million euros, in the state budget for 2010 plans a multi-year project budget with, do not rule out, looking for financial partners. At the time of writing, the American engineering company KBR is working on a previous engineering study and on which we will proceed to an international tender.

The reason why the project to the end of the complete dependence is that the country is forced to import refined, and the truth is that it is the only country in the region that does not have a factory. According to a 2009 World Bank refinery report, refining capacity from Central and West Africa is expected to increase from 200,000 to 400,000 bbl/d, depending on the economic situation, which would support the economic viability of the project.

Finally, thirdly, there are plans to create a petrochemical industry on the island of Bioko. However, in the study phase, including 28,000 tons / year of methanol as raw materials will be used and a maximum capacity of 65,000 tons / year is calculated. These applications take advantage of the many different derivatives of methanol and methylamine or formaldehyde. The economic logic of the project, besides contributing to the industrialization of the country, is based on easy access to domestic methanol production and access to an expanding global market whose demand is estimated to increase from 14 million tons per year today, 19 million tons in 2020.

CHAPTER 5. PROSPECTS FOR OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL IN THE BLOCK

Several potentially promising oil and gas complexes are identified on the block. The available geological and geophysical data indicate the possible presence of gas deposits in natural reservoirs of the Miocene and later "1" age, confined to

structural and stratigraphic traps, by analogy with the objects prepared for exploration drilling by the company Ophir in 2008. According to published data, gas reserves associated with a stratigraphic trap of the middle Miocene age at the field fortune, make up more than 2 trillion cubic meters. foot of gas 66.67 bcm m). Field Lykos confined to a multi-layer trap of a predominantly structural type, while in the immediate vicinity there are several more similar, presumably gas, objects, the total volume of reserves of which can be comparable to a gas field

fortune. Also, within Block J, the productivity of deeper targets of the middle Miocene age is assumed, by analogy with the proven primary target horizons of the field. Alba.

The identified objects are distinguished by well-marked anomalies. The maximum mapped area of ​​one of these objects (green in Fig. 3) is 100 square meters. km, within which several separate structural uplifts are distinguished. The estimated resource base of this facility may be 100-200 million barrels. in the case of filling with oil and up to 700 billion cubic meters. ft if filled with gas.

Rice. 3 - Promising objects mapped based on the results of a special processing and interpretation of 3D seismic data on Block J

Rice. 2 - Combined contours of the identified and prepared structures in the interval of the Early Nononian deposits (on the inset on the left is a structural map of the field Paloma)

In the section of potentially promising Senonian deposits, several structural and stratigraphic traps were identified and mapped (in the Upper Cretaceous interval). In terms of geological structure, the proposed productive complexes are likely similar to the proven complexes of discovered deposits within Block G (70 km to the south along the strike of this structural element), the reserves of which exceed 500 million barrels. oil. Bedded sand bodies of Santonian-Turonian age wedge out with unconformable transgressive occurrence on a pre-rift upland located to the east.

The design depth of the vertical well for the exploration of this object by drilling is ~ 5000 m (3760 m from the seabed or silt boundary). The presence of a proven source rock of the Middle Albian age is confirmed by the characteristic features of the wave field, in addition, positive amplitude anomalies according to the data

AVO analysis reduces the geological risks of the prepared structure. The prospective resources of each individual sand body are 166 million barrels. oil, which in total for four such bodies gives an average of 542 million barrels. oil, with a maximum assessment of the resource base

in 1.3 billion barrels. oil. In addition, the deposits that make up the dome uplift may also be potentially productive. Amigo(by analogy with La Ceiba and trapped in stratigraphic traps by rising layers (Paloma) and downstream (Channel complex complex) by analogy with c (Ebano).

NobleEnergy has made a new discovery in Block I offshore Equatorial Guinea. Well "I-1", while conducting a field prospect determination, Benita encountered an extremely high quality Miocene formation container containing 135 feet (41.5 meters) of net hydrocarbon pay. Factory tested from well, resulting in flow rates of 1,038 bbl/d of condensate and 34.3 million cubic feet/day of natural gas, or approximately 6,755 boe/d (based on natural gas to an oil conversion ratio of 6 to 1) , With the pace of production, limited test facilities. "I -1" also, located in 2880 feet (886 meters) of water and about 25 miles (40 kilometers) east of Bioko Island, was drilled to a total depth of 10,460 feet (3218 meters). It is approximately 13 miles (21 kilometers) south of the Belinda discovery, located in block "O", which was announced in late 2005. With the installation of cooling and processing, the condensate output can be increased. As expected, the section of the reservoir at the location of the discovery of Benita is significantly thicker than at Belinda, which is also Miocene in age.

