| | | | |
Crimean Khanate, Crimean Khanate 1783
vassal of the Ottoman Empire
(from 1478 to 1774)

←	1441 - 1783
	Coat of arms of the Girey dynasty

Crimean Khanate in 1600 Capital Kirk-Er (1441 - 1490s)
Salachik (1490s - 1532)
Bakhchisaray (1532-1783) Languages) Crimean Tatar
Ottoman (in the XVII-XVIII centuries) Religion Islam Square 52,200 km² Form of government estate-representative monarchy Dynasty Gireyi

Crimean Khanate(Crimea: Qırım Hanlığı, قريم خانلغى‎) - the state of the Crimean Tatars, which existed from 1441 to 1783. Self-name - Crimean yurt (Crimea: Qırım Yurtu, قريم يورتى‎). In addition to the steppe and foothill parts of the Crimea proper, it occupied the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and most of the modern Krasnodar region of Russia. In 1478, after the Ottoman military expedition to Crimea, the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. After the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, under the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774, Crimea became an independent state under the protectorate of the Russian Empire, while the spiritual authority of the Sultan as the head of the Muslims (caliph) over the Crimean Tatars was recognized. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed by the Russian Empire. The annexation was recognized by the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1791.

• 1 Capitals of the Khanate
• 2 History
  • 2.1 Background
  • 2.2 Gaining independence
  • 2.3 Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire
  • 2.4 Wars with the Russian Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early period
  • 2.5 XVII - early XVIII centuries
  • 2.6 Attempted alliance with Charles XII and Mazepa
  • 2.7 Russian-Turkish War of 1735-39 and the complete devastation of Crimea
  • 2.8 Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774 and the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace
  • 2.9 The last khans and the conquest of Crimea by the Russian Empire
• 3 Maps of lands in history
• 4 Geography
• 5 Army
• 6 State system
• 7 Social life
• 8 Links
• 9 See also
• 10 Notes
• 11 Literature

Capitals of the Khanate

Khan's Palace (Bakhchisarai) Main article: Names of Old Crimea

The main city of the Crimean Yurt was the city of Kyrym, also known as Solkhat (modern Old Crimea), which became the capital of Khan Oran-Timur in 1266. According to the most common version, the name Kyrym comes from the Chagatai qırım - pit, trench; there is also an opinion that it comes from the Western Kipchak qırım - “my hill” (qır - hill, hill, -ım - affix of the first person singular).

When a state independent from the Horde was formed in Crimea, the capital was moved to the fortified mountain fortress of Kyrk-Era, then to Salachik, located in the valley at the foot of Kyrk-Era, and finally, in 1532, to the newly built city of Bakhchisarai.

Story

Background

The first appearance of the Mongols in Crimea dates back to 1223, when the commanders Jebe and Subetey invaded the peninsula and captured Sudak, defeating the Russian-Polovtsian coalition (according to Ibn al-Asir): “many of the noble merchants and rich Russians” fled overseas to Muslim countries , saving your property and goods. In 1237, the Mongols defeated and subjugated the Polovtsians. Soon after these campaigns, the entire steppe and foothill Crimea became the possession of the Ulus of Jochi, known as the Golden Horde. However, virtually independent Genoese trading posts arose on the coast, with which the Tatars maintained trade relations.

During the Horde period, the supreme rulers of Crimea were the khans of the Golden Horde, but direct control was exercised by their governors - the emirs. The first formally recognized ruler in Crimea is considered to be Aran-Timur, Batu’s nephew, who received this region from Mengu-Timur. This name then gradually spread to the entire peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Kyrk-Eru and Bakhchisarai.

The multinational population of Crimea then consisted mainly of Kypchaks (Cumans), Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians living mainly in cities and mountain villages who lived in the steppe and foothills of the peninsula. The Crimean nobility was mainly of mixed Kipchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule, although it had positive aspects, was generally burdensome for the Crimean population. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai’s campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in Crimea.

There are legends, unconfirmed by Crimean sources, that in the 14th century Crimea was allegedly repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then allegedly invaded Crimea, devastated Chersonesus and captured all valuable church objects there. A similar legend exists about his successor named Vytautas, who in 1397 allegedly reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonesus. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for the fact that during the Horde unrest at the end of the 14th century, he provided refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh’s rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Edigei, and made peace.

Gaining independence

By the beginning of the 15th century, the Crimean Yurt had already become very isolated from the Golden Horde and had noticeably strengthened. its composition included, in addition to the steppe and foothill Crimea, part of the mountainous part of the peninsula and vast territories on the continent. After the death of Edigei in 1420, the Horde effectively lost control over Crimea. After this, a fierce struggle for power began in Crimea, from which the first khan of independent Crimea and the founder of the Giray dynasty, Hadji I Giray, emerged victorious. In 1427 he declared himself ruler of the Crimean Khanate. In 1441, with the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the local Crimean nobility, he was elected khan and enthroned. By the middle of the 15th century, the Golden Horde period in the history of Crimea was finally completed. The long-term desire of the Crimeans for independence was crowned with success, and the Golden Horde, shaken by unrest, could no longer offer serious resistance. Soon after the fall of Crimea, the Bulgar (Kazan Khanate) also separated from it, and then, one after another, Astrakhan and the Nogai Horde became independent.

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Taking the throne in 1441, Haji I Giray reigned until his death in 1466.

In the fall of 1480, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III turned through his ambassador in Crimea to the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray with a request to organize a campaign in the Polish lands “to the Kyiv places.” Mengli Giray took Kyiv by storm, plundered and greatly destroyed the city. From the rich booty, the khan sent Ivan III a golden chalice and paten from the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral in gratitude. In 1480, Ivan III entered into an alliance with this khan, which lasted until his death. Ivan III patronized trade, and for this purpose he especially maintained relations with Kafa and Azov.

In 1475, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Genoese colonies and the last bastion of the Byzantine Empire - the Principality of Theodoro, inhabited by Orthodox Christians (Greeks, Alans, Goths, etc.), numbering up to 200 thousand people, who over the next three centuries for the most part (especially in south coast) converted to Islam. These territories, which covered most of the Mountainous Crimea, as well as a number of large cities and fortresses of the Black Sea region, the Azov region and the Kuban, became part of the Turkish possessions, were controlled by the Sultan’s administration and were not subordinate to the khans. The Ottomans maintained their garrisons and bureaucrats in them and strictly collected taxes from the lands under their control. Since 1478, the Crimean Khanate officially became a vassal of the Ottoman Porte and remained in this capacity until the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774. In Ottoman terminology, vassal countries like the Crimean Khanate were called “states under protection” (Turkish: himaye altındaki devletler). The appointment, confirmation and removal of khans were usually carried out at the will of Istanbul since 1584.

Wars with the Russian Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early period

Main articles: Crimean-Nogai raids on Rus', Russian-Crimean Wars

Since the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on the Russian Kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Crimean Tatars and Nogais were fluent in raid tactics, choosing a path along watersheds. Their main route to Moscow was the Muravsky Way, which ran from Perekop to Tula between the upper reaches of the rivers of two basins, the Dnieper and the Seversky Donets. Having gone 100-200 kilometers into the border region, the Tatars turned back and, spreading wide wings from the main detachment, engaged in robbery and the capture of slaves. The capture of captives - yasyr - and the trade in slaves were an important part of the economy of the Khanate. Captives were sold to Turkey, the Middle East and even European countries. The Crimean city of Kafa was the main slave market. According to some researchers, more than three million people, mainly Ukrainians, Poles and Russians, were sold in the Crimean slave markets over two centuries. Every year, Moscow gathered up to 65 thousand warriors in the spring to carry out border service on the banks of the Oka until late autumn. To protect the country, fortified defensive lines were used, consisting of a chain of forts and cities, ambushes and rubble. In the southeast, the oldest of these lines ran along the Oka from Nizhny Novgorod to Serpukhov, from here it turned south to Tula and continued to Kozelsk. The second line, built under Ivan the Terrible, ran from the city of Alatyr through Shatsk to Orel, continued to Novgorod-Seversky and turned to Putivl. Under Tsar Fedor, a third line arose, passing through the cities of Livny, Yelets, Kursk, Voronezh, and Belgorod. The initial population of these cities consisted of Cossacks, archers and other service people. A large number of Cossacks and service people were part of the guard and village services, which monitored the movement of the Crimeans and Nogais in the steppe.

In Crimea itself, the Tatars left little yasyr. According to the ancient Crimean custom, slaves were released as freedmen after 5-6 years of captivity - there is a number of evidence from Russian and Polish documents about returnees from Perekop who “worked out”. Some of those released preferred to remain in Crimea. There is a well-known case, described by the Ukrainian historian Dmitry Yavornitsky, when the ataman of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, Ivan Sirko, who attacked Crimea in 1675, captured huge booty, including about seven thousand Christian captives and freedmen. The ataman asked them whether they wanted to go with the Cossacks to their homeland or return to Crimea. Three thousand expressed a desire to stay, and Sirko ordered them to be killed. Those who changed their faith while in slavery were released immediately. According to Russian historian Valery Vozgrin, slavery in Crimea itself almost completely disappeared already in the 16th-17th centuries. Most of the prisoners captured during attacks on their northern neighbors (their peak intensity occurred in the 16th century) were sold to Turkey, where slave labor was widely used, mainly in galleys and in construction work.

Khan Devlet I Giray waged constant wars with Ivan IV the Terrible, vainly seeking to restore the independence of Kazan and Astrakhan. However, when Turkey tried to organize a military campaign in the Volga region to take Astrakhan and implement the project of connecting the Volga and Don with a canal, the khan sabotaged this initiative as interference of the Ottomans in the traditional sphere of influence of the Crimean Khanate.

In May 1571, at the head of an army of 40 thousand horsemen, the khan burned Moscow, for which he received the nickname Takht Algan (“who took the throne”). During the raid on the Moscow state, as many historians believe, several hundred thousand people died and 50,000 were captured. Ivan IV undertook, following the example of Poland, to pay an annual tribute to the Crimea - according to a list sent in advance from the family of the khan and his nobles. However, due to the devastating defeat of the khan in the Battle of Molodi, a year later, the Crimean Khanate lost a significant part of its power and was forced to renounce its claims to the Volga region. The payment of “wake” to Crimea continued until the end of the 17th century and finally stopped only during the reign of Peter I.

XVII - early XVIII centuries

Islam III Giray (1644 − 1654) provided military assistance to the Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the War of Liberation with Poland.

As the Turkish traveler Evliya Celebi pointed out in 1660, the Crimean Tatars had their northern border at the Or (Perekop) castle, the steppe also belonged to the khan, but the Nogais roamed there: Adil, Shaidak, Ormit. They paid taxes for grazing herds and delivered butter, honey, cattle, sheep, lambs and yasir to the Crimea. He also reports that “the Tatars have 12 languages ​​and speak through translators.” Crimea at that time consisted of 24 kalyks; The qadi was appointed by the khan, except for four in the Kaffen eyalet, which was under the authority of the sultan. There were also “40 beyliks”, where bey meant “chief of the clan”, and the murzas were subject to him. The khan's army numbered 80,000 soldiers, of which 3,000 were “kapykulu” (plural: “kapykullary”), that is, the khan’s guard, paid by the Sultan with 12,000 gold “for boots,” and were armed with muskets.

