Thanks to this encyclopedia, my ideas about Europeans, about the same Mongols and about other peoples have changed greatly. I used to think that Batu, who conquered Rus', was the main Mongol khan, but in fact, it turns out that the main Great Khan was his elder brother Kublai. The Mongolian capital at that time was located in Beijing, and Kublai's advisor was none other than the famous traveler Marco Polo, whom many know. But only now have I finally united all three heroes together - they lived in the same, thirteenth century! And I also used to think that the Mongols were steppe nomads, horsemen, but it turns out they knew how to sail ships on the sea and attacked Japan. The Japanese word "kamikaze" from the World War II era means "divine wind", the storm that drove Kublai's Mongol ships away from Japanese shores. And during the war, this was the name given to Japanese suicide pilots.

I actually read something about medieval Africa and South America for the first time in my life and here. And now I know what the knotted letter looked like, and I can say without hesitation: “Inca Sichi Roka.” Or: “Sundiata Keita.” It sounds a little funny and mysterious, like some kind of spell, right? Although these are simply the names of the Inca leader and ruler of the African state of Mali. This Sundiata Keita established equality between men and women in his country and allowed women to rule the state. In the thirteenth century! And I used to think that women’s struggle for their rights was a European invention. And you are probably surprised too.

I really like books that surprise and allow you to see familiar things in a completely different way. We usually imagine the Middle Ages by looking at them through the eyes of Europeans. But now we live in a world where people from different countries and nationalities are mixed in one city. And their view of history is completely different, not the same as ours. I think it’s important to learn to look at the world from their point of view, too, so that there are fewer conflicts. And this book always reminds you that other people who are not like you are also people. What is valuable to them will not necessarily be valuable to you, but you can try to understand this and not be hostile.

The book is very conveniently arranged. From the “Dossier” you can find out details of the lives of rulers and other great people of different countries. And the section “Around the World in an Instant” allows you to compare how people in different parts of our planet thought about the same thing. What they considered beautiful and ugly, how they washed and generally took care of themselves, what they were sick with and how they were treated... The history of ordinary people is no less interesting than the history of their rulers. But at school they hardly talk about this. And it's a shame. Because through such an unpretentious story you will learn a lot of unexpected things. It turns out that what Hitler came up with against the Jews in the 20th century originated in the Middle Ages. And the prototype of the “Star of David”, which Jews had to sew on their clothes, was invented by Pope Innocent III. In some European countries, Jews were persecuted and destroyed, while in others, on the contrary, they were accepted. I was very surprised that the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary provided shelter to the persecuted in the 13th century, and in the 20th century it was these two countries, captured by the German Nazis, that would become the site of the mass murder of Jews. How strangely the wheel of history turns!..

This book is like a children's kaleidoscope toy. You can turn it this way and that and still get an interesting picture. The encyclopedia “The World in the 13th Century” can be read from any page and not necessarily consecutively, and you will still get an image of the medieval world. It seems to me that this book is especially suitable for children who love “interesting things”, but who do not have the time or desire to read for a long time. Short and clear texts, unusual facts, I think, will attract even non-reading teenagers. And Christelle Hainault’s bright illustrations, based on real medieval miniatures, and authentic medieval drawings can be looked at for a very long time.

Anna Semerikova, 12 years old

_________________________________

Laurence Quentin and Catherine Reiser
"The World in the 13th Century"
Artist Christelle Hainault
Translation from French by Vera Tsukanova
Publishing house “Walk into History”, 2016

The Middle Ages is considered to be a period of time covering a millennium, beginning in the 5th century and ending in the 15th century AD. Contrary to the established idea that these were the Dark Ages of world history, the scientists of the Middle Ages made a significant contribution to the development of civilization. In this article we will recall their most significant achievements.

Heavy plow

One of the earliest inventions of medieval history (around 600) was the heavy plow, which made it possible to successfully plow the hard soil of the fields of Northern Europe. This made it possible to increase their productivity and, consequently, produce more food. As a result, this period of history was marked by a significant increase in the total European population.

