The task itself already has a hint, for example: name the trope in sentence No. And there are only 4 main tropes: metaphor -extended metaphor; epithet, comparison, personification(“animate metaphor”), as well as hyperbole, litotes, allegory, metonymy, synecdoche. Other means that are proposed in KIM (in the task) are either stylistic, or syntactic devices, or lexical means.

So, we divide all techniques into four groups: 1. Trails; 2. Stylistic means.3. Syntactic means (techniques)4. Vocabulary - lexical means. 5. Phonetic capabilities. Sound aids.

Unified State Exam. Task B8. Visual and expressive means of language(these are tropes, or artistic techniques)

Fine-expressive means of language are the techniques by which the visual appearance of a phenomenon, designed for sensory-emotional perception, is reproduced in the imagination.

1. TRAILS (Fine and expressive means of language)

Paths (Greek tropos - turnover) - the use of the word not in a literal, but in a figurative, allegorical sense.

The most important types of trails:

Comparison - comparison of phenomena and concepts with other phenomena. The fragile ice lies on the icy river like melting sugar. Joy crawls like a snail

Epithet (Greek epitheton - application) - artistic definition. Marmalade mood A. Chekhov. The golden grove dissuaded Birch with a cheerful language. (S. Yesenin):

A) epithets expressed by nouns (Mother Volga, Father Don, wind-tramp);

B) epithets expressed by adjectives(bright eyes, sable eyebrows, green wine, damp earth);

B) epithets expressed by adverbs:

You love sadly and difficultly.

And a woman’s heart - jokingly A.S. Pushkin

A constant epithet is a well-established definition of heroes, images in folklore: burning tears, a red sun, a good fellow, a little path, a fierce enemy

Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a hidden comparison based on the hidden likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast (the forest is noisy, the garden is empty, the weather is stormy):

A) personification – a figure of speech in which words denoting the properties and signs of phenomena of the animate world are used in descriptions of outwardly similar phenomena of the inanimate world. In other words, personification is the attribution of properties of living beings to inanimate objects:

Over darkened Petrograd

November breathed the autumn chill A.S. Pushkin

The Terek howls, wild and angry. M.Yu. Lermontov;

Silent sadness will be consoled... A.S. Pushkin

b ) expanded metaphor:

But the church is on a steep hill

Visible between the clouds to this day,

And they stand at her gate

Black granites are on guard,

They are covered with snow cloaks, And on their chests, instead of armor, eternal ice burns. M. Lermontov

Metaphorical epithet is a combination of the functions of epithet and metaphor: foggy youth, golden dreams, gray morning, iron will, silk eyelashes, heart of stone, iron will (these are established phrases, reminiscent of phraseological units in the form adj + noun)

Symbol (Greek symbolon - conventional sign) is an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon:

Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! A.S. Pushkin

Here the sun is a symbol of reason, happiness and knowledge.

An example of an expanded symbol is M. Lermontov’s poem “Sail”. A symbol is a concept that is deeper than a metaphor.

Allegory - type of allegory; an abstract idea, a concept embodied in a concrete image. Or an expanded simile, the components of which form a system of allusions, i.e. designation of specific phenomena through the signs of these phenomena. Thus, the goddess of justice Themis was depicted with scales and blindfolded. Human sins were measured with scales; blindfolded eyes allegorically pointed to the impartiality and objectivity of the goddess-judge. This is where expressions such as scales of justice and blind justice came from. Allegory is often used in fables and fairy tales, where animals, objects, and natural phenomena act as carriers of properties.

Metonymy (Greek metonomadzo – to rename).

This is a technique in which words are replaced not on the basis of similarity (as in metaphor), but on the basis of different types of connections between phenomena. This connection can be of several types:

A) connection of the vessel with its contents (drank two glasses, ate a bowl of soup, ate seven glasses);

B) the connection between the material and the thing made from it (amber on the Tsaregrad pipes, porcelain and bronze on the table; there is gold);

C) the connection of actions and circumstances with the place where they took place (violent Rome rejoices; this is his Waterloo);

D) the connection of things with their property, purpose or character (crafty dagger, bloody lesson);

D) the connection of general concepts with specific ones (the city takes courage, bloody villainy);

E) the connection between mental phenomena and the characteristic forms of their manifestation. (Compare: to be sad, to yearn - to sigh; to expose oneself to danger because of one’s stupidity - to sharpen an ax on oneself, to chop off a branch under oneself).