One of the greatest and most beloved rulers of the Crimeans was Selim I Giray (Hadji Selim Giray). He occupied the throne four times (1671-1678, 1684-1691, 1692-1699, 1702-1704). in alliance with the Ottomans, he waged a successful war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and alone an unsuccessful one with Moscow; for recent failures he lost power and ended up on the island of Rhodes. During his second reign, he successfully repelled the troops of Prince Golitsyn, sent by Princess Sophia (in 1687 and in 1688-1689 (Both Russian campaigns were unsuccessful, but distracted the Crimean troops from helping the Turks in Hungary). During his third reign, Russian Tsar Peter The Great tried to establish himself on the Sea of ​​Azov: he made a campaign against Azov (1695), but this attempt was unsuccessful for him, since he did not have a fleet to take the seaside fortress; in the spring of 1696, he took Azov with a fleet built in the winter (in 1711 Azov was temporarily lost to him for 25 years. In 1699, Selim I Giray renounced the throne in favor of his son. In 1702, he again took the throne at the numerous requests of the Crimeans and ruled until his death in 1704. In 1713, Peter I formed a land militia, settled troops , to protect against attacks by the Crimean Tatars.

Murad Geray (1678-1683), participating in a campaign with the Turks against the Germans, was defeated near Vienna (1683), was accused of treason against the Turkish Sultan and was deprived of the Khanate.

Haji II Giray (1683-1684) fled from Crimea from indignant dignitaries.

Saadet III Giray (1691) ruled during the 9-month renunciation of Selim I's rule.

Devlet II Giray (1699-1702 and 1709-1713) failures in actions against the Russians led to the deposition of Devlet and the election of his father for the fourth time. For the second time he was removed from power on a formal occasion (accused of improper treatment of the Swedish king Charles XII, who sought asylum in Turkey).

Gazy III Giray (1704-1707) was dismissed as a result of intrigues of court groups in Istanbul, the reason was complaints from Russian ambassadors about unauthorized raids by the Kuban Nogais.

Kaplan I Giray (1707-1708, 1713-1716, 1730-1736) was removed from power for the first time after the crushing defeat of the campaign he led against Kabarda.

Attempted alliance with Charles XII and Mazepa

Main article: North War

At the beginning of the 18th century, Crimea found itself in a rather ambiguous position. The international order established after the Treaty of Constantinople in 1700 prohibited the Crimeans from making military campaigns on the lands of Russia and Ukraine. The Sultan's divan, interested in preserving peace, was forced to limit the incursions of Crimean troops into foreign states, which caused serious objections in Crimea, expressed during the rebellion of Devlet II Giray in 1702-1703. Charles XII in the spring of 1709, on the eve of Poltava, repeatedly appealed to Devlet II with a proposal for a military-political alliance. Only thanks to the position of Turkey, which had no serious intention of fighting with Russia, and the streams of money filling the bottomless pockets of Turkish officials, Crimea maintained neutrality during the Battle of Poltava.

Finding himself after Poltava in Turkey, in Bendery, Charles XII established close contacts with Istanbul and Bakhchisarai. If the Turkish administration of Ahmed III showed serious hesitation on the issue of war, then Devlet II Giray was ready to rush into any adventure. Without waiting for the start of the war, in May 1710 he concluded a military alliance with Mazepa’s successor, Philip Orlik, who was under Charles XII, and the Cossacks. The terms of the agreement were as follows:

1. the khan pledged to be an ally of the Cossacks, but at the same time not to take them under his protection and subordination;
2. Devlet II promised to achieve the liberation of Ukraine from Moscow rule, but he did not have the right to take prisoners and destroy Orthodox churches;
3. Khan promised to do his best to promote the separation of Left Bank Ukraine from Moscow and its reunification with the Right Bank into a single independent state.

On January 6-12, 1711, the Crimean army advanced beyond Perekop. Mehmed Giray with 40 thousand Crimeans, accompanied by 7-8 thousand Orlik and Cossacks, 3-5 thousand Poles, 400 Janissaries and 700 Swedes of Colonel Zulich, headed to Kiev.

During the first half of February 1711, the Crimeans easily captured Bratslav, Boguslav, Nemirov, the few garrisons of which offered virtually no resistance.

In the summer of 1711, when Peter I set off on the Prut campaign with an army of 80 thousand, the Crimean cavalry numbering 70 thousand sabers, together with the Turkish army, surrounded Peter’s troops, which found themselves in a hopeless situation. Peter I himself was almost captured and was forced to sign a peace treaty on conditions that were extremely unfavorable for Russia. Under the terms of the Prut Peace, Russia lost access to the Sea of ​​Azov and its fleet in the Azov-Black Sea waters. As a result of the Prut victory of the united Turkish-Crimean troops, Russian expansion in the Black Sea region was stopped for a quarter of a century.

The Russian-Turkish War of 1735-39 and the complete devastation of Crimea

Main article: Russo-Turkish War (1735-1739)

Kaplan I Giray (1707-1708, 1713-1715, 1730-1736) - the last of the great khans of Crimea. During his second reign, he was forced to take part in the war between Turkey and Persia. Promoting the installation of Augustus of Saxony on the Polish throne, the Russians took advantage of the situation and attacked Crimea under the command of H. A. Minich and P. P. Lassi (1735-1738), which led to the defeat and devastation of the entire Crimea with its capital Bakhchisarai.

In 1736, the army of H. A. Minich completely destroyed Kezlev and Bakhchisarai, the cities were burned, and all the residents who did not have time to escape were killed. After this, the army moved to the eastern part of Crimea. However, a cholera epidemic that began due to the decomposition of numerous corpses led to the death of part of the Russian army, and Minich led the army beyond Perekop. Eastern Crimea was devastated during the Lassi campaign the following year. The Russian army burned Karasubazar, also killing the population of the city. In 1738, a new campaign was planned, but it was canceled because the army could no longer feed itself - in a completely devastated country there was simply no food and hunger reigned.

The war of 1736-38 became a national catastrophe for the Crimean Khanate. All significant cities were in ruins, the economy suffered enormous damage, there was famine in the country and a cholera epidemic was raging. A significant part of the population died.

The Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774 and the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace

Main article: Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774)

Khan Kyrim Giray, during his second reign, dragged Turkey into a war with Russia, which ultimately led to the fall of the Crimean Khanate. It was very successful for Russia. The victories of Rumyantsev at Larga and Kagul, and A. Orlov at Chesma glorified Catherine throughout Europe. Russia received reason to bring to the fore the question of the existence of the Crimean Khanate, which Rumyantsev, an astute man who understood the state of affairs better than others, insisted on, but, at the request of Catherine, the fate of Crimea was so far expressed in the form of its rejection of direct dependence on the Porte.

Prince V.M. Dolgorukov, who commanded the second Russian army, entered Crimea, defeated Khan Selim III in two battles and within a month captured the entire Crimea, and captured a Turkish seraskir in Kef. Bakhchisarai lay in ruins. Dolgorukov's army devastated Crimea. A number of villages were burned and civilians were killed. Khan Selim III fled to Istanbul. The Crimeans laid down their arms, bowed to the side of Russia and presented Dolgorukov with a letter of oath with the signatures of the Crimean nobility and notification of the election of Sahib II Giray to the khans, and his brother Shahin Giray to the kalgi.

On July 10, 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded, very beneficial for Russia, but also saving for Turkey. Crimea was not annexed to Russia and was recognized as independent from any outside power. In addition, the Sultan was recognized as the Supreme Caliph, and this circumstance caused difficulties and bickering between Russia and Turkey, since among Muslims, religious-ceremonial and civil-legal life are interconnected, therefore the Sultan had the right to interfere in the internal affairs of Crimea, for example, by appointing qadis (judges). Turkey, according to the agreement, recognized Kinburn, Kerch and Yenikale as Russian possessions, as well as its freedom of navigation in the Black Sea.

The South Coast passed from the Ottoman Empire to the Crimean Khanate.

The last khans and the conquest of Crimea by the Russian Empire

See also: Annexation of Crimea to Russia (1783)

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, a widespread uprising occurred in Crimea. Turkish troops landed in Alushta; the Russian resident in Crimea, Veselitsky, was captured by Khan Shahin and handed over to the Turkish commander-in-chief. There were attacks on Russian troops in Alushta, Yalta and other places. The Crimeans elected Devlet IV as khan. At this time, the text of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty was received from Constantinople. But the Crimeans even now did not want to accept independence and cede the indicated cities in Crimea to the Russians, and the Porte considered it necessary to enter into new negotiations with Russia. Dolgorukov's successor, Prince Prozorovsky, negotiated with the khan in the most conciliatory tone, but the Murzas and ordinary Crimeans did not hide their sympathies for the Ottoman Empire. Shahin Geray had few supporters. The Russian party in Crimea was small. But in Kuban he was proclaimed khan, and in 1776 he finally became khan of Crimea and entered Bakhchisarai. The people swore allegiance to him. The economic well-being of Crimea was undermined by the resettlement of most of the Crimean Christians (about 30,000 people) to the Azov region in 1778 by Prozorovsky’s successor as commander of the Russian troops in Crimea, A.V. Suvorov: Greeks to Mariupol, Armenians to Nor-Nakhichevan .

In 1776, Russia created the Dnieper Line - a series of border fortresses to protect its southern borders from the Crimean Tatars. There were only 7 fortresses - they stretched from the Dnieper to the Sea of ​​Azov.

Shahin Geray became the last Khan of Crimea. He tried to carry out reforms in the state and reorganize governance according to the European model, to equalize the rights of the Muslim and non-Muslim population of Crimea. The reforms were extremely unpopular and in 1781 led to an uprising that began in the Kuban and quickly spread to the Crimea.

By July 1782, the uprising had completely engulfed the entire peninsula, the khan was forced to flee, the officials of his administration who did not have time to escape were killed, and the khan's palace was plundered. The Crimeans everywhere attacked Russian troops (up to 900 Russians died) and the non-Crimean Tatar population of the Khanate. At the center of the uprising were Shahin's brothers, princes Bahadir Giray and Arslan Giray. Bahadir Geray. The leader of the rebels, Bahadir II Giray, was proclaimed khan. The new Crimean government asked the Ottoman and Russian empires for recognition. The first refused to recognize the new khan, and the second sent troops to suppress the uprising. Shahin Giray, who returned with the Russians, mercilessly punished his opponents.

By February 1783, the situation of Shahin Geray again became critical, the mass executions of political opponents, the hatred of the Tatars for the ongoing reforms and policies of Shahin Geray, the actual financial bankruptcy of the state, mutual distrust and misunderstanding with the Russian authorities led to the fact that Shahin Geray abdicated the throne. He was asked to choose a city in Russia to live in and was given a sum for his relocation with a small retinue and maintenance. He lived first in Voronezh, and then in Kaluga, from where, at his request and with the consent of the Porte, he was released to Turkey and settled on the island of Rhodes, where he was deprived of his life.