The essence of the invention is very simple. It is known that the depth of the furrow that the plowshare leaves behind depends on the weight of the plow, which cannot be too large, since in this case the tiller will not be able to lift it. The solution was found to be simple and effective: the plow was equipped with wheels, which made it possible to make it much heavier, and therefore increase the plowing depth. This was the beginning of inventions and scientific discoveries in the Middle Ages.

Tidal mills

The next chronological invention of medieval history is also associated with food production, since an empty stomach stimulates creative thought like nothing else. They became the so-called tidal mills. In 787, the monks of Nendrum Monastery, located on one of the islands of Northern Ireland, came up with the idea of ​​​​using the sea tide to rotate the mill wheel.

They built a fairly large reservoir connected to the sea and filled when its level rose. When it was full, a special gate was closed, and after that the water began to be released onto the mill wheel, causing it to rotate and set the millstones in motion. The volume of the reservoir was calculated in such a way that it ensured the operation of the mill until the next high tide, after which the entire cycle was repeated again.

History of the Hourglass

It is hardly necessary to describe the principle of operation of this simple device, which allows one to accurately indicate a certain time interval. Everyone knows it. The hourglass was invented quite late - only in the 11th century, and became a very important addition to the magnetic compass. At first they were used exclusively for the needs of navigation. This is evidenced by entries in ship logs of that ancient era.

It is unknown what the first examples of hourglasses looked like, since they have not survived to this day, and the earliest images of them are found only in paintings by the Italian artist Ambrosio Larenzetti, dating back to the first half of the 14th century. Nevertheless, there is much evidence that by the middle of the 15th century they became most widespread. Since then, their appearance and design have not undergone any noticeable changes.

From the diaries of Ferdinand Magellan, it is known, in particular, that during his trip around the world, at least 18 hourglasses were used on each of the ships that were part of his squadron. Moreover, the ship's charter provided for a special position for a sailor, who was obliged to turn them over in a timely manner and make appropriate entries in the ship's log. The hourglass became the first instrument in history to measure time, and therefore became one of the most significant scientific discoveries and inventions. In the Middle Ages, they were used not only at sea, but also in manufacturing, worship and even cooking.

The appearance of the first blast furnaces

Science in the Middle Ages gave the world another invention that largely determined the further course of civilization - this was the creation of the first blast furnaces. According to historians, they appeared in Western Europe at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries and for the most part were the brainchild of monks of the Cistercian order, widespread at that time.

It is curious that the Cistercians (in some countries they were called Bernardines) devoted so much time and importance to metallurgy that the smelting technology they developed was included in the monastic charter. There, among other things, there were also drawings of a blast furnace.

Not limiting themselves to theoretical research, the monks launched widespread metal production, building a whole network of enterprises that often exceeded their holy monasteries in area. They also showed remarkable entrepreneurial talent. In those areas where the mining industry was developed, the monks accepted donations not in money (which, however, they also did not refuse), but in ore, from which the metal was smelted, which then entered the markets of all European countries.

Invention of the distillation apparatus (distiller)

Scientists of the Middle Ages owned an invention that found its application throughout the world and earned particular popularity in Russia. It was a device that made it possible to easily and simply transform any alcohol-containing but low-alcohol composition into a product that, although it had various technical names, was, in fact, ordinary moonshine.

There is no need to explain its structure, since it is well known to those interested, but is hardly interesting to others. Let us only note that distillation apparatuses were invented in the East in the 8th-9th centuries, and their creators were Muslim alchemists, that is, people who were absolutely non-drinkers. A paradox, and that’s all. By the way, the creator of the still, Khabir ibn Hayyan (721-815), wrote that the vapors formed from wine heated in his apparatus, although easily flammable, are unlikely to find practical application. How wrong he was!

They also learned to produce relatively pure alcohol in Mongolia at the turn of the 6th and 7th centuries, but a complex and extremely impractical method was used there. An alcohol-containing composition (for example, mash) was frozen, and then ice crystals of water were extracted from it. The result was a liquid that did not freeze due to the high alcohol content. In addition, it is known that alcohol was produced by distillation in Ancient Babylon, but it was used exclusively for making perfume, and the technology for its production was lost over time.