Synecdoche (a special type of metonymy) - (Greek synecdoche - understanding through something) - replacement of words based on quantitative relationships, for example, the name of a greater in the meaning of a smaller, a whole in the meaning of a part and vice versa. “All the flags will come to visit us.” “We keep looking at Napoleons.” - A.S. Pushkin

“Everything sleeps - man, beast, and bird” - N. Gogol. “Swede, Russian – stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin”

Gradation gradualism (Strengthening or weakening) – usually involves the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing or decreasing strength (“I spoke, convinced, demanded, ordered.”)

Oxymoron

Paraphrase(s)- signifying trope(king of beasts - lion; the owner of the taiga is the tiger, Northern Palmyra, Northern Venice - all St. Petersburg, the golden-domed capital - Moscow, the mother of all Russian cities - Kiev)

2. Stylistic figures.

Stylistic figures are expressions that are constant in meaning and design and have certain artistic capabilities.

anaphora, or unity of command:

I swear by the first day of creation,

I swear on his last day,

I swear by the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph

M.Yu. Lermontov;

Epiphora , or ending, is extremely rare in Russian verse, typical of Eastern poetry:

I have not found a confidante except my soul,

I haven’t found anything more selfless than my own heart...

And I haven’t found heart captivity anywhere more terrible.

pleonasm – repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

gradation . This technique consists in the fact that it is not the same word that is repeated, but semantically close words, that is, words that are close in meaning, which, gradually reinforcing each other, create one image, usually expressing a sequentially increasing or decreasing feeling, thought, and they also recreate an event or action: In the old days they loved to eat well, they loved to drink even better, and even better they loved to have fun (N.V. Gogol);

My comrades burned in tanks

To ashes, to ashes, to the ground. (Slutsky) Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin"

Oxymoron (oxymoron) - a turn of phrase in which a new expressive meaning arises as a result of combinations of words that are opposite in meaning (good-natured ferocity, hot snow, wretched luxury, living corpse, Dead souls).

Irony (Greek eironeia - pretense) - can take the form of any other trope. This is a turn of phrase in which words characterizing a phenomenon are used in order to achieve a comic effect in the opposite meaning (philosopher at eighteen years old, A.S. Pushkin. Where, smart one, are you wandering from? I. Krylov.)

hyperbola – artistic exaggeration (a feast for the whole world; a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper, N.V. Gogol);

litotes - a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation (a boy the size of a finger; a man the size of a fingernail, Nekrasov, he does not shine with intelligence).

alogism

3. Lexical means. Visual possibilities of vocabulary.

A) lexical repetitions- deliberate repetition of a word to draw the reader’s attention (Take care of your penny, a penny won’t give you away, you can ruin everything in the world with a penny. N.V. Gogol);

pleonasm - repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

I don’t know where this pain came from... S. Yesenin.

Phraseologisms (winged words) – stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure. Pretentious, hastily, without fluff or feather, Knight without fear and reproach

synonyms - words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms are close in context.

antithesis – comparison of phenomena that are opposite in meaning and significance. (Compare: the first day of creation is the last day, M.Yu. Lermontov);

Contextual antonyms are opposite in context. Out of context, the meaning changes (Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire - A. Pushkin)

Evaluative vocabulary– emotionally charged words containing evaluation: simpleton, smartass, clever, vocal.

Homonyms words that sound the same but have different meanings passage in birdsong, trade in passage

Paronyms – words similar in sound, but different in meaning: heroic - heroic, effective - valid

Vernacular (colloquial vocabulary, or reduced, or colloquial) - words of colloquial use, distinguished by some rudeness: blockhead, fidgety, wobble.

Dialectisms - words that exist in a certain area. Draniki, mshars, Buryaki.

Borrowed words are words transferred from other languages. PR, parliament, consensus, millennium.

Book vocabulary – words that are characteristic of written speech and have a special stylistic connotation. Immortality, incentive, prevail

Jargonisms – words that are outside the literary norm./ Argo / - Head - watermelon, globe, pumpkin...

Neologisms – new words that arise to denote new concepts. Sitting, shopping, music video director, marketing.

Professionalisms (special vocabulary)- words used by people of the same profession. Galley.

Terms – special concepts in science, technology...Optics, catarrh.

Outdated words (archaisms)- words displaced from the modern language by others denoting the same concepts. Thrifty - caring, joy - joy, youth - young man, eye - eye, neck

Expressive spoken vocabulary- emotionally charged words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary. Dirty, loud, bearded.