An additional evaluation of the work will be necessary to check the area in one of Benita's openings. Any evaluation of the work will follow the drilling of an additional exploration well on Block I. The company is currently pursuing a multi-well-designed exploration program to test a number of prospects in the region. The Songa Saturn rig will next return to Block "O" where it will drill the Belinda appraisal well located approximately 4.5 miles (7.25 kilometers) from the "O-1" discovery well. Current plans are to return to Block "I" in third quarter of 2007 prior to the drilling of a second exploration well NobleEnergy is the technical operator of block "I" with a 40 percent equity interest Its block partners include AtlasPetroleum International Limited (54 percent equity) which is the administrative Operator and OsborneResourcesLimited, a company within the Group Organization PAResources (six percent equity interest) GEPetrol (the national oil company of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea) has five percent carried interest eleven commercialism has already been determined.

Charles D. Davidson, NobleEnergy Chairman, President and CEO, said: "Dealer Benita is the first hole ever drilled in the I block and complements our Belinda discovery in the O block. While more drilling is needed to fully understand our resource potential in the area, we are encouraged by this new discovery and the potential commercial aspects of both blocks.we now have two wells drilled with three discoveries as we continue with our drilling program in west africa.Our next good, estimating belinda is good, will start later this month." The Minister of Mines, Industry and Energy, J. E. Atanasio Ela NtuguNsa said, "The government of Equatorial Guinea is pleased that, in a way, there was another discovery made in the Equatorial Guinea part of the Duala Basin. The government believes that this new discovery of further significant hydrocarbons CONFIRMS the potential of the Douala Basin and highlights what a positive investment climate currently exists in the Republic of Equatorial Guinea

CONCLUSIONS AND OFFERS

The formation of the NGB on the continental margins of the central part of West Africa and Southeast Brazil proceeded according to the general scenario against the background of the opening of the southern segment of the Atlantic Ocean. Three main stages are distinguished in its geological evolution: rifting (Early Cretaceous), early spreading (Late Cretaceous), and mature spreading (Cenozoic-Holocene), during which characteristic sedimentary complexes accumulated on passive continental margins. Each complex contains high-quality and high-quality oil and gas source and reservoir strata that have undergone a wide range of catagenetic transformations.

Significant similarity of structural styles, lithostratigraphy, and age range of the oil-and-gas bearing stage has been established in the emerging shelf-slope basins. The study of the biomarker composition of oils showed that they belong to three geochemical groups with biomarkers of lacustrine, marine, and deltaic origin. The fourth group reflects the participation of two or three mixed maternal sources. Oils of these groups have been identified in the basins of both the African and Brazilian margins of the Atlantic.

Some differences in the structure of the basins are due to local features of the manifestation of halokinesis and the timing of progradations. Both processes, which became especially active at the final stage of the formation of the basins, determined their structural style, significantly improving and moving towards the ocean favorable conditions for oil and gas formation and oil and gas accumulation. Many discoveries of large and giant deposits are confined to deep water and are associated with the continental slope.

The revealed regularities in the formation of large hydrocarbon accumulations in the basins of the South Atlantic can be used for other regions, in particular, for the basins of the Arctic. According to V.E. Khain and N.I. Filatova (2007, 2009), under the influence of the African-Arctic superplume in a single system with the Atlantic, the formation of the Arctic Ocean, which is the northernmost end of this system, took place. The presence of a relatively steep gradient of the continental slope of the passive Arctic margins, by analogy with the Atlantic, gives grounds for a high assessment of its prospects, confirmed by the development of fans with channels and canyons that are clearly visible on satellite images. The latter, periodically regenerating at steep slope steps, are filled with sand bodies that can serve as oil and gas reservoirs (Khain, Polyakova, 2006). Particularly significant prospects are expected on the continental slope of the Canadian Basin, located close to the coast, where large masses of sedimentary material are distributed.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

Zabanbark A., Konyukhov A.I. Prospects for oil and gas content of continental slopes in the World Ocean: tectonic aspect// Geotectonics. - 2005. - No. 1. - S. 99-106.

Lisitsyn A.P. Sedimentary processes and mineral resources of the continental slopes of the World Ocean // Actual problems of oceanology. M.: Nauka, 2003. - S. 82-152.

Panaev V.A. On the prospects of oil and gas content in the deep waters of the World Ocean // Bul. MOIP. Dep. geol. - 2002. - T. 77. - Issue. 6. - S. 34-48.

Khain V.E. Tectonics of continents and oceans (year 2000). M.: Nauch. Mir, 2001. - 606 p.

Khain V.E., Filatova N.I., Polyakova I.D. Tectonics, geodynamics and prospects for the oil and gas potential of the East Arctic Seas and their continental margins. - M.: Nauka, 2009. - 227 p.