It is generally accepted that their appearance dates back to the 13th century. In terms of its significance, this event is one of the most important scientific discoveries and inventions. In the Middle Ages, people also suffered from visual impairment, like the current generation, and therefore looked for ways to compensate for this natural deficiency. It is unknown who exactly came up with the idea of ​​using lenses inserted into frames, although the earliest treatise on this topic belongs to the English philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon (1214-1292). The scientist accompanied his notes with drawings that give an idea of ​​this simple design. However, in his time it was already used for reading not only by Europeans, but also by residents of the Islamic world. Therefore, there are still discussions among scientists about whether the East borrowed this invention from Europe, or whether it was just the opposite.

This section deals with mechanical watches, since hourglasses were discussed above. It is known that they also appeared during the Middle Ages, but the name of their inventor has sunk into oblivion. It is known that at first these were very large structures, placed on the towers of monastery cathedrals and intended to accurately determine the time when the bell should have been struck and the monks called to prayer. They differed from modern tower clocks in that they had only one hand.

Of the currently operating examples of medieval mechanics, the oldest is the clock installed in Rouen. They were made in 1389 and are only slightly younger than those that decorate the tower of the Cathedral of the Virgin Mary in the English city of Salisbury, the arrow of which froze several centuries ago. The clock designed for the tower of the cathedral in Wales is also considered to be the same age, but it was dismantled long ago and is today exhibited at the London Science Museum.

Birth of the printing press

Despite the fact that the birthplace of book printing is China, they managed to mechanize this process in Europe. And if the names of those who invented watches or glasses are forever hidden from posterity, then the inventor of the printing press - the German Johann Gutenberg - has firmly taken his place in history. It should be noted that a number of researchers give the palm to his compatriot Lawrence Janson Koster, but they cannot provide convincing arguments.

It is generally accepted that the prototype of Gutenberg's printing press, created by him in the mid-1440s, was an olive or grape press, then widespread in the Mediterranean countries. In both cases, a special lever was used to set a heavy wooden screw in motion, with the help of which the necessary pressure was created on the paper. This device, simple in its design, made it possible to produce up to 250 sheets of single-sided printing within an hour. Having existed without major changes for about 350 years, the printing press was one of the most significant inventions and scientific discoveries made in the Middle Ages.

Thinkers of past centuries

Medieval history has preserved for posterity the names of many researchers and thinkers who made significant contributions to all fields of knowledge. These are the English philosopher and natural scientist Roger Bacon, the Austrian mathematician Johann Gmunden, the Italian philosopher Pietro d'Abano and a number of other outstanding scientists of the past.

The article deliberately does not mention discoveries made during the Renaissance, the beginning of which is considered to be the 16th century. It deals exclusively with the achievements of science in the Middle Ages. Their list, which is far from complete, given above, allows us to rightfully assert that even during the period of history called the “Dark Ages,” human thought paved the way to future peaks of technological progress. The foundation for it was the scientific discoveries and inventions made in the Middle Ages.

The inventions of the Middle Ages are an important technical and scientific breakthrough in the development of the human race. It was in the Middle Ages (5th-15th century) that many scientific discoveries took place without which it is impossible to imagine modernity.

Mills

7th – 15th century

The first practical windmills were built in or before the 9th century in the region spanning eastern Iran and western Afghanistan. They are described in a manuscript by Estakhri, a Persian geographer of the period, as having horizontal sails in the shape of the blades of a modern helicopter, directly connected by a vertical shaft to turning millstones. Sometimes the date of the first windmill is given as 644 AD. or earlier, because a 9th-century document states that the man who killed Caliph Omar in a mosque in Medina was a Persian windmill builder. But the first mention of this two centuries after the event makes it unlikely.

Windmills are first mentioned as a medieval invention in Europe in the 12th century. There is a mention of one archive in France in 1180, and a few years later of another in England. Since this is the time of the Crusades, it is likely that the idea was brought from the Middle East.