On April 8, 1783, the Russian Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto according to which Crimea, Taman and Kuban became Russian possessions. Thus, Crimea became part of the Russian Empire.

In 1791, according to the Treaty of Jassy, ​​the Ottoman state recognized Crimea as possession of Russia.

Maps of lands in history

Polovtsy XI-XII centuries

Golden Horde 1243-1438

Crimean Khanate 1441-1783

Geography

The Crimean Khanate included lands on the continent: the territories between the Dniester and the Dnieper, the Azov region and part of the Kuban. This territory was significantly larger in area than the khanate's possessions on the peninsula. The borders of the Khanate, including the northern ones, are recorded in many Crimean, Russian and Ukrainian sources, but no special research on this issue has yet been undertaken.

The Crimean khans were interested in developing trade, which provided significant profits to the treasury. Among the goods exported from Crimea are raw leather, sheep's wool, morocco, sheep's fur coats, gray and black smushkas.

The main fortress at the entrance to the peninsula was the Or fortress (known to the Russians as Perekop), which was the gateway to Crimea. The functions of protecting Crimea were performed by the cities - Fortresses of Arabat and Kerch. The main trading ports were Gezlev and Kefe. Military garrisons (mostly Turkish, partly local Greeks) were also maintained in Balaklava, Sudak, Kerch, and Kef.

Bakhchisarai has been the capital of the Khanate since 1428, Akmescit (Ak-Mosque) was the residence of the Kalgi Sultan, Karasubazar was the center of the Shirinsky beys, Kefe was the residence of the governor of the Ottoman Sultan (it did not belong to the Khanate).

Army

Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords. The specifics of the military organization of the Crimean Tatars, which fundamentally distinguished it from the military affairs of other European peoples, aroused special interest among the latter. Carrying out the tasks of their governments, diplomats, merchants, and travelers sought not only to establish contacts with the khans, but also tried to familiarize themselves in detail with the organization of military affairs, and often their missions had the main goal of studying the military potential of the Crimean Khanate.

For a long time, there was no regular army in the Crimean Khanate, and all the men of the steppe and foothills of the peninsula who were able to bear arms actually took part in military campaigns. From an early age, Crimeans became accustomed to all the hardships and hardships of military life, learned to wield weapons, ride horses, and endure cold, hunger, and fatigue. The Khan, his sons, and individual beys carried out raids and got involved in hostilities with their neighbors mainly only when they were confident of a successful outcome. Intelligence played a major role in the military operations of the Crimean Tatars. Special scouts went ahead in advance, found out the situation, and then became guides for the advancing army. Using the factor of surprise, when it was possible to take the enemy by surprise, they often obtained relatively easy prey. But the Crimeans almost never acted independently against regular, numerically superior troops.

The Khan's Council established a norm in accordance with which the khan's vassals had to supply warriors. Some of the residents remained to look after the property of those who went on a campaign. These same people were supposed to arm and support the soldiers, for which they received part of the military spoils. In addition to military service, sauga was paid in favor of the khan - a fifth, and sometimes most of the booty that the Murzas brought with them after the raids. The poor people who took part in these campaigns hoped that going for loot would allow them to get rid of everyday difficulties and make their existence easier, so they relatively willingly followed their feudal lord.

In military affairs, the Crimean Tatars can distinguish two types of marching organization - a military campaign, when the Crimean army led by a khan or kalga takes part in the hostilities of the warring parties, and a predatory raid - besh-bash (five heads - a small Tatar detachment), which was carried out often by individual murzas and beys with relatively small military detachments in order to obtain booty and capture prisoners.

According to the descriptions of Guillaume de Beauplan and de Marsilly, the Crimeans were equipped quite simply - they used a light saddle, a blanket, and sometimes even covered the horse with sheep skin, and did not put on a bridle, using a rawhide belt. A whip with a short handle was also indispensable for the rider. The Crimeans were armed with a saber, a bow and a quiver with 18 or 20 arrows, a knife, a flint for making fire, an awl and 5 or 6 fathoms of belt ropes for tying captives. The favorite weapons of the Crimean Tatars were sabers made in Bakhchisarai; scimitars and daggers were taken in reserve.

Clothing on the campaign was also unpretentious: only the nobles wore chain mail, the rest went to war in sheepskin coats and fur hats, which were worn in winter with the wool inward, and in summer and during rain - with the wool outward or Yamurlakha cloaks; They wore red and sky blue shirts. At the camp they took off their shirts and slept naked, putting the saddle under their heads. We didn’t take tents with us.

There were certain tactics usually used by the Crimeans. At the beginning of the attack, they always tried to go around the enemy’s left wing in order to more conveniently release arrows. One can highlight the high skill of archery with two or even three arrows at once. Often, already put to flight, they stopped, closed ranks again, trying to envelop as closely as possible the enemy who was pursuing them and scattered in pursuit, and thus, almost defeated, snatched victory from the hands of the victors. They entered into open hostilities with the enemy only in case of their obvious numerical superiority. Battles were recognized only in the open field; they avoided sieging fortresses, since they did not have siege equipment.

It should be noted that almost exclusively residents of the steppe and partly foothill regions of Crimea and Nogais took part in military campaigns. The inhabitants of the Crimean Mountains, whose main occupation was viticulture and gardening, did not serve in the army and paid a special tax to the treasury for exemption from service.

State structure

Throughout the history of the Crimean Khanate, it was ruled by the Geraev (Gireev) dynasty. Russian-language literature dedicated to the Crimean Khanate traditionally (sometimes in parallel) uses two forms of this name: Giray and Giray. The first of these options is one of the forms of transcription of the Ottoman (and, accordingly, Crimean Tatar) spelling of this name - كراى. The author of the reading in the form of “Gerai”, apparently, was the Russian orientalist V. Grigoriev (mid-19th century). Initially, this form was used both by Russian orientalists (A. Negri, V. Grigoriev, V. D. Smirnov, etc.) and their Western European colleagues (J. von Hammer-Purgstall). In modern Western European science, through the Turkish language, the Ottoman form of pronunciation and spelling of the family name of the Crimean khans - Giray - became widespread. The second, presumably Kipchak (pre-Ottoman Crimean Tatar), variant is recorded in L. Budagov’s dictionary. It has been widely used in the works of Russian researchers since the first half of the 19th century. (A. Kazembek, F. Hartakhay, A. N. Samoilovich, etc.).

Khan, being the supreme landowner, owned salt lakes and villages near them, forests along the Alma, Kachi and Salgir rivers and wastelands, on which settlements of new inhabitants arose, gradually turning into a dependent population and paying tithes to him. Having the right to inherit the land of a deceased vassal, if he had no close relatives, the khan could become the heir to the beys and murzas. The same rules applied to Bey and Murza land ownership, when the lands of poor farmers and cattle breeders passed to the Bey or Murza. From the land holdings of the khan, lands were allocated to the Kalga Sultan. The khan's possessions also included several cities - Kyrym (modern Old Crimea), Kyrk-Er (modern Chufut-Kale), Bakhchisarai.

There were “small” and “large” sofas, which played a very serious role in the life of the state.

A council was called a “small divan” if a narrow circle of nobility took part in it, resolving issues that required urgent and specific decisions.

The “Big Divan” is a meeting of “the whole earth”, when all the Murzas and representatives of the “best” black people took part in it. By tradition, the Karaches retained the right to sanction the appointment of khans from the Geray clan as sultan, which was expressed in the ritual of placing them on the throne in Bakhchisarai.

The state structure of the Crimean Khanate largely used the Golden Horde and Ottoman structures of state power. Most often, the highest government positions were occupied by the sons, brothers of the khan or other persons of noble origin.

The first official after the khan was the Kalga Sultan. The khan's younger brother or another relative was appointed to this position. Kalga ruled the eastern part of the peninsula, the left wing of the khan's army and administered the state in the event of the death of the khan until a new one was appointed to the throne. He was also the commander-in-chief if the khan did not personally go to war. The second position - nureddin - was also occupied by a member of the khan's family. He was the governor of the western part of the peninsula, chairman of small and local courts, and commanded smaller corps of the right wing on campaigns.

The mufti is the head of the Muslim clergy of the Crimean Khanate, an interpreter of laws, who has the right to remove judges - qadis, if they judged incorrectly.

Kaymakans - in the late period (end of the 18th century) governing the regions of the Khanate. Or-bey is the head of the Or-Kapy (Perekop) fortress. Most often, this position was occupied by members of the khan family, or a member of the Shirin family. He guarded the borders and watched over the Nogai hordes outside the Crimea. The positions of qadi, vizier and other ministers are similar to the same positions in the Ottoman state.

In addition to the above, there were two important female positions: ana-beim (analogous to the Ottoman post of valide), which was held by the mother or sister of the khan, and ulu-beim (ulu-sultani), the senior wife of the ruling khan. In terms of importance and role in the state, they had the rank next to nureddin.

An important phenomenon in the state life of the Crimean Khanate was the very strong independence of the noble bey families, which in some way brought the Crimean Khanate closer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The beys governed their possessions (beyliks) as semi-independent states, administered court themselves and had their own militia. The beys regularly took part in riots and conspiracies, both against the khan and among themselves, and often wrote denunciations against the khans they did not please the Ottoman government in Istanbul.

Public life

The state religion of the Crimean Khanate was Islam, and in the customs of the Nogai tribes there were some vestiges of shamanism. Along with the Crimean Tatars and Nogais, Islam was also practiced by the Turks and Circassians living in Crimea.

The permanent non-Muslim population of the Crimean Khanate was represented by Christians of various denominations: Orthodox (Hellenic-speaking and Turkic-speaking Greeks), Gregorians (Armenians), Armenian Catholics, Roman Catholics (descendants of the Genoese), as well as Jews and Karaites.