Khain V.E., Polyakova I.D. Large and giant hydrocarbon accumulations in the continent-ocean transition zone // Geotectonics. - 2008. - No. 3. - S. 3-17.

Khain V.E., Filatova N.I. Superplume episodes in the East Arctic-Asian region and their correlation with similar events in other regions of the Earth // Dokl. RAN. - 2007. - T.415. - No. 4. - S. 518-523.

Khain V.E., Polyakova I.D. The deep-water margin of the Eastern Arctic is a promising object for oil and gas prospecting. Dokl. RAN. - 2006. - Т.410. - No. 2. - S. 234-238.

Khain V.E., Polyakova I.D. Oil and gas potential of deep-water and ultra-deep-water zones of continental margins // Lithology and Minerals. - 2004. - No. 6. - S. 610-612.

A Ives T.M., Cartwright J., Davies R.J. Faulting of salt-withdrawal basins during early halokinesis: effect on Paleogene Rio Doce Canyon system (Esperito Santo basin, Brazil) //AAPG Bull. 2009. V. 93. - No. 5. - P. 617-652.

Beasley C.J., Fiduk J.C., Bize E „ Boyd A., Fiydman M „ Zerilli A., Dribus J. R.,

Moreira J.L.P., Pinto A.C.C. Brazil "s presalt play // Oilfield Review. - 2010. - V. 22. - No. 3. - P. 28-37.

Borsato R „ Jones W., Greenhalgh J., Martin M „ Roberson R., Fontes C „MarkwickQuallington A. South Atlantic conjugate margin: an exploration strategy // First break. - 2012. - V. 30. - P. 79-84.

Brownfield M.E., Charpenter R.R. Geology and total petroleum systems of the West-Central Coastal Province (7203). West Africa // U.S. Geological Survey Bull. - 2006. - 2207-B. 52.

Cameron, N.R., Bate, R.H., and Clure, V.S. The oil and gas habitats of the South Atlantic // London: Geological Society. 1999. Special Publication 153. - 474 p.

Cobbold P.R., Chiossi D., Green P.F., Japsen P., Bonow J. Compressional reactivation, Atlantic margin of Brazil: structural styles and consequences for hydrocarbon exploration // Search and Discovery article # 30114. 2010. AAPG International Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Cobbold P.R., Meisling K.E., Mount V.S. Reactivation of an obliquely rifted margin, Campos and Santos basins, southeastern Brazil//AAPG Bull. - 2001. - V. 85. - No. 11. - P. 1925-1944.

Devison/. Geology and tectonics of the South Atlantic Brazilian salt basins // London: Geological Society. 2007 Special Publication. 272. - P. 345-359.

Kolla V., Bourges Ph., Urruty J.-M., Safa P. Evolution of deep-water Tertiary sinuous channels offshore Angola (west Africa) and implications for reservoir architecture // AAPG Bull. - 2001. - Vol. 85. - No. 8. -P. 1373-1405.

Lafond C., Jones IF., Bridson M „ Houllevigue #., and Kerdraon Y. Imaging Deepwater Salt Bodies in West Africa // Leading Edge. - 2003. - V. 22. - No. 9. - P. 893-896.

Meisling K.E., Cobbold P.R., Mount V.S. Sedimentation of an obliquely rifted margin, Campos and Santos basins, southeastern Brazil // AAPG Bull. - 2001. - V. 85. - No. 11. - P. 1903-1924.

Mello M.R., Telnaes N.. Gaglianone P.C., Chicarelli M.I., Brassell S.S., Maxwell J.R. Organic geochemical characterization of depositional palaeoenvironments of source rocks and oils in Brazilian marginal basins // Org. geochem. - 1988. - V. 13. - No. 1. - P. 31-45.

Mello M.R., Katz B.J. Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins // AAPG. 2000. Memoir 73.-451 p.

Modica C.J., Brush E.R. Postrift sequence stratigraphy, paleogeography, and fill history of the deep-watter Santos Basin, offshore southeast Brazil // AAPG Bull. - 2004. - V.88. - No. 7. - P. 923-945.

Schiefelbein, C.F., Zumberge, J.E., Cameron, N.R., Brown, S.W. Geochemical comparison of crude oil along the South Atlantic margin, in Mello, M.R., and Katz, B.J., eds. Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins // AAPG. 2000. Memoir 73. - P. 15-26.

Schoellkopf N.B. Patterson B.A. Petroleum systems of offshore Cabinda, Angola, in Mello, M.R., and Katz, B.J. eds., Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins // AAPG. 2000. Memoir 73. - P. 361-376.

Tissot, B., Demaison G., Masson P., Delteil J.R. Combas, A. Paleoenvironment and petroleum potential of middle Cretaceous black shale in Atlantic basins // AAPG. 1980 Bull. - V. 64. - No. 12. - P. 2051-2063.