Powder

Around 1040, a document called the Compendium of Military Technology was released in China. This is the first surviving reference to a medieval invention that describes gunpowder. This black powder is formed by a mixture of saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur. This dangerous compound was developed in small chemical laboratories attached to Taoist temples, where research was carried out mainly on the secret of eternal life.

At this early stage in China, the military use of gunpowder was limited to grenades and bombs launched at the enemy from catapults. Its real destructive power will appear only when the volume where the mixture is located is limited - in the development of artillery and when it is invented.

Compass

At some point before the year 1100, it is discovered that the magnet, if allowed to move freely, will turn so that one end points north. Free movement is difficult to achieve because the natural source of magnetism is a heavy mineral (magnetite or lodestone). But a thin iron needle can become magnetized when it comes into contact with a stone, and such a needle is light enough to attach to a sliver of wood and float on water. It will then move to a position that identifies north - providing invaluable information to sailors in cloudy weather.

There has been much debate about where the compass was first invented. The earliest mention of such a device is in a Chinese manuscript from the late 11th century. Over the next 150 years, such medieval inventions are also found in Arabic and European texts. This is too short a period of time to prove Chinese priority, given the random nature of the surviving references.

The crucial fact is that this instrument is available to make possible the great era of maritime exploration that begins in the 15th century - although no one yet understands why the magnet points north.

Tower clock in China

After six years of work, a Buddhist monk named Su Song completes the construction of a large tower, 9 meters high, which is intended to show the movement of the stars and the hours of the day. The movement is carried out from the water wheel occupying the lower part of the tower. Su Song developed a device that stops the water wheel, except for a short period, once every quarter of an hour, when the weight of the water (accumulated in the vessels on the rim) is sufficient to disable the mechanism. The wheel, moving forward, drives the tower machine to the next fixed point in a continuous cycle.

This device is the concept of a necessary mechanical watch mechanism. In any form of machine-based clock, the power must be precisely adjusted. The true birth of the medieval invention of the mechanical clock mechanism awaits a reliable version developed in Europe in the 13th century.

Meanwhile, Su Song's tower clock, ready for inspection by the emperor in 1094, is destroyed shortly thereafter by marauding barbarians from the north.

Glasses

During the 13th century, it was discovered that a crystal with a curved surface could help older people read. Mounted in a holder, such a lens is simply a small magnifying glass. The scientific philosopher Roger Bacon refers to the use of a lens in a 1268 text. The lens was used as the first and was machined from a piece of quartz.

Soon (probably in Florence during the 1280s) the idea of ​​placing two lenses in a frame that could be placed in front of the eyes developed. This is a natural next step in the look of modern glasses. Spectacles attached centrally to the nose appear quite often in 15th century paintings.

As the demand increases, glass is being replaced by quartz as a lens material. The craft of a lens sharpener remains one of the greatest arts and importance.

Early glasses all use convex lenses to correct long vision (difficulty seeing things that are close). By the 16th century, concave lenses were discovered to compensate for myopia (difficulty seeing distant objects).

Watches in Europe

Europe at the end of the Middle Ages was busy trying to determine time. The main goal is to reflect the astronomical movement of celestial bodies in the more mundane task of measuring time. An astronomy textbook written by an Englishman in 1271 says that watchmakers are trying to make a wheel that will make one full revolution every day, but their work is not perfect.

What prevents them from even starting to improve their work is the lack of a pendulum. But the practical version of this medieval invention dates back only a few years later. The working pendulum was invented around 1275. The process allows the gear to jump one tooth at a time. The speed of their oscillations is controlled by a pendulum.

Artillery

The most significant development in the history of warfare is the use of gunpowder to propel rockets. There has been much debate about where the first experiments are carried out. Unconvincing and sometimes misinterpreted references from early documents appear to give different priority to the Chinese, Indians, Arabs and Turks. Most often it is believed that this is .

It is likely that this issue cannot be resolved. The earliest conclusive evidence of artillery is a drawing of a crude form of cannon in a manuscript dated 1327 (now in Christ Church Library, Oxford). There is a mention of a cannon installed on a ship in 1336. The problem facing early artillery makers was how to build a tube strong enough to withstand the explosion that would fire a rocket from one end (in other words, how to make a gun rather than a bomb). If you're lucky, a round stone (or later a ball of cast iron) will rush from the open end of the pipe as the gunpowder behind it ignites.