Palindrome - a word, phrase, line that is read equally from left to right and from right to left (tavern)

4. Syntactic means

pass – a form of laconic, “slogan” style. Its strength lies in brevity, and brevity depends on how skillfully the words with the most meaningful meaning and picture quality are selected and left in the phrase. (We sat down - in the ashes! Hail - in the dust! In swords - sickles and plows. V.A. Zhukovsky);

For incomplete sentences see blank(often in dialogue, slogan)

Default, or ellipsis- a form that reproduces the speech of a very excited person. The default is close to omission:

Father... Mazepa... execution - with a prayer

Here, in this castle, is my mother... /The figure allows the listener to guess for himself what will be discussed/.

rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal– to enhance the expressiveness of speech, do not require a response:

Where are you galloping, proud horse?

And where will you put your hooves? A.S. Pushkin

Do you know Ukrainian night? Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night! N.V.Gogol.

A number of homogeneous members -these are groups of homogeneous members that complicate the structure of a sentence. Any members of a sentence can be homogeneous, with the help of which the meaning of the sentence is more meaningfully and fully conveyed

asyndeton – a list of phenomena, actions, events when the necessary conjunctions are deliberately omitted. The effect of rapidity of changing images, feelings, emotional intensity, excitement:

The booths and women flash past,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Pharmacies, shops, fashion.

Balconies, lions on the gates,

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

A.S. Pushkin

Multi-Union (polysyndeton) - a special introduction of additional conjunctions to give speech smoothness, majesty, and sometimes to emphasize an epically calm, narrative manner:

And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger.

The years are kind to the winner...

A.S. Pushkin

Parcellation – deliberate violation of sentence boundaries

It was a Volga. Ashy. With a Moscow number. (Usually, when parcelling, 2 sentences are indicated. To correctly determine this technique, you need to re-read the previous sentence and the subsequent one).

Incomplete sentences– in which a member of the sentence is missing that could be restored from the context. There is another turn ahead, and another one behind it.

Question-answer form of presentation– A form of presentation in which questions and answers to the question alternate.

Syntactic parallelism– a figurative comparison of two similar phenomena, compositionally expressed in the form of parallel phrases:

Black raven in the gentle twilight,

Black velvet on dark shoulders

A.Blok;

The graves are overgrown with grass -

The pain grows old.

M. Sholokhov.

Negative parallelism: emphasize the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

It’s not the wind that bends the branch,

It’s not the oak tree rustling, -

My heart is groaning

Like an autumn leaf trembling.

S.Stromilov

Parallelism serves to compare natural phenomena with human mood.

Enough, white birch, raging over the water,

Come on, stupid girl, play pranks on me - a similar syntactic construction.

alogism - association as homogeneous members of different species with the aim of creating a comic effect. (As soon as I passed the exams, I immediately went with my mother, furniture and brother... to the dacha, A.P. Chekhov);

inversion – violation of standard word order, reverse: The sail turns white lonely

She is slim, her movements

That swan of desert waters

Reminds me of a smooth ride

That is a doe's quick striving. A.S. Pushkin.

Italics – highlighted word, key

Ellipsis - omission of any member of the sentence. Men - for axes. We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. V. Zhukovsky

5. Sound means of expression. Phonetic means (Rare)

Alliteration - a technique of enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds. Like a winged lily, / Hesitating, Lala-Ruk enters

Assonance - a technique of enhancing imagery by repeating vowel sounds. The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I’m sick... A. Pushkin

Sound recording - a technique for enhancing the visual quality of the text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture. Nightingale: “Then it suddenly scattered in small shots throughout the grove” I. Krylov

Onomatopoeia- imitation of the sounds of living and inanimate nature using the sounds of language. When the mazurka thunder roared...A. Pushkin

• Some techniques may be in stylistics and tropes, or in syntax and stylistics - you need to be careful and distinguish: figurative meaning (figurative) is tropes; if the structure of the sentence itself, its construction is syntax. And if you produce an effect on the reader, highlighting the peculiarity of the phrase as the key to the problem of the text - this is stylistics.

Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All of these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.

What is expressiveness?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid paths, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
• Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
• Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: On New Year's midnight the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying at the Faculty of International Relations.
• Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in the speech of modern people, but this does not diminish their importance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
• Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, and omissions in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea", in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
• Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
• Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all tropes with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing but black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
Historicisms	Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	There were roes (snakes) in this area.
Stylistic tropes (examples)
Metaphor	You have my friend.
Personification	The foliage sways and dances with the wind.
	The red sun sets below the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three plates.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses quality products.
Periphrase	Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about a lion).
Allegory	You are a real ass (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours already!
	Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all!
Syntactic figures (examples)
	There are so many people with whom I can be sad, There are so few people I can love.
	We'll go through the raspberries! Do you like raspberries? No? Tell Danil, Let's go through the raspberries.
Gradation	I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence)	When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look...
Multi-Union	I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not so (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything and nothing to me.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.