Wilson M. Magmatism and continental rifting during the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean: A consequence of Lower Cretaceous super-plume activity? // London: Geological Society. 1992 Special Publication. 68. - P. 241-255.

Zumberge J.E., Russell J.A., Reid S.A. Charging of Elk Hills reservoirs as determined by oil geochemistry// AAPG. 2005 Bull. - V. 89. - No. 10. - P. 1347-1371.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

Similar Documents

The main stages in the development of the doctrine of oil and gas basins. A fundamentally new stage in the study of sedimentary basins. Elements of zoning of oil and gas basins. Foci of oil and gas formation and zones of oil and gas accumulation. Lithogenesis of deep-sea sediments.

abstract, added 01/24/2011


The main features of the regional structure, elements of the basement surface of the Caspian Basin, its lithofacies features and tectonic processes. Characteristics of the main oil and gas bearing complexes of the depression, the structure of Devonian oil deposits.

term paper, added 11/10/2010


Geological structure and oil and gas content of the territory of the Yenisei-Khatanga regional trough. Study, stratigraphy, tectonics, oil and gas potential. Principles of hydrogeological stratification of the section. Geochemistry of underground waters and water-dissolved gases.

thesis, added 12/24/2016


Geological structure of the field: stratigraphy, tectonics, general hydrogeological situation, oil and gas potential, physical and chemical characteristics of oil and gas. Analysis of the structure of the well stock, the state of depletion of reservoir reserves, the magnitude of oil recovery.

thesis, added 09/19/2011


Geological and geophysical knowledge of the East Cheleken field in Turkmenistan. Geological and tectonic structure. Lithological features of the deposit and their formation. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the sedimentation basin. Oil and gas potential.

thesis, added 11/10/2015


History of development and geological structure of the southwestern Caspian basin, location of tectonic elements. Structural-tectonic scheme of the Astrakhan arch. Regional oil and gas complexes. Astrakhan gas condensate field.

term paper, added 02/07/2011


Geological structure of the work area. Lithological and stratigraphic characteristics of the productive section. Tectonics and oil and gas potential. Geological problems solved by geophysical methods. Physico-geological prerequisites for the application of geophysical methods.

term paper, added 02/16/2016


The importance of the oil and gas industry in the Algerian economy. Dynamics of production, export and income from the sale of hydrocarbons. Characteristic features of stratigraphy, tectonics of the country. Structural-tectonic floors distinguished in the structure of the plate. Oil and gas potential.

abstract, added 06/05/2012


Characteristics of the geological structure and gas content of the "Sovkhoznoye" field. Lithological and stratigraphic description of the section. Tectonic structure. Oil and gas potential. Physico-lithological characteristics of productive layers, deposits. Gas properties.

term paper, added 06/03/2008


The internal structure and history of the geological development of the Earth, the formation of the bowels, the chemical composition. The difference between the Earth and other terrestrial planets. Concepts of development of geospheric shells and tectonics of lithospheric plates. Structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere.

bokeh is the largest in the world lateritic bauxite deposit. Located 135 km from the Atlantic coast in the northwestern part of Guinea. The bauxite deposits of the deposit are confined to hilly uplands (bovals), bordered by river valleys up to 100 m deep. Bauxite laterites were formed as a result of intensive weathering of Paleozoic graptolitic shales during the Paleogene-Neogene period in the conditions of a poorly dissected peneplanated plain. The thickness of the lateritic weathering crust is 10–15 m. Bauxites come to the surface and, as a rule, are overlain by ferruginous laterites (cuirass).
More than 100 bauxite deposits have been discovered at the deposit, elongated in the form of a northeast strike zone 130 km long and 30-60 km wide, with an area of ​​over 3,500 square kilometers. According to the conditions of formation and occurrence, as well as structural and textural features, two types of bauxites are noted in the deposit: eluvial and deluvial. Genetically and spatially, they are closely related and pass into each other.
Eluvial bauxite are represented by dense stony ores with a massive, banded and slate texture. They usually form the upper part of the lateritic weathering crust. Loose and earthy varieties of bauxites are sometimes found in the lower part of the bauxite-bearing strata.
Deluvial bauxites are angular or slightly rounded fragments of eluvial bauxites ranging in size from a few to 15 cm, cemented by pelitic, silty or psammite material formed due to the destruction of eluvial bauxites.