The painstaking loading and firing of such weapons limits their effective use either inside a castle protecting an entrance or outside protecting heavy objects against walls. The deciding factor is the size of the rocket, not its speed. A breakthrough in this regard, at the end of the 14th century, is the discovery of how to cast gun barrels from molten iron.

Guns, over the next two centuries, became increasingly larger. There are several impressive surviving examples. Mons Meg, dating from the 15th century and now housed in Edinburgh Castle, could hurl an iron ball with a diameter of 50 centimeters 2 kilometers.

This invention requires 16 oxen and 200 men to guide it into the firing position. A stone weighing up to 250 kilograms can be brought down on large city walls.

The rate of fire is seven stones per day.

That same year, at Castillon in France, medieval inventors demonstrate yet another potential for cannon power—light artillery on the battlefield.

Portable guns

Portable cannons are developed shortly after the first cannons. When first mentioned, in the 1360s, such a cannon resembled a large gun. A leg-length metal tube is attached to the end of a man-length pole.

The gunner must apply a flaming coal or hot stone to the hole in the charged barrel, and then somehow get far enough away from the explosion. There's clearly not much scope for quick aiming here. Most of these weapons were probably used by two warriors and ignited by one of them.

Clarifications follow surprisingly quickly. During the 15th century, the barrel of such weapons lengthened, facilitating more accurate aiming. A device has been developed in the form of a curved metal lever that holds a luminous match and plunges it into the barrel when the trigger is pulled. This becomes the standard musket form until the arrival of the flintlock in the 17th century

Type of typing in Korea

At the beginning of the 13th century, more than 200 years before the invention of Gutenberg's printing in Europe, the Koreans established a foundry for casting bronze. Unlike earlier Chinese experiments with ceramics, bronze is durable enough to be reprinted, dismantled, and retyped.

Using this technology, the Koreans created the world's earliest known book printed from typed text in 1377. Known as Jikji, this is a collection of Buddhist texts compiled as a guide for students. Only the second of two published volumes has survived (currently held by the National Library of France). In the first book printed by typography, not only the date of printing is revealed, but even the names of the priests who helped in compiling the font.

Koreans use Chinese characters at this time, so they have the problem of the unwieldy number of characters. They solve this problem in 1443 by inventing their own national alphabet, known as Hangul. By one of history's strange coincidences, this is precisely the decade in which Gutenberg experiments with the movable printing press, far away in Europe, which has enjoyed the benefit of the alphabet for more than 2,000 years.

The first keyboard musical instrument

A manuscript from 1397 reports that a certain Hermann Poll invented the clavicembal or harpsichord. At the same time, he adapted the keyboard (long familiar in the organ) to play the strings. Whether or not Poll is its actual inventor, the harpsichord quickly became a successful and widespread musical instrument. This medieval invention marks the beginning of a tradition that will eventually make keyboard music a part of everyday life.

But the harpsichord has one limitation. No matter how hard or soft the player hits the key, the note sounds the same. To play softly or loudly, further development was necessary and hence the piano was born.

Before talking about the technical inventions of the Middle Ages, it is necessary to know the chronological framework of this historical period, and only then move on to the achievements.
The Middle Ages is a historical period that lasted from the 5th to the 16th (according to some sources - to the 17th) centuries in Western Europe.

Printing press

One of the most important inventions, if not the most important, was the Gutenberg printing press, with which the first book was printed. The invention dates back to 1450 - before that, all books in the world were handwritten.
It was from this year that the Age of Enlightenment began - it was much easier to create a printed book than a handwritten one, which is why books became available not only to clergy and influential individuals.

Toilet

It seemed that there were toilets in Ancient Rome - yes, but they were public and far from the most hygienic. The first toilet using water was created only in the 16th century - special for the English Queen Elizabeth. It was installed directly in the living room, after which the queen no longer needed chamber pots.

Pencil

In 1565, the world's first pencil was invented in Switzerland. The creator was Kondar Gesner, a naturalist. This event was preceded in 1564 by the discovery of graphite, which was inserted into a wooden rod.