Links

• Gusterin P. On the appointment of the first Russian consul in Crimea.

see also

• List of Crimean khans
• History of the Crimean Tatars' raids on Rus'

Notes

1. Budagov. Comparative dictionary of Turkish-Tatar dialects, T. 2, p. 51
2. O. Gaivoronsky. Lords of two continents. vol. 1. Kyiv-Bakhchisarai. Oranta. 2007
3. I. Thunmann. Crimean Khanate
4. Sigismund Herberstein, Notes on Muscovy, Moscow 1988, p. 175
5. Yavornitsky D.I. History of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Kyiv, 1990.
6. V. E. Syroechkovsky, Muhammad-Gerai and his vassals, “Scientific Notes of Moscow State University,” vol. 61, 1940, p. 16.
7. Vozgrin V. E. Historical destinies of the Crimean Tatars. Moscow, 1992.
8. Faizov S. F. Funeral “tysh” in the context of the relationship between Rus' and Russia with the Golden Horde and the Crimean yurt
9. Evliya Celebi. Travel Book, pp. 46-47.
10. Evliya Celebi. Travel Book, page 104.
11. Sanin O. G. Crimean Khanate in the Russian-Turkish War of 1710-11.
12. The news of the Christians' exit spread throughout Crimea... Christians opposed the exit no less than the Tatars. This is what the Evpatoria Greeks said when asked to leave Crimea: “We are pleased with his Lordship Khan and our homeland; We pay tribute to our sovereign from our ancestors, and even if they cut us down with sabers, we still won’t go anywhere.” Armenian Christians, in a petition to the khan, said: “We are your servants... and subjects three hundred years ago, we lived in your Majesty’s state in pleasure and never saw any worries from you. Now they want to take us out of here. For the sake of God, the Prophet and your ancestors, we, your poor servants, ask to be delivered from such a misfortune, for which we will continually pray to God for you.” Of course, these petitions cannot be taken at face value, but they show that Christians did not come out of desire or fear. Meanwhile, Ignatius ... continued his tireless efforts in the matter of exit: he wrote letters of exhortation, sent priests and people devoted to exit to the villages, and generally tried to form a party of those who wanted to exit. The Russian government assisted him in this.
    F. Hartakhai Christianity in Crimea. / Memorable book of the Tauride province. - Simferopol, 1867. - Ss. 54-55.
13. Grigoriev V. Coins of the Dzhuchids, Genoese and Gireys, battles on the Tauride Peninsula and belonging to the society // ZOOID, 1844, vol. 1, p. 301, 307-314; Grigoriev V. Labels of Tokhtamysh and Seadet-Gerai // ZOOID, 1844, vol. 1, p. 337, 342.
14. V. D. Smirnov “The Crimean Khanate under the supremacy of the Ottoman Porte until the beginning of the 18th century” St. Petersburg. 1887-89
15. Samoilovich A. N. Several amendments to the Timur-Kutlug label // Selected works on Crimea, 2000, p. 145-155.
16. Compare: Grigoriev V. Labels of Tokhtamysh and Seadet-Gerai // ZOOID, 1844, vol. 1, p. 337, 342 and Sami Ş. Kâmûs-ı Türkî, p. 1155.
17. See note. 13
18. von Hammer-Purgstall. Geschichte der Chan der Krim unter Osmanischer herrschaft. Wien, 1856.
19. Budagov L. Comparative dictionary of Turkish-Tatar dialects, T. 2, p. 120.
20. Sayyid Mohammed Riza. Asseb o-sseyyar or Seven planets, containing the history of the Crimean khans..., Kazan, 1832; Hartakhai F. Historical fate of the Crimean Tatars // Bulletin of Europe, 1866, vol. 2, dep. 1, p. 182-236.

Literature

• Palace of the Crimean Khans in Bakhchisarai
• Dubrovin N. F. Annexation of Crimea to Russia, St. Petersburg: 1885
• Vozgrin V. E. Historical destinies of the Crimean Tatars. - M., 1992.
• Gaivoronsky O. “Constellation of Herays. Brief biographies of the Crimean khans"
• Bazilevich V.M. From the history of Moscow-Crimean relations in the first half of the 17th century. Kyiv, 1914. 23 p.
• Bantysh-Kamensky N. N. Register of affairs of the Crimean court from 1474 to 1779 Simferopol: Tauride Printing House. gubernsk board, 1893.
• Smirnov V.D. The Crimean Khanate under the supremacy of the Ottoman Porte in the 18th century. before its annexation to Russia Odessa: 1889.
• Smirnov V.D. Crimean Khanate in the 18th century. Moscow: “Lomonosov”, 2014
• Smirnov V. D. Collection of some important news and official documents regarding Turkey, Russia and Crimea St. Petersburg: 1881.
• Schwab M. M. Russian-Crimean relations of the mid-16th - early years of the 17th centuries in domestic historiography of the 1940s - 2000s. - Surgut, 2011.
• Nekrasov A. M. The emergence and evolution of the Crimean state in the 15th-16th centuries // Domestic history. - 1999. - No. 2. - P. 48-58.

States formed during the collapse of the Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire	Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) Western Part Great Horde destroyed Crimean Khanate Kasimov Khanate → Russian kingdom Khanate of Kazan → Russian kingdom Khanate of Astrakhan → Russian kingdom vassalage of the Ottoman Empire → independence under the auspices of the Russian Empire → Russian Empire Khorezm (XIV century) conquered by the Timurid state Eastern Part Khanate of Siberia → Russian kingdom Piebald Horde → Russian kingdom Nogai Horde Sygnak Khanate destroyed by the Khan of the Golden Horde Khanate of Abulkhair (Uzbek ulus) Kazakh khanate Junior Zhuz → Bukeevskaya Horde as part of the Russian Empire Middle zhuz conquered by the Dzungar Khanate → Russian Empire Senior zhuz → Russian Empire → Uzbek tribes Yuan Empire (Ugedey ulus) Mongol Khaganate conquered by the Qing Empire Ming Empire conquered by the Manchus and incorporated into the Qing Empire
Chagatai khanate (Chagatai ulus)	conquered by the Timurid State
West Chagatai ulus	State Timurids (founder - Tamerlan) State Sheibanids (founder - Muhammad Sheibani) Khivinskoe khanate → protectorate of the Russian Empire Bukhara khanate Empire Great Mughal → British India

State
Hulaguidov
(Ulus Hulagu) Chobanid State Muzaffarid State conquered by the Kara Koyunlu state

Fragments of the Golden Horde

White Horde : Great Horde Kazan Khanate Kasimov Khanate Astrakhan Khanate Blue Horde : Nogai Horde: Mansurova · Altyul · Big · Small (Budzhak · Edisan · Edichkul · Dzhambuylutsk) Khanate of Siberia Uzbek Khanate: Bukhara · Khiva · Kokand Kazakh Khanate: Senior · Middle · Junior Zhuz (Bukeevskaya Horde) 1 2 Some historians hold the opposite point of view on the location of the territories of the White and Blue Hordes. Fragments of the Mongol Empire Genghisids Tatar Khanates | Expansion of Russia History of Kazakhstan Tatarstan Bashkiria Central Asia

Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire
Eyalets (1363–1864) Africa Algeria Egypt Abyssinia Tripolitania Tunisia Anatolia Adana Aydın Anatolia Ankara Çildır Diyarbakir Marash Erzurum Hüdavendigar Karaman Kars Kastamonu Rum Trabzon Van Europe Edirne Bosnia Buda Crete Eger Herzegovina Kanizhe Kefe Manastir Morea Nis Ioannina Podolia Rumelia Thessaloniki Silistra Temesvar Uyvar Varad Vidin Near East Aleppo Baghdad Basra Cyprus Damascus Lahsa Mosul Raqqa Sharazor Sidon Tripoli Yemen

Crimean Khanate, Crimean Khanate 1783, Crimean Khanate map, Crimean Khanate yu

Crimean Khanate Information About

The Crimean Khanate existed for just over three hundred years. The state, which arose from the fragments of the Golden Horde, almost immediately entered into a tough confrontation with its neighbors surrounding it. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Duchy of Moscow - they all wanted to include Crimea in their sphere of influence. However, first things first.

Forced alliance

The first penetration of the Tatar conquerors into Crimea is recorded by a single written source - the Sudak Synaxar. According to the document, the Tatars appeared on the peninsula at the end of January 1223. The warlike nomads did not spare anyone; very soon the Polovtsians, Alans, Russians and many other peoples were subjected to their blows. The large-scale aggressive policy of the Chingizids was an event of global significance, covering many states.

In a fairly short period of time, the conquered peoples adopted the customs and traditions of their new masters. Only the internal strife that engulfed the Golden Horde could shake its power. The transformation of one of its uluses into an independent state, known in historiography as the Crimean Khanate, became possible thanks to the help of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Litvins did not bow their heads to the yoke. Despite the destructive raids of nomads (and the Russian princes incited by them), they continued to courageously defend their independence. At the same time, the Principality of Lithuania tried not to miss the opportunity to pit its sworn enemies against each other.

The first ruler of the Crimean Khanate, Hadji Giray, was born in the Belarusian city of Lida. A descendant of forced emigrants who staged an unsuccessful rebellion, he enjoyed the support of the Lithuanian princes, who relied on him. The Poles and Litvins rightly believed that if they managed to place a descendant of the Crimean emirs on the ulus of their ancestors, this would be another significant step in the destruction of the Golden Horde from within.

Hadji-Girey

One of the main features of the Middle Ages was the relentless struggle of various appanage principalities, which plunged their own people into darkness and horror. All medieval states passed through this inevitable stage of their historical development. The Ulus of Jochi as part of the Golden Horde was no exception. The formation of the Crimean Khanate became the highest expression of separatism, which undermined the mighty power from within.

The Crimean ulus became significantly isolated from the center due to its own noticeable strengthening. Now the southern coast and mountainous regions of the peninsula were under his control. Edigei, the last of the rulers who maintained at least some order in the conquered lands, died in 1420. After his death, unrest and unrest began in the state. Vainglorious beys carved out the state at their own discretion. The Tatar emigration in Lithuania decided to take advantage of this circumstance. They united under the banner of Hadji Giray, who dreamed of returning the possessions of their ancestors.

He was a smart politician, an excellent strategist, who was supported by the Lithuanian and Polish nobility. However, not everything in his situation was cloudless. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, he was in the position of an honorary hostage, although he had his own castle with a surrounding area in the city of Lida.

Power came to him unexpectedly. Devlet-Berdi, Hadzhi-Girey's uncle, dies without leaving any heirs in the male line. Here they again remembered the descendant of the great Crimean emirs. The nobility sends an embassy to the lands of the Litvins to persuade Casimir Jagiellon to release his vassal Hadzhi Giray to the khanate in Crimea. This request is granted.

Construction of a young state

The heir's return was triumphant. He expels the Horde governor and mints his own gold coins in Kirk-Erk. Such a slap in the face could not be ignored in the Golden Horde. Soon, hostilities began, the purpose of which was to pacify the Crimean yurt. The forces of the rebels were clearly small, so Hadji Giray surrendered Solkhat, the capital of the Crimean Khanate, without a fight, and he retreated to Perekop, going on the defensive.

Meanwhile, his rival Khan of the Great Horde, Seyd-Ahmed, made mistakes that cost him the throne. To begin with, he burned and plundered Solkhat. By this act, Seyd-Ahmed greatly alienated the local nobility. And his second mistake was that he did not give up trying to harm the Litvins and Poles. Hadji Giray remained a loyal friend and defender of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the end, he defeated Seyd-Ahmed when he once again carried out a predatory raid on the southern Lithuanian lands. The army of the Crimean Khanate surrounded and killed the troops of the Great Horde. Seyd-Ahmed fled to Kyiv, where he was successfully arrested. The Litvins traditionally settled all captured Tatars on their lands, gave them allotments and liberties. And the Tatars turned from former enemies into the best and most loyal warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

As for the direct descendant of Genghis Khan, Hadji-Girey, in 1449 he moved the capital of the Crimean Khanate from Kyrym (Solkhat) to Kyrk-Erk. Then he began to carry out reforms to strengthen his state. To begin with, I simplified the complex system of ancient customs and laws. He brought representatives of the most noble and influential families closer to him. He paid special attention to the heads of the nomadic Nogai tribes. They were a special category of persons responsible for the military power of the state, protecting it at the borders.

The management of the yurt had democratic features. The heads of the four noble families had extensive powers. Their opinion had to be listened to.