• V.V.Avdonin, V.E.Boitsov, V.M.Grigoriev and others. Deposits of metallic minerals, M, Academic project, 2005

GUINEA
The Republic of Guinea, a state in West Africa, has access to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It borders Guinea-Bissau in the northwest, Senegal in the north, Mali in the north and east, Côte d'Ivoire in the southeast, Liberia and Sierra Leone in the south. Area 245.9 thousand sq. km, population - 7673 thousand people (1998) The capital is the city of Conakry (800 thousand inhabitants, 1996) Other large cities are Kankan, Kindia, Labe, Sigiri.

Guinea. The capital is Conakry. Population - 7673 thousand people (1998). Population density - 31 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 23%, rural - 77%. Area - 245.9 thousand square meters. km. The highest point is Mount Nimba (1752 m). The main languages ​​are Fulbe, Malinke, Susu, French (official). The main religions are Islam, local traditional beliefs. Administrative-territorial division - 8 provinces. Currency: Guinean franc = 100 centimes. National holiday: Independence Day - 2 October. National anthem: "Freedom"

At the end of the 19th century Guinea was conquered by France and incorporated into French West Africa. After the Second World War, a massive national liberation movement gained strength in Guinea, led by Sekou Toure. In a referendum on September 28, 1958, on the draft of a new French constitution, almost the entire population of Guinea supported the anti-colonial course. The Guineans rejected the idea of ​​incorporating the country into the French Community, choosing the path of complete independence from the mother country. On October 2, 1958, the independent Republic of Guinea was proclaimed. In response, France immediately cut off all ties with Guinea and withdrew all French personnel from there. Independent Guinea, led by President Sekou Toure, who held this post until his death in 1984, was one of the radical African states that stood on the positions of pan-Africanism.
Nature. The territory of Guinea is divided into four physiographic regions. The first of them, located in the west of the country, - Lower, or Primorskaya, Guinea - is a flat lowland up to 32 km wide, with heights less than 150 m above sea level. The swampy strip of the coast is covered with mangroves, dense rocks come to the surface only in the Conakry region. Lower Guinea is an area of ​​commodity-export agriculture. Mostly representatives of the Susu people live here. The Kogon, Fatala and Konkure rivers cutting through the lowland originate in the deep valleys of the second region - Central Guinea. Here the sandstone massif Futa-Dzhallon with peaks of 1200-1400 m crosses the country from north to south. The highest point of the plateau, located north of Labe, is Mount Tamge (1538 m). Central Guinea is characterized by the predominance of savannah landscapes, in the highest places there are mountain meadows. The area is inhabited by the Fulbe people. The predominant occupation of the population is animal husbandry. To the east of the Futa-Jallon massif, on the plains in the basin of the upper reaches of the Niger River, lies Upper Guinea. This is an area of ​​savannas inhabited mainly by malinque farmers. Forest Guinea, located in the southeast of the country, occupies part of the North Guinea Upland with small massifs of remnant mountains. Here, near the border with Liberia in the Nimba mountains, is the highest point of Guinea (1752 m). In this area, the background is savannas, in some areas, especially along the river valleys, tropical forests have been preserved. In Forest Guinea, there are many small peoples who are engaged in agriculture. The climate of Guinea is characterized by a pronounced contrast between the wet season, which lasts from May to October (and on the coast - longer than on the plains of the northeast) and the dry season, when a hot wind blows from the northeast - harmatan. With the exception of its northernmost part, the coastal lowland is reliably protected by mountains from dry winds. Moist southwesterly winds bring heavy rainfall that falls on the western slopes of the mountains. The Conakry region is characterized by an average annual rainfall of 4300 mm, of which 4000 mm falls during the wet season. In the interior, an average of 1300 mm falls annually. High temperatures prevail throughout the year, rarely dropping below 15°C, and sometimes reaching 38°C. different agricultural crops. Of export importance is coffee, which is produced in Central and Upper Guinea, as well as bananas grown in the coastal lowlands and in the valleys near the railway. In a number of coastal areas, mangroves have been cleared for rice fields.
Population. Many ethnic groups live in Guinea, the largest of them are the peoples who speak Mande (Malinke, Susu, etc.) and Fulbe. The Fulbe account for 35% of the population, the Malinka for 30% and the Susu for 13%. The rest: scrap (volumes), gerze, kisi, dalonke, etc. - together make up 22%. Local languages ​​are so different that even Guineans living in neighboring areas cannot always understand each other. The official language is French, but not all residents of the country speak it (especially in rural areas). Malinka live in the interior of the country, mainly in the Niger basin, Susu (presumably the most ancient inhabitants of the savannas) - on the coast, including the strip between Conakry and Kindia. The main occupation of the Mande-speaking peoples, who make up about half of the country's population, is agriculture. The warlike Fulbe cattle breeders who appeared in these places in the 16th century inhabit mainly the central part of the country - the Futa-Jallon massif. A number of small ethnic groups are distributed along the coast, on the western slopes of the Phuta Djallon plateau and in Forest Guinea. The old animosity between the Mande-speaking rural population and the conquering Fulbe pastoralists, which has now taken the form of rivalry for political hegemony in the country, has not been eliminated. Approximately 90% of Guineans are Muslims. Most of the rest are adherents of local traditional beliefs and cults. Although the first Christian missions were established in present-day Guinea in the 19th century, the number of Christians is negligible.