Glasses

The first to make glasses were inventors from Florence. The invention took place in the middle of the 13th century. At first, glasses were created only for those who suffered from farsightedness. Glasses for myopia were created much later - only in the 15th century.

Artillery

The first artillery weapons appeared already at the beginning of the 13th century, but they were far from perfect. And only in the 15th century they began to be widely used for storming cities and fortresses.
It was with the help of artillery that the Turks managed to capture the great city of Constantinople, which before its appearance was invulnerable.

Blast furnace

In the 12th century, the first blast furnaces appeared in countries such as Germany and Sweden. This invention significantly simplified the technology of metal smelting and significantly reduced the time spent on smelting.

Quarantine

During the great plague epidemic, the world's first quarantine was introduced. In 1423, the first infirmary was opened in the city of Venice. Then the quarantine system began to be used in other European cities, which significantly reduced the number of deaths from the plague.

The Baptism of Rus' [Paganism and Christianity. Christening of the Empire. Constantine the Great - Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo in the Bible. Sergius of Radonezh - Gleb Vladimirovich Nosovsky

6. GLASSES WERE INVENTED IN THE 13TH CENTURY. CONSEQUENTLY, ANCIENT IMAGES OF “ANTIQUE” PEOPLE WITH GLASSES DATED NO EARLIER THAN THE 13TH CENTURY AND SHOW US, MOST LIKELY, CHARACTERS OF THE 13th–17th CENTURIES

From the history of technology it is known that glasses were invented in the 13th century. It is believed, however, that “in the first half of the 11th century, the Arab scientist Ibn al-Haytham described a magnifying lens, but the East was unable to draw any practical conclusions from his theoretical developments,” p. 14. In the West, “the great scientist and thinker Roger Bacon was the first to try to make eye lenses in 1267... But early experiments ended in failure. Nevertheless, information about the great discovery instantly spread throughout the Christian world: the increasing power of “crystalline stones” becomes a literary metaphor; on the portal of one church in Spain, SAINT JEROME, WHO LIVED SEVEN CENTURIES BEFORE THE INVENTION, IS DEPICTED WITH SUCH OPTICAL STONES!” , With. 37. Combined with what we already know about chronology, it follows that St. Jerome actually lived no earlier than the 13th century. It’s just that the real history of technology came into open contradiction here with the erroneous Scaligerian version.

“But still, the first real glasses were born at the very end of the 13th century in Northern Italy. It is unknown who owns the honor of making them. It was believed that this was Salvinio degli Armati, buried in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore in Florence; at least that's what it says on his grave. However, recent research has proven that the epitaph is a fake.

Be that as it may, in 1300 the Great Council of the Venetian Republic adopted the first statute regulating the production of “reading stones”. And in 1305, the Dominican Giordano de Rivalto from Pisa already mentioned “eyeglasses for reading.” In general, the 14th century became the time of widespread use of glasses in the form of a monocle and lorgnette (see Fig. 5.41 and Fig. 5.42 - Author). And the EARLIEST physical surviving specimen dates back to the middle of this century, it was found under the choir of the Windhausen monastery in Lower Saxony. At this time, the bow for the nose was invented: in a fresco of 1352 from the monastery of San Nicolo in Trevisio, two cardinals are depicted side by side: Nicholas of Rouen with a monocle, and Hugo of Provence with pince-nez. At that time there were only glasses for far-sighted people, GLASSES FOR MYOPIA APPEARED ONLY A CENTURY LATER. In the fifteenth century, wire bows were also invented to tuck behind the ears. Thus (in the 15th century - Author) the glasses acquired an almost modern look - St. Anna in a painting from 1470 from the Amsterdam Museum", p. 37.

Rice. 5.41 Antique glasses in the form of a lorgnette. Taken from, p. 37.

Rice. 5.42 Antique glasses in the form of a monocle. Taken from, p. 36.