The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads, and serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
• Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

• complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
• stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time relate to different styles of speech (finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings and refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of an expression through slight ridicule.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated.
Personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls).
Periphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and artistic works.

Types of stylistic figures

Name of syntactic structure	Description
Anaphora	Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence.
Epiphora	Using the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation.
Parallelism	Constructing adjacent sentences in the same form. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
Gradation	Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning.
Default	Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical appeal	An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects.
A rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression and tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Multi-Union	Repeated repetition of the same conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism.
Antithesis	A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such phrases are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, and presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.

Trope(Greek tropos - turn, figure of speech) is a word or expression used figuratively to create an artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness.

Tropes table with examples

Types of trails	Definition	Examples
Metaphor	a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on a comparison of an unnamed object or phenomenon with some other one based on their common characteristic.	It buzzed like a bee; Spun like a top; Spinning like a squirrel in a wheel.
Metonymy	a means of replacing one word with another based on contiguity	Porcelain jug - I’ll pour the jug; I've already eaten three plates; His pen breathes love(A.S. Pushkin)
Synecdoche	this is an artistic trope, one of the types of metonymy, which is created by transferring the name of an object from its part to the whole and vice versa based on the quantitative relationship between them	All flags will be visiting us.(A.S. Pushkin) Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.(A.S. Pushkin) And you could hear the Frenchman rejoicing until dawn.(M.Yu. Lermontov)
Hyperbola	trope based on excessive exaggeration of the size, strength, significance of the depicted phenomenon	I've been waiting for you for three hours already! Haven't seen each other for a hundred years; Rivers of blood; Sea of ​​wheat.
Epithet	a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, characteristics	The red sun sets below the horizon; Bitter share; The maiden is beautiful;
Periphrase	replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	King of Beasts (about the lion); Blue Planet (Earth); Steel sheet (railway).
Allegory	two-dimensional use of a word, expression or whole text in the literal and figurative (allegorical) sense	You're a real ass (about stupidity); Libra – justice; Heart is love.
Litotes	figurative understatement of the size, strength, beauty of what is being described. Many phraseological units are based on litotes.	Tom Thumb; Strength like a mosquito; A man with a fingernail.
Irony	using a word or figure of speech in the opposite meaning for the purpose of ridicule	I've dreamed about this all my life! I love a stick like a dog; Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head?

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures (figure of speech)- special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement. For example, stylistic figures include:

• Inversion- violation of direct word order. For example: We've been waiting for you for a long time.
• Anaphora- unity of command. For example:

Take care of each other,

Warm with kindness.

Take care of each other,

Don't let us offend you.

• Gradation- arrangement of synonyms according to the degree of increase or decrease in the attribute. For example: Silence covered, fell, absorbed.
• Ellipsis- omission of any member of the sentence, most often a predicate. For example: We sat in ashes, cities in dust, and swords in sickles and plows.
• Antithesis- a stylistic figure of contrast, comparison, juxtaposition of opposing concepts. For example: Long hair - short mind.

For a complete list of stylistic figures, see

Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings	they never said you to each other, but always you.
phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word	at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- outdated words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory	smoke, chatter
bookstore, colloquial vocabulary	daring, companion; corrosion, management; waste money, outback

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

metaphor– transferring the meaning of a word by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses)
synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed
litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule	Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other	I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa	I came, I saw, I conquered
anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other	Irontruth - alive to envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun– pun	It was raining and there were two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree? Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear!
syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences	young people are welcome everywhere, We honor old people everywhere
multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction	And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger The years are kind to the winner...
asyndeton– construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without conjunctions	The booths and women flash past, Boys, benches, lanterns...
ellipsis- omission of an implied word	I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion– indirect word order	Our people are amazing.
antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin
oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation– transmission in the text of other people’s thoughts and statements indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…”
questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts	A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him.
parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Over your head.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry around, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.

(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and plug-in constructions
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parcellation
7. question-and-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members of the sentence

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that a plural word should take the place of the omission. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.

All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.

(According to N. Aksenova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.

Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”