Political system. For more than a quarter of a century, Sekou Toure ruled Guinea. He led the Democratic Party of Guinea (DPG) and in October 1958 led the country to independence and was its president until 1984. After the death of Sekou Toure, a group of military personnel led by Colonel Lansana Conte seized power in the country in April 1984. As a result, the constitution was suspended, the DPD, which ruled under the conditions of a one-party system, and mass public organizations operating under the auspices of this party were dissolved. The administration of the country was taken over by the Military Committee of National Revival. The first constitution of free Guinea endowed the president with broad powers of the head of the country and the head of government. The president was elected in a general election for a term of 7 years. In 1972, the post of prime minister was approved, who was appointed by the president. The legislature, the National Assembly, had limited powers. All of its 210 deputies were elected from a single list of candidates. In accordance with the amendment to the constitution adopted in 1974, the congress of the DPD was proclaimed "the highest state organ." The DPD sought to monopolize power in order to carry out political, social and economic modernization in the country at an accelerated pace. A well-organized and disciplined party, whose cells were created in every village, was to be the agent of change. Membership in local party, trade union, women's and youth organizations was almost mandatory. The highest executive body of the party, the Politburo of the DPG, became the pinnacle of the power pyramid. Nevertheless, discontent was growing in the country, in response, the authorities carried out a series of purges in the state apparatus and the army. In 1978, after mass unrest in which several provincial governors were killed, measures were taken to restore public confidence in the DPG and the government. Regular conferences for activists of local trade unions, women's and youth organizations began to be held. In general elections, provincial governors and leaders of district party organizations, who were previously appointed by party bodies, began to be elected. In 1984, the military came to power, led by Colonel L. Conte. In 1990, a new constitution was adopted, providing for the creation of a multi-party system. In 1993, L. Conte was elected president of the country. In 1997, the armed forces of Guinea consisted of approx. 9.7 thousand people. 9.2 thousand people served in the people's militia. Great assistance in creating and equipping the Guinean army was provided by the USSR and China. In the field of foreign policy, independent Guinea officially proclaimed a course of non-alignment. In 1958-1961 and from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, Guinea maintained closer relations with the USSR and other socialist countries than with neighboring African states and Western countries. Under the pretext of France's participation in a conspiracy against the government of Guinea, Franco-Guinean diplomatic relations were interrupted in 1965. In the mid-1970s, Guinea strengthened relations with countries in Africa, the Middle East and the West. In 1976 diplomatic relations with France were restored. Guinea is a member of the UN, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS). A serious threat to the economic development and political stability of Guinea is created, especially in the last decade of the 20th century, by the continuous flow of refugees from neighboring Liberia and Sierra Leone, where civil wars do not stop.
Economy. Guinea is rich in natural resources. The country has mineral reserves, large areas of fertile land, rivers have great hydropower potential. Guinea has the largest bauxite deposits in the world. The mining industry contributes almost all of the export revenue to the state budget. However, the main occupation of the population remains rural subsistence or small-scale farming. The industry is underdeveloped, although its share in GDP is constantly growing. Many lucrative economic activities in Guinea are under state control. Within 15 years of independence, the government gradually eliminated private trade. Only state trading organizations functioned, and the peasants were obliged to sell their products through a network of state stores. After the riots that swept the country in 1979, the government was forced to lift the ban on private trade. Large industrial enterprises, especially those working for export, remained state-owned.
Agriculture. About 80% of the population of Guinea is employed in agriculture. The main crops are rice, cassava and corn, they also form the basis of the diet of the Guineans. Peasants breed cattle, sheep, goats and poultry. The country is not self-sufficient in food and has to import rice, sugar and dairy products. In the early 1980s, only 1/7 of the land suitable for cultivation was used, labor productivity remained low due to the backward material and technical base of agriculture and the lack of incentives for commercial farming. The main export crops of Guinea - bananas, chocolate tree, oil palm, pineapples and peanuts - are grown mainly on plantations. After 1958, the collection and export of these crops was significantly reduced due to the departure of European specialists and the loss of French markets. In the early 1980s, agricultural export production (other than bananas) remained low.