In Fig. 5.43 shows a fragment of an altar allegedly from 1404 in Bad Wildungen with an image of Conrad von Sest wearing glasses. In Fig. 5.44 shows the 1690 lithograph “Seller of Glasses”. In Fig. 5.45 we see in Raphael’s painting Pope Leo X with glasses (supposedly the beginning of the 16th century).

Rice. 5.43 Konrad von Zest with glasses. Fragment of an altar in Bad Wildungen supposedly from 1404. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 2.

Rice. 5.44 “Glasses seller.” Antique lithograph from 1690. Taken from, p. 37.

Rice. 5.45 Pope Leo X with glasses. Painting by Raphael. Allegedly 1513–1519. Taken from, p. 37, ill. 5.

So, glasses were invented no earlier than the 13th century, and came into widespread use only in the 14th century. Glasses for myopia appeared even later - only in the 15th century, see fig. 5.46.

Rice. 5.46 “In the painting “Canon van der Paele’s Madonna” (1436), painted by Jan Van Eyck, there is perhaps the first image in the history of art of glasses with curved lenses for the nearsighted, and glasses for the farsighted appeared a century earlier” Taken from, with . 195.

It follows that those “ancient” characters who are depicted wearing glasses most likely lived no earlier than the 13th century. The above apparently applies to the bespectacled evangelist depicted in Fig. 5.47, as well as to the Apostle Peter reading a book through glasses, see fig. 5.48. And also to the biblical Jacob, depicted in an ancient miniature from the “World Chronicle” by Hartmann Schedel, see fig. 5.49. This conclusion is consistent with the results of the new chronology, according to which these characters actually lived no earlier than the 12th century AD. e. See, for example, our book “Tsar of the Slavs”.

Rice. 5.47 "Evangelist". Illustration from a French Bible purportedly from 1380. The evangelist wears glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 1.

Rice. 5.48 Apostle Peter. Church of St. Jacob in Rothenburg. Allegedly 1466. Peter reads a book with glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 3.

Rice. 5.49 Biblical Jacob with glasses in his hands. From Schedel's "World Chronicle", supposedly 1493. Taken from, sheet LXXXVIII, verso.

From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author

Appendix 1. KINGS-KHANS OF THE RUSSIAN-HORDE GREAT = “MONGOLIAN” EMPIRE OF THE XIII–XVI CENTURIES A.D. AND THEIR REFLECTIONS - THE HABSBURG EMPERORS OF THE XIII–XVI CENTURIES 1. ROMEA-BYZANTIUM OF THE XI–XV CENTURIES AND THE GREAT = “MONGOLIAN” EMPIRE OF THE XIV –XVI CENTURIES ARE THE ORIGINALS OF ALL “ANCIENT KINGDOMS” IN OUR

From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

Appendix 3. HOW THE REAL HISTORY OF THE XIII-XVI CENTURIES WAS REFLECTED IN “ANTIQUE” SOURCES 1. “ROMAN HISTORY” OF TITUS LIBY A brief reconstruction scheme is shown in Fig. P3.1 and Fig. P3.2. Let us recall that “Roman History” by Titus Livy is the most famous primary source on history

From the book The Beginning of Horde Rus'. After Christ. The Trojan War. Founding of Rome. author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

8. Ancient images of human bodies with depictions of muscles date back no earlier than the 16th century. In Fig. 6.78 shows an ancient engraving of “Gladiators” supposedly from the 15th century, made by Antonio Pollaiuolo. As we already noted in KhRON1, chapter 1:6, we were accustomed to the idea that the famous gladiatorial

From the book Book 1. New chronology of Rus' [Russian Chronicles. "Mongol-Tatar" conquest. Battle of Kulikovo. Ivan groznyj. Razin. Pugachev. The defeat of Tobolsk and author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

12.5. Birch bark letters were used in “ancient” Rome. Therefore, they were written, most likely, no earlier than the 14th century. After all that has been said, the fact that birch bark letters were USED IN ALLEGEDLY ANCIENT ROME takes on a completely different meaning. As we now understand,

From the book The Founding of Rome. The beginning of Horde Rus'. After Christ. Trojan War author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