Hadji Giray, sparing no effort, supported Islam, strengthening the spiritual and cultural development of his young power. He did not forget about Christians. He helped them build churches, pursuing a policy of religious tolerance and peacefulness.

Thanks to thoughtful reforms carried out over almost 40 years, the provincial ulus has flourished, becoming a strong power.

Geographical location of the Crimean Khanate

Vast territories were part of one of the most powerful states of that time. In addition to the peninsula itself, which was the central part of the country, there were also lands on the continent. To better imagine the scale of this power, it is necessary to briefly list the regions that were part of the Crimean Khanate and tell a little about the peoples who inhabited it. In the north, immediately beyond Ork-Kapu (the fortress that covered the only land route to Crimea) lies Eastern Nogai. In the northwest - Yedisan. In the west there was an area called Budzhak, and in the east - Kuban.

In other words, the territory of the Crimean Khanate covered modern Odessa, Nikolaev, Kherson regions, part of Zaporozhye and most of the Krasnodar region.

Peoples who were part of the Khanate

To the west of the Crimean peninsula, between the Danube and Dniester rivers, was an area known in history as Budzhak. This area without mountains and forests was inhabited mainly by Budzhak Tatars. The lands of the plain were extremely fertile, but the local population experienced a shortage of drinking water. This was especially true in the hot summer. Such geographical features of the area left their mark on the life and customs of the Budzhak Tatars. For example, digging a deep well there was considered a good tradition.

The Tatars, with their characteristic directness, solved the shortage of timber by simply forcing representatives of one of the Moldavian tribes to harvest wood for them. But the Budjaks were not only involved in war and campaigns. They were primarily known as farmers, herders and beekeepers. However, the region itself was turbulent. The territory constantly changed hands. Each of the parties (Ottomans and Moldovans) considered these lands to be theirs, until at the end of the 15th century they finally became part of the Crimean Khanate.

Rivers served as natural boundaries between the khan's regions. Edisan, or Western Nogai, was located in the steppes between the Volga and Yaik rivers. In the south, these lands were washed by the Black Sea. The territory was inhabited by the Nogais of the Edisan Horde. In their traditions and customs, they differed little from other Nogais. The bulk of these lands were occupied by plains. Only in the east and north were there mountains and valleys. The vegetation was sparse, but it was enough for grazing cattle. In addition, the fertile soil produced a bountiful harvest of wheat, which brought the main income to the local population. Unlike other regions of the Crimean Khanate, there were no problems with water here due to the abundance of rivers flowing in this area.

The territory of Eastern Nogai was washed by two seas: in the southwest by the Black Sea, and in the southeast by the Azov Sea. The soil also produced a good crop of cereals. But in this area there was a particularly acute shortage of fresh water. One of the distinctive features of the Eastern Nogai steppes was the mounds that were everywhere - the final resting places of the most notable people. Some of them appeared in Scythian times. Travelers left a lot of evidence about the stone statues on top of the mounds, whose faces were always facing the East.

The Little Nogais, or Kubans, occupied part of the North Caucasus near the Kuban River. The south and east of this region bordered the Caucasus. To the west of them were the Jumbuluks (one of the peoples of Eastern Nogai). Borders with Russia in the north appeared only in the 18th century. This area, due to its geographical location, was distinguished by its natural diversity. Therefore, the local population, unlike their steppe tribesmen, did not lack not only water, but also forests, and the orchards were famous throughout the region.

Relations with Moscow

If we analyze the history of the Crimean Khanate, the conclusion involuntarily suggests itself: this power was practically not fully independent. At first, they had to conduct their policy with an eye on the Golden Horde, and then this period gave way to a direct one from the Ottoman Empire.

After the death of Hadji Giray, his sons fought among themselves in a struggle for power. Mengli, who won this fight, was forced to reorient policy. His father was a loyal ally of Lithuania. And now she has become an enemy because she did not support Mengli-Girey in his struggle for power. But with the Moscow Prince Ivan III, they found common goals. The Crimean ruler dreamed of gaining supreme power in the Great Horde, and Moscow systematically sought independence from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. For some period of time, their common goals coincided.

The policy of the Crimean Khanate was to skillfully use the contradictions that existed between Lithuania and Moscow. alternately took the side of one neighbor and then the other.

Ottoman Empire

Hadji Giray did a lot for the development of his brainchild - a young power, but his offspring, not without the influence of powerful neighboring states, plunged their people into a fratricidal war. In the end, the throne went to Mengli-Girey. In 1453, a fateful event for many nations happened - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. The strengthening of the caliphate in this region had a huge impact on the history of the Crimean Khanate.

Not all representatives of the old nobility were satisfied with the results of the struggle for power between the sons of Hadji Giray. Therefore, they turned to the Turkish Sultan asking for help and support. The Ottomans only needed a reason, so they happily intervened in this conflict. The events described took place against the backdrop of a large-scale offensive by the caliphate. The possessions of the Genoese were in danger.

On May 31, 1475, the Sultan's vizier Ahmed Pasha attacked the Genoese city of Cafu. Mengli-Girey was among the defenders. When the city fell, the ruler of the Crimean Khanate was captured and taken to Constantinople. While in honorable captivity, he had the opportunity to repeatedly talk with the Turkish Sultan. During the three years he spent there, Mengli-Girey was able to convince his hosts of his own loyalty, so he was sent home, but with conditions that seriously limited the sovereignty of the state.

The territory of the Crimean Khanate became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Khan had the right to hold court over his subjects and establish diplomatic relations. However, he could not resolve key issues without the knowledge of Istanbul. The Sultan determined all foreign policy issues. The Turkish side also had leverage over the obstinate: hostages from among the relatives at the palace and, of course, the famous Janissaries.

Life of the Khans under the influence of the Turks

The Crimean Khanate in the 16th century had powerful patrons. Although the Tatars retained the custom of choosing a ruler at the kurultai, the Sultan always had the last word. At first, this state of affairs completely satisfied the nobility: having such protection, one could feel safe while concentrating on the development of the state. And it really flourished. The capital of the Crimean Khanate was moved again. The famous Bakhchisarai became it.

But the need to listen to the Divan - the State Council - added a fly in the ointment for the Crimean rulers. One could easily pay for disobedience with one’s life, and a replacement would be found very quickly from among relatives. They will be very willing to take the empty throne.

Russian-Turkish War 1768 - 1774

The Russian Empire needed access to the Black Sea as an air outlet. The prospect of clashing in this struggle with the Ottoman Empire did not frighten her. Much has already been done by the predecessors of Catherine II in order to continue expansion. Astrakhan and Kazan were conquered. The Russian soldiers harshly suppressed any attempt to recapture these new territorial acquisitions. However, it was not possible to develop the success due to poor material support of the Russian army. A bridgehead was needed. Russia received it in the form of a small region in the Northern Black Sea region. It turned out to be Novorossiya.

Fearing the strengthening of the Russian Empire, Poland and France dragged the Supreme Caliph into the war of 1768-1774. During this difficult time, Russia had only two of its most loyal allies: the army and the navy. Impressed by the actions of the Russian heroes on the battlefield, the caliphate very soon began to shake. Syria, Egypt, and the Greeks of the Peloponnese rebelled against the hated Turkish occupiers. The Ottoman Empire could only capitulate. The result of this company was the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty. Under its terms, Yenikale also became part of the Russian Empire, its fleet could sail the Black Sea, and the Crimean Khanate became formally independent.

The fate of the peninsula

Despite the victory in the recent war with Turkey, the foreign policy goals of the Russian Empire in Crimea were not achieved. Understanding this forced Catherine the Great and Potemkin to develop a secret manifesto on the acceptance of the Crimean peninsula into the fold of the Russian state. It was Potemkin who had to personally lead all preparations for this process.

For these purposes, it was decided to hold a personal meeting with Khan Shahin-Girey and discuss various details about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia. During this visit, it became obvious to the Russian side that the majority of the local population was not eager to take the oath of allegiance. The Khanate was experiencing a severe economic crisis, and the people hated their legitimate head of state. Shahin-Girey was no longer needed by anyone. He had to abdicate the throne.

Meanwhile, Russian troops hastily converged on Crimea with the task of quelling discontent if necessary. Finally, on July 21, 1783, the Empress was informed about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia.

In 1385, Timur defeated the Golden Horde, which led to its final disintegration into separate parts, each of which tried to play a dominant role. The nomadic nobility of Crimea took advantage of the situation to create their own state. The long struggle between feudal factions ended in 1443 with the victory of Hadji Giray, who founded the independent Crimean Khanate.

The capital of the Khanate led by the Girey dynasty until the end of the 15th century. the city of Crimea remained, then for a short time it was transferred to Kirk-Er, and in the 14th century. a new residence of the Gireys is being built - Bakhchisarai. The territory of the state included Crimea, the Black Sea steppes and the Taman Peninsula. The situation in Crimea had changed significantly by this time. From the end of the 13th century. All trade relations between Crimea and the East are interrupted. The Genoese merchants tried to improve matters by selling local goods - fish, bread, leather, horses, and slaves. An increasing number of ordinary nomads begin to switch to sedentary life, which causes the emergence of many small villages.

In 1475, the army of the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II captured the Genoese possessions in the Black Sea region. The Crimean Khanate lost much of its sovereignty and became dependent on the Ottomans, which was secured by the elevation to the throne “from the hands” of the Sultan of Hadji-Girey’s son, Mengli-Girey. From the beginning of the 16th century. The sultans kept representatives of the Girey family hostage in Istanbul: in case of disobedience, the khan could easily be replaced by a “reserve” ruler who was always at hand.

The most important duty of the khans was to field troops to participate in the conquest of the Ottomans. Tatar troops regularly fought in Asia Minor and on the Balkan Peninsula. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Crimean army supported the future Sultan Selim I in the struggle for the throne. There is information that Selim’s brother and main rival Ahmed died at the hands of one of the sons of Mengli-Girey. The active participation of the khans in the Ottoman wars with Poland and Moldova turned the Khanate into a conductor of the aggressive policy of the sultans in Eastern Europe.

Connections between the Crimean khans and the Russian state were established even before the subjugation of Crimea to the Ottomans. Until the fall of the Great Horde, the main rival of Crimea, Mengli-Girey maintained friendly relations with Russia. The Russian-Crimean alliance was based on common interests in the fight against the Horde and its ally, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After the defeat of the Horde in 1502, the alliance quickly faded away. Regular raids by Crimean troops began, often reaching as far as Moscow. In 1571, the Tatars and Nogais took and burned Moscow during one of their raids. The aggressiveness of Crimea created a constant threat to the southern borders of Rus'. Until its annexation to Russia in 1552-1556. The Crimean Khanate of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates claimed the role of their patron. At the same time, the khans received help and support from the sultans. The incessant raids of feudal lords for the purpose of robbery on Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Moldavian, Adyghe lands brought not only trophies and livestock, but also numerous captives who were turned into slaves.

The khans and high nobility received certain benefits from “commemoration” (gifts) from the Russian and Lithuanian governments. It was a symbolic form of tribute, a legacy from the Golden Horde times. The Crimean Khanate was not a single state, but split into the possessions of individual powerful
beyev - beyliks. The khans themselves depended on the will of the Tatar nobility. The main role in politics was played by members of several noble families—Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Sedzheut, Mangit, Yashlau, the heads of which bore the title “Karachi.”