Mining industry. Boke, Tugue, Fria, Kindia, Debele and other bauxite deposits, unique in terms of reserves and quality of raw materials, have been discovered in Guinea. industry to the world market (more than 12 million tons per year). In 1993, the share of mining products in the value of exports was approx. 86%, but decreased to 78% in 1994-1995. Most mineral deposits are developed by joint ventures established by foreign consortiums and the Guinean government, which typically owns 49% of the shares of such enterprises. In the early 1980s, there were three bauxite mining enterprises in the country - in Kindia (wholly owned by the state), Fria (owned by the Phrygia consortium) and Boke (owned by the mixed society "Bauxite de Guine"). In 1995, the total production of bauxite amounted to 13.6 million tons. Since the second half of the 1980s, industrial gold mining has been carried out - up to 1 ton per year, which provides 20% of the value of exports. The explored reserves of gold in Upper Guinea alone amount to 500 tons. Guinea has considerable reserves of diamonds - more than 100 million carats. Diamond mining is carried out in the south of the country (200 thousand carats per year). The explored reserves of high-quality iron ore in the Nimba mountains are approx. 12 billion tons (in 1997, production has not yet begun). Guinea also has reserves of uranium ore and copper.
Manufacturing industry. The industrial sector of the economy began to develop only after gaining independence. In the early 1980s, the industrial sector provided only 5% of the national income. In 1995, 0.6% of the working population was employed in industry. A large plant in Fria smelts aluminum for export. Other industries are represented by enterprises of the food, textile, cement industries, as well as building materials.
Transport. Of the 12.4 thousand km of roads, only 5 thousand km are paved. Railways link Conakry with Kankan and Fria, as well as Boke and Kamsar. In 1997, a Slovak company was awarded a contract to modernize the railway line between Conakry and Kankan. In 1996, the Iranian government announced its readiness to build a railway linking Conakry with the bauxite-rich region of Dabola-Tughe. The largest port of Conakry has a natural deep water harbour. In 1973 a new port was built in Kamsar.
Trade and investment. Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, Guinea's trade balance ran in deficit. However, since the mid-1970s, the trade balance has become positive, mainly due to the growth of income from bauxite mining. In 1991 the situation returned to its previous state. In 1993, the value of imports was 731 million dollars, and exports - 665 million dollars. If in 1993-1995 Guinea's trade balance was in deficit, then in 1996 it had a surplus of 111 million dollars. The share of bauxite and alumina in export revenues decreased from 65% in 1993 to 54% in 1995. Other exports are diamonds, gold, coffee, bananas, oil palm products, peanuts and pineapples. Guinea's main trading partners are France, other states of Western Europe and the United States.
Finance and banking. In 1960, Guinea left the zone of the French franc and the West African Monetary Union. Today it has its own currency, which is issued by the Central Bank. In October 1972, Guinea replaced the franc with a new monetary unit - the force, but in 1985 the franc was reintroduced into circulation. The Central Bank of Guinea oversees financial institutions that engage in commercial banking activities. Guinea has a huge external debt and virtually no foreign exchange reserves.
Public education. For children aged 7 to 12, schooling is free and compulsory. In 1993 ca. 46% of children of the corresponding age attended primary schools and approx. 12% - average. Almost a third of the students were girls. Primary school focuses on the acquisition of agricultural skills, while secondary school focuses on technical training. There are polytechnics in Kankan and Conakry. During the years of independence, the level of literacy of the population has significantly increased. If in 1965 only 10% of adult Guineans could read and write, in 1995 their share increased to about 35%.
Story. In the 10-11 centuries. most of the northeast of modern Guinea was part of the state of Ghana. The mines near Sigiri probably produced some of Ghana's gold, which was exchanged in the cities of the Sahel for salt and other goods from North Africa. In the 12th century The empire of Ghana collapsed, and in the 13th century. in its place, the empire of Mali arose, created by the Malinke people. Islam spread widely among the nobility and townspeople. Until the beginning of the 16th century. Mali remained a powerful force in the region. Later, a significant part of the territory of Mali was captured by the Songhai empire of Gao in the east and the state of Tekrur, created by the Fulani, in the west. In the middle of the 17th century. The Bambara of Segou overthrew the Malinque Emperor. By that time, the center of trade had moved to the coast, where intense competition between Portuguese, English and French slave traders unfolded. However, in this part of the West African coast, the slave trade was less widespread than on the coast of Nigeria, Dahomey and Senegal. After the official ban on the slave trade in the early 19th century. the coastal regions of present-day Guinea continued to attract human traffickers, as the heavily indented coastline provided safe hiding places for slave ships hunted by British warships. In the middle of the 19th century The slave trade was replaced by trade in peanuts, palm oil, hides and rubber. European merchants settled in several trading posts and paid tribute to the leaders of local tribes. The attempts of the leaders to increase the size of the tribute ended with the fact that in 1849 France established its protectorate over the Boke region. At the beginning of the 18th century on the territory of the Futa-Jallon plateau, a powerful state of the Fulbe arose. Islam became his state religion, which then spread among the inhabitants of the coastal regions, many of whom paid tribute