6. Ancient images of human bodies with depictions of muscles date back no earlier than the 16th century. In Fig. 6.64 shows an ancient engraving “Gladiators” supposedly from the 15th century. As noted by A.T. Fomenko in [KhRON1], ch. 1:6, we have been taught to believe that the famous gladiator fights took place

From the book Intellectuals in the Middle Ages by Le Goff Jacques

PART II. XIII century. MATURITY AND ITS PROBLEMS Outlines of the 13th century The 13th century is the age of universities because it is the age of corporations. In every city where there is some kind of craft that unites a significant number of people engaged in it, artisans organize themselves to protect

From the book The Trojan War in the Middle Ages. Analysis of responses to our research [with illustrations] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

27. “Ancient” Second Roman Empire in the 10th–13th centuries AD. e. and in the XIII–XVII centuries AD. 3 In addition to the correspondence described above, the Second Empire and the Holy Empire of the 10th - 13th centuries each contained three major rulers at their very beginning. Actually, both empires being compared begin with them.

author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

3. The works attributed today to the famous artist allegedly of the 15th–16th centuries, Albrecht Dürer, were most likely created a century later - in the 17th century. Dürer’s famous “Arch of Glory of Emperor Maximilian I” In the book “The Mystery of Russian History”, ch. 1:5.3, we have already substantiated

From the book Book 1. Empire [Slavic conquest of the world. Europe. China. Japan. Rus' as a medieval metropolis of the Great Empire] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

4. The oldest surviving globe - supposedly Martin Behaim's globe of 1492 - was most likely made much later. Not earlier than the 16th–17th centuries. We talk about the globe of Martin Behaim (Behaims) in the book “The Exploration of America by Russia-Horde”, ch. 6:7. Let us remind you that he is considered the OLDEST

From the book Book 1. Western myth [“Ancient” Rome and the “German” Habsburgs are reflections of the Russian-Horde history of the 14th–17th centuries. The legacy of the Great Empire in cult author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

Chapter 3 The Tsar-Khans of the Russian-Horde Empire of the XIII-XVI centuries were reflected in Western chronicles as the Habsburg Emperors of the XIII-XVI centuries 1. Vasily I was reflected in Western chronicles as “Rudolph I” a. RUSSIAN-HORDE EMPIRE. VASILY I OF KOSTROMA 1272–1277, reigned for 5 years. Start

author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

6. HELMETS XI–XIII centuries HELMETS XI–XIII cc. Shelom (helmet) is a military headdress with a high bell-shaped crown and a long spire (“top”). In Rus', helmets of domed and spheroconic shapes were common. At the top, helmets often ended with a sleeve, which sometimes

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

9. CHAIN ​​MAIL XII-XIII centuries HAUBERK XII-XIII cc. Since the end of the 12th century, the appearance of chain mail has changed. Chain mail appeared with long sleeves, knee length, with chain mail stockings - “nagavits”. Now chain mail began to be made not from round, but from flat rings. Such rings were made from

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

11. HELMET WITH SEMI-VISOR AND “BARMITSA” MAIL XII–XIII cc. At the end of the 12th–13th centuries, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make defensive armor heavier, helmets appeared in Rus', equipped with a face mask, that is, a visor that protected the warrior’s face from both

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

16. ARMOR XIII–XIV centuries ARMOR XIII–XIV cc. Since the 14th century, in Rus' there have been shells in which different types of armor are mixed. The armor could be scaly on the hem and plate (or ringed) on the chest and back. The sleeves and hem of the chain mail were trimmed long

author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

6. The works attributed today to the famous artist allegedly of the 15th–16th centuries Albrecht Durer were created, most likely, a century later - in the 17th century. In the book [IMP], KhRON4, ch. 13:5, we have already substantiated the hypothesis that the famous artist Albrecht Durer most likely lived not in the 15th–16th

From the book Joan of Arc, Samson and Russian History author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

7. The oldest surviving globe - allegedly the globe of Martin Behaim of 1492 - was most likely made much later, no earlier than the 16th–17th centuries. We talked about the globe of Martin Behaim (Behaims) in [BR], KhRON6, ch. 14:7. Let us remember that it is considered the OLDEST surviving globe.