The formation of the Crimean Khanate strengthened the process of formation of the Crimean Tatars as a nationality. In the XIII - XVI centuries. The population of the Tauride Peninsula, which has long been distinguished by its multi-ethnicity, is becoming even more complex and heterogeneous. In addition to the Greeks, Alans, Rus, Bulgarians, Karaites, Eikhs, and Kipchaks who previously lived here, Mongols, Italians, and Armenians appear. In the 15th century and later some of the Turks from Asia Minor moved here along with the Ottoman troops. The local population is also replenished by numerous prisoners of various origins. In such a historically complex and ethnically diverse environment, the formation of the Crimean Tatar nationality took place.

Anthropological studies suggest that the medieval inhabitants of the peninsula lived in compact groups based on ethnicity or religion, but the urban population seemed more heterogeneous than the rural one. There was a mixture between the numerically predominant population of the Caucasian species and carriers of the Mongoloid physical appearance. Soviet scientists (K.F. Sokolova, Yu.D. Benevolenskaya) believe that by the time the Mongols appeared in Crimea, a type of population had already developed, similar in composition to the inhabitants of the Azov region and the Lower Volga. The predominant mass were people of the Caucasian type, who in many ways resembled the Kipchaks. Most likely, it was on their basis that the formation of the northern groups of Crimean Tatars took place in the future. The South Coast Tatars apparently included mainly descendants of a number of Turkic-speaking and other peoples who had previously penetrated the peninsula. Materials from later Muslim burials, examined by the prominent Soviet anthropologist V.P. Alekseev, allow us to think that the process of formation of the dominant type of the Crimean population was completed somewhere in the XVI-XVII

centuries, however, some differences, especially between urban and rural residents, persisted for a long time.

Due to the characteristics of their origin, historical destinies, dialect differences, the Crimean Tatars were divided into three main groups; The first of them consisted of the so-called steppe (North Crimean), the second - the middle and the third - the south coast Tatars. There were certain differences between these groups in everyday life, customs and dialects. The Steppe Tatars were quite close to the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the northwestern Kipchak group. The South Coast Tatars and a significant part of the so-called middle Tatars linguistically belonged to the southwestern, or Oghuz, group of Turkic languages. Among the Crimean Tatars, a certain part stands out, which was called “Nogaily”. Obviously, this was associated with the resettlement of Turkic-speaking nomadic Nogais from the Black Sea steppes to Crimea. All this speaks of the diversity of ethnic components and the complexity of the process of formation of the Crimean Tatar nationality in the 13th-16th centuries.

In the history of the Crimean Khanate, the 17th century is marked by increased feudal fragmentation. This was due to land relations and the socio-economic system of the Khanate, where there were several types of feudal property. A significant tract of land belonged to the Turkish sultans, their governors, Crimean khans, beys and murzas. Tatar feudal lords, along with land ownership, had... under their authority and dependent relatives from simple pastoralists. In their economy, especially agriculture, the labor of slaves from prisoners of war was also widely used.

The main branch of the local economy during this period remained extensive nomadic cattle breeding. The slave trade flourished, and only on the southern coast were there pockets of settled agriculture. The work of a farmer was considered the lot of a slave and therefore was not held in special esteem.

Primitive cattle breeding could not
provide the population with the products necessary to support life. The Crimean Tatars themselves said
in the 17th century to the envoys of the Turkish Sultan: “But there are more than a hundred thousand Tatars who have neither agriculture nor trade. If they don’t raid, then how will they live? This is our service to the padishah.” Terrible poverty, heavy oppression and the dominance of feudal lords made the life of a significant number of nomads almost unbearable. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the Tatar Murzas and Beys recruited numerous detachments and carried out predatory raids on their neighbors. In addition, the influx of masses of slaves captured during such raids brought enormous financial benefits and was used to replenish the Janissary army, rowers on sea galleys and for other purposes.

In the first half of the century alone, Tatar feudal lords abducted more than 200 thousand captives from Russian lands (the population of European Russia in 1646 was about 7 million people). Poorly protected Ukrainian lands suffered even more. Only for 1654-1657. More than 50 thousand people were driven into slavery from Ukraine. By the 80s of the 17th century. Right-bank Ukraine was almost completely depopulated. From 1605 to 1644, at least 75 Tatar raids were carried out on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which included Ukraine.

The need for slaves in the primitive economy of Crimea was insignificant, and therefore thousands of polonyaniks were sold at slave markets. In 1656-1657 The Russian government managed to ransom 152 people from Crimea by paying 14,686 rubles. 72 Kop. (approximately 96 rubles 55 kopecks for each captive), which is for the middle of the 17th century. was a fabulously high figure. The capture of prisoners and the slave trade were beneficial to the feudal elite of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire.

Enormous funds from the plague could not revive the economy of the Khanate or change the stagnant nature of its subsistence economy. A tenth of the looted property and slaves went to the khan, followed by payment to the beys and murzas. Therefore, ordinary nomads who participated in the raids received only a small share. At the same time, one should take into account the incredible high cost of food in Crimea. During the period under review, one osmina (small measure of volume) of rye cost 50-60 kopecks. As a result, ordinary ulus Tatars remained in a semi-beggarly state and, in order to make ends meet, took part in raids. The plight in the Khanate especially worsened after the 16th and 14th centuries. Some of the Nogais migrated here.

Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. was experiencing an acute crisis that gripped all aspects of domestic life and sharply weakened its international position. The crisis was associated with the growth of hereditary land ownership and the strengthening of large feudal lords, which replaced the military-feudal system, which was based on temporary and lifelong ownership of land.

The dependence of the Crimean khans on Istanbul was a burden and often irritated the Tatar nobility. Therefore, the khans had to in the 17th century. either follow the lead of the aristocracy, or fight against it. In both cases, the khans usually quickly lost their throne. That is why on the Crimean throne in the 17th century. 22 khans were replaced. The Gireys, relying on the nobility, often made attempts to conduct independent internal and external
politics. At the beginning of the 17th century. Khan Shagin-Girey, who had long fought for the throne with Janibek Khan, tried to separate himself from Turkey. With the help of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, he sought to overthrow the power of Sultan Islam-Girey (1644-1654), and with the help of Russia and Poland, Khan Adil-Girey (1666-1670). However, attempts to gain independence ended in failure for Crimea.

At the beginning of the 17th century. The Crimean Khanate took an active part in the war of the Ottoman Empire against Poland. In 1614-1621. Tatar feudal lords undertook 17 major campaigns and 6 small raids, devastating Podolia, Bukovina, Bratslav region, Volyn. During these military campaigns they reached Lviv, Kyiv and Krakow,
Although peace was concluded between Poland and Turkey in 1630, this did not stop the raids from Crimea. During this period, the Khanate maintained more peaceful relations with Russia, and the intensity of raids on Russian lands was less than on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

However, the situation changed in 1632, when Russia began a war for Smolensk, which was captured by Poland in 1611. The troops of the Crimean Khan, numbering up to 20-30 thousand people, began to ravage the outskirts of Tula, Serpukhov, Kashira, Moscow and other cities of Russia. Significant detachments of Russian troops had to be withdrawn from near Smolensk and transferred to the southern borders.

Foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate in the 17th century. It was not limited to attacks and robberies of neighboring states. The main principle of this policy was to maintain a “balance of power,” or rather, the weakening of both Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 16th and 17th centuries. The Crimean khans repeatedly tried, in open and veiled form, to present themselves as heirs of the Golden Horde.

The war for Smolensk showed the unreliability of the defense of the southern borders of Russia, and in 1635-1654. A system of border fortifications was erected - the Belgorod defensive line. A continuous rampart with a palisade began in Akhtyrka (near Kharkov) and through Belgorod, Kozlov and Tambov reached Simbirsk on the Volga, covering Russian lands. Therefore, the intensity of Crimean raids on Russia noticeably decreases, except for short-term attacks in 1645. The reason for the increase in raids was the Turkish-Venetian naval war for Crete in 1645-1669. The war required slave oarsmen for the Ottoman fleet in the Mediterranean.

Liberation war of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples 1648-1654. and the Pereyaslav Rada of 1654 dramatically changed the foreign policy goals of the Crimean Khanate, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the years of this war, Islam-Girey hoped, with the support of Khmelnitsky, to free himself from the power of the Ottoman Empire. However, the khan was afraid of weakening Poland excessively and therefore, at critical moments, he repeatedly betrayed Bogdan Khmelnitsky.

After the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654, the Crimean Khanate changed its foreign policy course and entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russia and Ukraine. However, in 1655-1657. Polish and Tatar troops suffered major defeats near Akhmatov, Lvov, at the mouth of the Dnieper and Bug.

In the late 60s - early 70s. HUP c. There was a new aggravation of relations between the Ottoman Empire, Russia and Poland. Russian and Ukrainian regiments in 1677 and 1678 repelled attacks and twice inflicted a major defeat on Turkish and allied Tatar detachments near Chigirin. Hostilities between Turkey and Russia ended in 1681 with a peace agreement concluded in Bakhchisarai. However, in 1686, Russia joined the so-called Holy League, which included Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Venice. The bloc of these states was directed against the Ottoman Empire, which intensified its military attack on Central Europe. Fulfilling its obligations to its allies, the Russian army began military operations against Crimea in 1687. Although the campaigns of 1687-1688 under the command of V.V. Golitsyn ended in failure, they helped for-
hold the forces of the Crimean khans at Perekop.

In 1689-1694. Russia fought against the Crimean Khanate mainly with the forces of the Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks, but their campaigns could not eliminate the danger of an attack by the Crimean and Belgorod Tatars. In an effort to eliminate this threat, as well as to break through to the shores of the southern seas, in 1695 and 1696. Peter I undertakes the Azov campaigns. At the same time, Russian and Ukrainian regiments captured some Tatar fortresses at the mouth of the Dnieper. According to the terms of the treaties concluded in 1699 and 1700, the Ottoman Empire renounced its claims to Ukraine, and Azov went to Russia. In the 17th century Crimea tried not only to eliminate its dependence on Turkey, but also to expand its territory at the expense of its neighbors. The joint struggle of Russia, Ukraine and Poland put an end to these aggressive aspirations.

From the collection “Crimea: past and present", Institute of History of the USSR, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1988

CRIMEA KHANATE(1441/1443–1783), medieval state in Crimea. It was formed on the territory of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde during the period of its collapse. The founder of the Crimean Khanate was Hadji Giray (1441/1443–1466). The borders of the Crimean Khanate during the period of its power (mid-15th century) included the territories of the Northern Black Sea region from the mouth of the Dniester in the West to the right bank of the Don in the East, to the Vorskla River in the North.

The administrative division of the Crimean Khanate was traditional for the medieval Turkic-Tatar states and consisted of four large possessions of the Argyn, Baryn, Kipchak and Shirin clans. The nomadic possessions of Yedisan, Budzhak, and Small Nogai depended on the Crimean Khanate. During its heyday, the Khanate was divided into beyliks, which united the lands of several settlements and were ruled by representatives of various Tatar clans.