to the Fulbe leaders. Further development of European trade and the creation of new strongholds on the coast in the middle of the 19th century. led to friction between the French and the Fulani leaders, who in 1861 were persuaded to recognize the French protectorate over Boke. A few years earlier, Haj Omar, a militant religious reformer from eastern Senegal, settled in Fouta Djallon. By 1848, his popularity among the local population had grown so much that it began to cause concern among the leaders of the Fulbe. Hajj Omar was forced to move to Dingirai, where he declared jihad (holy war) on the territory of Western Sudan, primarily the kingdoms of Segu and Masina. In 1864, in a battle with the soldiers of Masina, Haj Omar died, and his son Ahmadu took his place. In 1881, he concluded an agreement with the French, according to which the territory along the left bank of the Niger up to Timbuktu came under the protectorate of France. Later, Ahmadu tried to renounce this treaty, but in 1891-1893 he was removed from power by the French. The longest and most decisive resistance to the French colonialists was provided by Samori Touré. Malinka by ethnicity, he captured Kankan in 1879 and created a Muslim state southeast of Sigiri. In 1887 and 1890, the French concluded treaties of friendship with Samory, but then denounced them, and hostilities resumed. In 1898, the French captured Samory Touré near Man in the west of modern Côte d'Ivoire and sent him into exile, where he died. World War I. In 1895, Guinea was included in French West Africa, and the borders of the colony were established after the British handed over the Los Islands to the French in 1904. During the period of French colonial rule, the Guineans were deprived of elementary political rights and paid a poll tax , they were mobilized for unpaid forced labor and military service.In 1946, France agreed to create an elected territorial assembly in Guinea and gradually softened the property and educational qualifications for voting.In 1957, the entire adult population of the colony could participate in the elections, and the Government Council was created - territory lny body of executive power, consisting of Guineans. The influence of the Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG), a grassroots political organization led by trade unionist Sekou Toure, grew rapidly. Thanks to the propaganda work of party activists in 1958, almost the entire population of Guinea voted in a referendum against the new French constitution and for the country's withdrawal from the French Community. As a result, Guinea gained independence on October 2, 1958. The choice of the Guineans in favor of independence resulted in the loss of French economic assistance and investment, a guaranteed market for export products and technical assistance from qualified specialists. The urgent need for economic and technical assistance forced the new government to turn to the USSR and China for help, which led to even greater isolation of Guinea from France and its allies. In 1965, Guinea severed diplomatic relations with France, accusing her of participating in a conspiracy to overthrow the Guinean government. By the end of the 1960s, Guinea had established relations with a number of Western states, which was largely due to the interest of the country's leadership in foreign investment. However, the nationalization of trade and the agricultural sector resulted in stagnation in all sectors of the Guinean economy, except for mining. Although Sekou Toure himself retained his authority among the population, the government's course became less and less popular, and many thousands of Guineans emigrated. In November 1970, Guinean emigrants, who were in opposition to the Sekou Toure regime, took part in an armed invasion of Guinea, which was organized with the support of Portugal. This action pursued two main goals: the overthrow of the Sekou Toure government and the defeat of the bases of the partisans who fought for the liberation of Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau). The rebels were quickly defeated. After the failed attempt at aggression, mass purges were carried out in the state apparatus and the armed forces of Guinea. In August 1977, a wave of riots swept through the cities, during which several provincial governors appointed by the DPG were killed. After these events, the policy of the Guinean leadership changed dramatically. In the late 1970s, political repression eased, the masses were given the opportunity to participate in public life, and private trade was allowed. Guinea's relations with neighboring African states and Western countries have improved. In 1976 diplomatic relations with France were restored. Sekou Toure died on March 26, 1984, and already on April 3, 1984, a group of military personnel led by Colonel Lansana Conte carried out a bloodless coup. The military authorities disbanded the DPD and released all political prisoners. The economic reforms of the Conte regime did not bring positive results. In 1991, a new constitution was adopted, providing for the creation of a transitional government, and then a multi-party republic. As a first step towards the transition to civilian rule, the activities of political parties were legalized. According to the results of the first multi-party elections in the history of the country, Conte was elected president in 1993. The parliamentary elections of 1995, accompanied by numerous clashes and acts of violence, were won by the Unity and Progress Party, headed by Conte. In 1996, Conte appointed a new cabinet of ministers and introduced the post of prime minister, appointed by the president. Conte entrusted the government with the task of more vigorously pursuing an economic reform program that included cutting public spending, fighting corruption and improving the efficiency of the tax system.

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open society. 2000 .