The capital is the city of Bakhchisarai - a large religious, political and commercial center. There were other large cities: Solkhat (Iski-Crimea), Kafa, Akkerman, Azak (Azov), Kyrk-Er (Chufut-Kale), Gezlev, Sudak. All of them were centers of beyliks and the focus of administrative power, crafts, trade, and religious life.

Tatars, Greeks, Armenians, Karaites, and Crimeans lived on the lands of the Crimean Khanate; There are also Italian merchants in port cities.

The nobility called themselves Tatars, sometimes with the addition of “Krymly” (that is, Crimean), and the main population most often defined themselves on religious grounds - Muslims.

The main language in the Crimean Khanate was Turkic; office work, diplomatic correspondence and literary creativity were also carried out in it; Since the 16th century, numerous Ottomanisms began to penetrate into it.

The economic activities of the population of the Crimean Khanate were strictly zoned: agriculture, gardening and viticulture were cultivated in the southern foothills, semi-nomadic cattle breeding - in the steppe part of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Wheat, barley, millet, rice, and lentils were grown. Peaches, pears, apple trees, plums, cherries, and nuts were grown in the gardens. The population was engaged in beekeeping, fishing and hunting. Cities, especially port cities, were centers of highly developed crafts such as ironworking, weapons, weaving, leatherworking, woodworking, pottery, jewelry, and construction. Trade relations with Turkey, Russia, Poland, and the countries of Transcaucasia were developed. The main items exported from the Crimean Khanate were wheat, honey, and slaves; import - weapons, fabrics, spices, luxury goods. Famous trade fairs are in Cafe, Gezlev, Sudak and Or-Kapu (Perekop).

The supreme power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the khans from the Girey clan, descendants of Khan Jochi. The tamga (coat of arms) of the Crimean Khanate was a sign in the form of a trident comb, and the tughra was a calligraphically written tamga, preserved in various forms in the diplomatic correspondence of the Crimean khans. After the establishment of vassal dependence of the Crimean Khanate on the Turkish Empire in 1475, a different system of power was formed here. The real ruler of Crimea was the Turkish Sultan, who had the right to remove and appoint khans, control all international relations of the Khanate, and also call upon Crimean troops to go on campaign. Formally, the khans of the Crimean Khanate were autocratic monarchs, but in reality their power was limited by the Turkish sultans and ruling clans. The khans sealed all the laws of the country with their seal and performed other representative functions. The basis of the khan's wealth was his ulus, located in the valleys of the Alma, Kacha and Salgir rivers. The residence of the khans from the end of the 15th century was in Bakhchisarai. The second most important representative of the Gireys was the heir to the throne - kalga, usually the eldest representative of the clan after the khan. His residence and administration were located in Ak-Mosque. Ownership of kalga - kalgalyk was not inherited, but was state property. Since 1578, another heir to the throne appeared in the Crimean Khanate - Nuraddin, the third in importance; his possessions were located in the Alma valley in Kachi-Saray. In fact, power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the Tatar nobility, in which there were 4 ruling families: Shirin, Argyn, Baryn and Kipchak (Yashlav). Later they were joined by the Nogai clans Mangyt (Mansur) and Sidzheut. In the 16th–18th centuries, there was probably a rotation of clans, when the Mangyts ousted the Argyn, Kipchak or Baryn clans from power structures. The form of influence of the aristocracy on state affairs was the council under the khan - the divan. It included Kalga, Nuraddin, Shirin Bey, Mufti, representatives of the highest Tatar nobility led by Karachibeks from the four ruling clans, the rulers were the serakesirs of the three nomadic hordes (Budzhak, Yedisan, Nogai). The Divan was in charge of all state affairs, and also resolved complex legal cases that were not subject to the jurisdiction of estate and local courts; was involved in determining government expenditures, including for the maintenance of the khan and his court.

The highest administrative and military power was exercised by Ulug Karachibek from the Shirin clan, his residence was in Solkhat. Ensuring the external security of the state was carried out by the or-bek, whose residence was in Perekop. Financial affairs and taxes were in charge of the khan-agasy (vizier), as well as various officials: kazandar-bashi, aktachi-bashi, defterdar-bashi, killardzhi-bashi. After establishing dependence on the Turkish Empire, the representative of the Sultan began to play an important role in the life of Crimea.

The social organization of the nobility in the Crimean Khanate had a hierarchical system related to the rights to land ownership or levying a certain tax, for which the owners were obliged to serve their overlord. Ownership was divided into conditional - iqta, suyurgal and unconditional - tarkhan (exemption from all or part of taxes and duties). The highest stratum of the nobility consisted of the descendants of the Gireys - Kalga, Nuraddin, Sultans, Murzas, Beks and small serving nobility - Emeldyashi and Sirdashi. The army of the Crimean Khanate consisted of the Khan's guard (kapy-kulu) and militias of Tatar clans, as well as troops of nomadic tribes with a total number of 4 thousand to 200 thousand soldiers. The basis of the army was the serving nobility, which comprised a cadre of military leaders and professional warriors, mainly heavily armed cavalrymen, whose total number reached 8–10 thousand people. At the beginning of the 16th century, under the khan, a permanent professional army began to form, similar to the Turkish one, consisting of detachments of infantrymen armed with muskets (janissry and tyufenkchi), as well as field artillery (zarbuzan). Artillery was used in field battles and in the defense of fortifications. Combat and transport fleets were used for crossings and battles on rivers. In the 16th–18th centuries, the detachments of the Crimean Khan most often acted as part of the Turkish troops. In field battles, operational maneuvers, flanking, and false retreats were used. During the battle, the Tatars tried to maintain their distance, hitting the enemy with arrows.

The bulk of the population consisted of the tax-paying class, which paid taxes to the state or feudal lord, the main of which was yasak, traditional for the Tatar states. There were other taxes, fees and duties: supplies of provisions to the troops and authorities (anbar-mala, ulufa-susun), yam duty (ilchi-kunak), taxes in favor of the clergy (gosher and zakat). Large revenues to the treasury of the Crimean Khanate were provided by payments for the participation of military contingents of the Crimean Tatars in the campaigns of the Turkish sultans, monetary indemnities from Poland and Russia issued to prevent raids on their territory, as well as military booty.

The state religion in the Crimean Khanate was Islam. The head of the clergy was a mufti from the Sayyid family. Muftis and seyids actively participated in the political life of the country and were also involved in legal proceedings. The clergy also operated religious educational institutions - mektebs and madrassas. In them, the bulk of the country's population learned to read and write and the basic canons of religion. Data have been preserved about the existence of handwritten libraries and book copyists at the madrasah and the khan’s court. The literacy and culture of the population are evidenced by preserved objects with inscriptions, tombstones with epitaphic inscriptions, and documents on office work. Literature was actively developing. A collection of poems and poems “The Rose and the Nightingale” by Khan Gazi-Girey has been preserved. Khans Bogadyr-Girey and Selim-Girey were also poets. There was an official historiography in the Crimean Khanate. In the 16th–17th centuries, “The History of Khan Sahib-Girey” by Remmal Khoja, the anonymous “History of Dasht-i Kipchak”, around 1638, and “The History of Khan Said-Girey” by Haji Mehmed Senai appeared. The famous fundamental work of the 18th century “Seven Planets” by Sayyid Muhammad Riza. The main motive of these works is the desire to prove the intrinsic value of Tatar history, to determine the role and place of the Crimean khans in the history of Turkey.

Construction and architecture were at a high level of development, for example, white-stone Bakhchisaray was famous for its mosques - Takhtaly-Jami (1704), Yeshel-Jami (1764), Khidzhi-Jami (1762–1769). The Jumi-Jami mosque (XVI century) was created in Yevpatoria. Mausoleums (dyurbe) of the Crimean khans and khan-bike - Turabek-khanum, Mengli-Gireya, Muhammad-Gireya were also built. The art of stone carving reached a high level; tombstones with floral ornaments were made. Music developed; famous musicians were some representatives of the Girey family who were educated in Turkey: Sahib-Girey, Gazi-Girey.

The population of the Crimean Khanate became the basis for the formation of the modern Crimean Tatar nation, laying down its main political, cultural and linguistic traditions.

The Crimean Khanate pursued an active foreign policy. Having strengthened the internal position in the state, Hadji Giray and his immediate descendants fought with the khans of the Great Horde, and often entered into an alliance with the Russian state. However, during this period the influence of the Ottoman Empire sharply increased, which extended its power to the entire Black Sea coast. On June 1, 1475, the Turkish fleet captured Cafa and other Italian colonies and Gothic fortresses. From that time on, the Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. In the first third of the 16th century, as Turkey strengthened and Russia began to expand in the Volga region, Russian-Crimean contradictions intensified. They sharply intensified after the deposition of the Russian protege Shah-Ali in Kazan and the elevation of Khan Sahib-Girey to the throne. The installation of Sahib-Girey and then his younger brother Safa-Girey on the Kazan throne caused a series of conflicts and wars between Moscow and the Crimean Khanate. Russian military campaigns became more frequent after the death of Safa-Girey in 1546 and ended with the conquest of Kazan (1552). Wars between the Crimean Khanate and Russia began, in which the main demand of the Crimean Khan was the return of khans from the Girey clan to Kazan. In these wars, the Crimean Khanate was supported by Turkey, which, in an effort to expand its influence in the North Caucasus, undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Astrakhan (1569). In 1571, Khan Devlet-Girey approached Moscow and burned it, but in 1572 he was defeated in the Battle of Molodi, which forced him to sign peace with Moscow. All attempts to liberate Kazan from Russian rule were unsuccessful. In the 17th–18th centuries, the Crimean Khanate participated in all military enterprises of the Turkish Empire: in wars against Hungary, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, Austria and Iran. The territories of Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Wallachia were subjected to repeated attacks by Crimean troops.

At the end of the 17th century, during the war with Turkey, Russia launched Crimean campaigns (1687, 1689), which ended in vain. In 1711, the troops of the Crimean Khanate took part in the war with Russia, which ended with the Prut Peace Treaty, which ensured the preservation of the Crimean Khanate. At the end of the 18th century, the aggressive policy of the Russian Empire led to a series of Russian-Turkish wars. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty of 1774, the Crimean Khanate ceased to be a vassal of Turkey and moved into the sphere of influence of Russia. The policies of Khan Shagin-Girey (1777–1783) caused discontent among the population and aristocracy and provoked an uprising. Under the pretext that the new khan was not approved by Russia, Russian troops were brought into Crimea. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to the Russian Empire. On April 8, 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto, according to which Crimea, Taman and Kuban became Russian regions. The population formally retained its former rights and was ensured a peaceful life and justice. A new era began for Crimea - the period of Russian colonization and the gradual displacement of the Tatars.

• Hadji Giray (1443–1466)
• Nur-Devlet (1466–1469, 1474–1477)
• Mengli-Girey I (1469–1515, with a break in 1474–1478)
• Janibek-Girey I (1477–1478)
• Muhammad-Girey I (1515–1523)
• Gazi-Girey I (1523–1524)
• Saadet Giray I (1524–1532)
• Islam Giray I (1532)
• Sahib Giray I (1532–1551)
• Devlet-Girey I (1551–1577)
• Muhammad-Girey II (1577–1584)
• Islam Girey II (1584–1588)
• Gazi-Girey II (1588–1597, 1597–1608)
• Fath Giray I (1597)
• Selamet-Girey I (1608–1610)
• Janibek-Girey II (1610–1622, 1627–1635)
• Muhammad-Girey III (1622–1627)
• Inet-Girey (1635–1638)
• Bahadur-Girey (1638–1642)
• Muhammad-Girey IV (1642–1644, 1654–1665)
• Islam Giray III (1644–1654)
• Adil-Girey (1665–1670)
• Selim Giray I (1670–1677, 1684–1691, 1692–1698, 1702–1604)
• Murad-Girey (1677–1683)
• Hadji Giray II (1683–84)
• Saadet-Girey II (1691)
• Safa-Girey (1691–92)
• Devlet-Girey II (1698–1702, 1707–13)
• Gazi-Girey III (1704–07)
• Kaplan-Girey I (1707, 1713–16, 1730–36)
• Kara-Devlet-Girey (1716–17)
• Saadet-Girey III (1717–24)
• Mengli-Girey II (1724–30, 1737–39)
• Fath Giray II (1736–37)
• Selim Giray II (1743–48)
• Arslan-Girey (1748–56, 1767)
• Maksud-Girey (1767–68)
• Halim-Girey (1756–58)
• Crimea-Girey (1758–64, 1767–69)
• Selim Giray III (1764–67, 1770–71)
• Devlet-Girey III (1769–70, 1775–77)
• Kaplan-Girey II (1770)
• Maksud-Girey II (1771–72)
• Sahib-Girey II (1772–75)
• Shagin-Girey (1777–83)

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquests in the 13th century. A huge feudal state of the Golden Horde (Ulus Juchi) arose, the founder of which was Batu Khan.

In 1239, during the Mongol-Tatar expansion to the west, the Crimean Peninsula with the peoples living there - Kipchaks (Cumans), Slavs, Armenians, Greeks, etc. - found itself occupied by the Genghisid troops. From the end of the 13th century. Feudal rule was established in Crimea, dependent on the Golden Horde.

At the same time, in the 13th century, with the participation of the crusaders, colony-cities (Kerch, Sugdeya (Sudak), Chembalo (Balaclava), Chersonese, etc.) of Italian (Genoese and Venetian) merchants arose en masse on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In the 70s of the 13th century. with the permission of the Great Mongol Khan himself, the large Genoese colony of Kafa (modern Feodosia) was founded. There was a constant struggle between the Genoese and Venetian merchants for control and influence over the Italian colonies of Crimea. Timber, grain, salt, furs, grapes, etc. were exported from the colonies. The Tatar feudal nobility conducted an active trade in slaves through the Italian colonies. The Italian cities in Crimea were in vassal dependence on the Tatar feudal lords and paid them tribute, being subject to repression by the latter in case of resistance.

At the beginning of the 15th century, with the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Hadji Giray (founder of the dynasties of the Crimean and later Kazan khans) seized power in Crimea and declared himself khan. He was virtually independent of the Golden Horde, in which, due to dynastic feuds between the Chinggisids, the process of disintegration had already begun. The year of foundation of the independent Crimean Khanate in historiography is considered to be 1443. The Lower Dnieper region also became part of the Khanate. The largest and most influential Crimean uluses were the uluses of the families Kipchak, Argyn, Shirin, Baryn and others. The main activity of the Crimean feudal lords was horse breeding, cattle breeding and slave trading.

Vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks occupied the Balkan Peninsula and captured the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits. The Republic of Genoa was bound by allied obligations with Byzantium. After the fall of the main citadel of the once powerful Byzantine Empire, all Italian colonies in Crimea were under the threat of occupation by the Ottomans.

In 1454, the Turkish fleet approached the Crimean Peninsula, bombarded the Genoese colony of Akkerman and besieged Cafa from the sea. The Crimean Khan immediately met with the admiral of the Sultan's fleet; he concludes an agreement with the Ottomans and announces joint action against the Italians.

In 1475, the Turkish fleet again besieged Cafa, bombarded it and forced the Genoese to surrender the city. After this, the Turks captured the entire coastal strip of Crimea, including part of the Azov coast, declared it the possessions of the Turkish Sultan, transferred power to the Turkish Pasha and transferred significant military forces to the sanjak (military-administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire) newly proclaimed by the Turks on the coast of Crimea with its center in Kafe .

The northern part of the steppe Crimea and the territories in the lower reaches of the Dnieper came into the possession of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray (1468–1515), who became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. The capital of the Crimean Khanate was moved to Bakhchisarai.

Union with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. XV century

This period in the history of the Crimean Khanate during the reign of Mengli Giray is associated with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Taking advantage of the hostile relations between the Crimean Khanate and the White Horde, the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III entered into an alliance with Mengli Giray. The latter in 1480 sent his army to the possessions of the Polish king Casimir IV, who was an ally of the White Horde Khan Akhmat, who marched with an army against Moscow, thereby preventing the coalition of the Polish-Lithuanian state and the White Horde in the war with the Great Moscow Principality. As a result of the successful allied actions of Mengli Giray, the Moscow principality was finally freed from the Tatar yoke and began to create a centralized state.

Confrontation with the Russian kingdom. 16th – first half of the 17th centuries.

The Ottoman Empire's capture of the southern coast of Crimea created a serious threat to Rus' from the Crimean Tatar khans, who carried out predatory raids, capturing slaves for the huge Turkish slave market. In addition, the Kazan Khanate became a support for Turkey and the Crimean Khanate in their further expansion against the Russian principalities, especially after the accession to the Kazan throne of a representative of the Girey dynasty of khans, who were the conductors of Turkey’s foreign policy aggressive plans. In this regard, subsequent relations between Rus' (later the Russian Empire) and the Crimean Khanate were openly hostile.

The territories of Russia and Ukraine were constantly attacked by the Crimean Khanate. In 1521 the Krymchaks besieged Moscow, and in 1552 - Tula. Attacks by the Crimean Khan on the young Russian Empire became more frequent during the Livonian War (1558–1583). In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray I besieged and then burned Moscow.

After the death of the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, the outbreak of long-term unrest and Polish intervention, the Crimean khans aggravated the situation with constant raids on Russian territories, devastation and the kidnapping of a huge number of people for subsequent sale into slavery in the Ottoman Empire.

In 1591, Russian Tsar Boris Godunov repelled another attack on Moscow by the Crimean Khan Gazi Giray II.

During the Russian-Polish War of 1654–1667, the Crimean Khan took the side of the Ukrainian Hetman Vygovsky, who went over with part of the Cossacks to the side of the Polish-Lithuanian state. In 1659, at the Battle of Konotop, the combined troops of Vygovsky and the Crimean Khan defeated the advanced elite detachments of the Russian cavalry of princes Lvov and Pozharsky.

In the second half of the 17th century, during the Russian-Turkish War of 1676–1681 and the Chigirin campaigns of the Turkish Sultan of 1677–1678 in Right Bank and Left Bank Ukraine, the Crimean Khanate took an active part in the war with Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire.

Expansion of Russia in the Crimean direction in the second half of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries.

In 1687 and 1689, during the reign of Queen Sophia, there were two unsuccessful campaigns of Russian troops in Crimea under the leadership of Prince V. Golitsyn. Golitsyn's army approached Perekop along the steppe previously scorched by the Tatars, and was forced to return back.

After the accession of Peter I to the throne, Russian troops carried out a series of Azov campaigns and in 1696 stormed the Turkish, well-fortified fortress of Azov. Peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey. The independence of the Crimean Khanate in the sphere of foreign policy was significantly limited - the Crimean Khan was prohibited by agreement from making any raids on territories controlled by the Russian Empire.

Khan Devlet Giray II, finding himself in a difficult situation, tried to provoke the Turkish Sultan, inciting him to war with Russia, which was busy solving its northern problem in the war with the Kingdom of Sweden, but aroused the Sultan’s anger, was removed from the Khan’s throne, and the Crimean army was dissolved.

The successor of Devlet Giray II was Khan Kaplan Giray, appointed by the Sultan. However, in view of Russia's serious successes in the Northern War, the Ottoman Sultan Ahmad III again places Devlet Giray II on the Crimean throne; arms the Crimean army with modern artillery and allows negotiations to begin with the Swedish king on a military alliance against Russia.

Despite the betrayal of the Zaporozhye Sich under the leadership of Hetman Mazepa, and the latter’s request to accept Right Bank Ukraine as the citizenship of the Crimean Khan, Russian diplomacy worked perfectly: through persuasion and bribery of Turkish ambassadors, they managed to persuade the Sultan not to go to war with Russia and refuse to accept the Zaporozhye Sich into the Crimean Khanate .

Tensions continued to rise between the Ottoman and Russian empires. After the victorious Battle of Poltava in 1709, Peter I demanded that the Sultan hand over the Swedish king Charles XII, who had fled to Turkey, threatening, otherwise, to build a number of fortified fortresses along the border with the Ottoman Empire. In response to this ultimatum of the Russian Tsar, in 1710 the Turkish Sultan declared war on Peter I; This was followed in 1711 by the very unsuccessful Prut campaign of Russian troops. The Crimean Khan with his 70 thousand army took part in the war against the Russian Tsar on the side of the Turks. The fortified fortress of Azov and the coast of the Azov Sea were returned to Turkey. However, already in 1736, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Minikh invaded the territory of the Crimean Peninsula and captured the capital of the Khanate, Bakhchisarai. An epidemic that broke out in Crimea forced the Russian army to leave the peninsula. The following year, 1737, the Russian army of Field Marshal Lassi crossed Sivash and again captured the peninsula. However, Russian troops failed to gain a foothold in Crimea this time either.

Conquest of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century.

During the next Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774, in 1771 the Russian army under the command of Prince Dolgorukov again occupied the entire Crimea. Sahib Giray II is appointed Khan instead of Maksud Giray Khan, who fled to Istanbul. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded between Russia and Turkey, according to which the Crimean Khanate was freed from vassal dependence on the Turkish Sultan, and Russia received the right to retain the fortresses of Yenikale, Kerch, Azov and Kinburn. Despite its formal independence, the Crimean Khanate turned from a vassal of the Turkish Sultan into a state association dependent on the Russian Empress.

In 1777, the commander of the Russian army, Field Marshal Rumyantsev, elevated Shagin Giray to the khan's throne. However, in 1783, the last khan of the Crimean Girey dynasty abdicated the throne, and the once powerful Crimean Khanate ceased to exist, finally becoming part of the Russian Empire. Shagin Giray flees to Istanbul, but is soon executed by order of the Turkish Sultan.

In 1797, Russian Emperor Paul I established the Novorossiysk province, which included the Crimean peninsula.

Thus, the Crimean Khanate is the last major state formation that arose after the Great Mongol-Tatar conquest of Eastern Europe by the Genghisids in the 13th century. and the collapse of the Golden Horde. The Crimean Khanate lasted for 340 years (1443–1783).