What could be worse than war, when hundreds of thousands of people die for the interests of politicians and those in power. And all the more terrible are protracted military conflicts, during which people get used to living in conditions where death can overtake them at any moment, and human life has no value. This was precisely the reason, stages, results and biographies of the actors of which deserve careful study.

Causes

Before studying what were the results of the Hundred Years War, one should understand its prerequisites. It all started with the fact that the sons of the French king Philip the Fourth left no male heirs. At the same time, the native grandson of the monarch from the daughter of Isabella, the English king Edward the Third, who ascended the throne of England in 1328 at the age of 16, was alive. However, he could not claim the throne of France under the Salic law. Thus, France reigned in the person of Philip the Sixth, who was the nephew of Philip the Fourth, and Edward the Third in 1331 was forced to swear an oath of vassalage to him for Gascony, a French region considered the personal property of the English monarchs.

Beginning and first stage of the war (1337-1360)

6 years after the events described, Edward the Third decided to still fight for the throne of his grandfather and sent a challenge to Philip the Sixth. Thus began the Hundred Years War, the causes and results of which are of great interest to those who study the history of Europe. After the declaration of war, the British launched an attack on Picardy, in which they were supported by the inhabitants of Flanders and the feudal lords of the southwestern counties of France.

In the first years after the outbreak of the armed conflict, the fighting went on with varying success, until in 1340 there was a naval battle in Sluys. As a result of the British victory, the English Channel came under their control and remained so until the end of the war. Thus, in the summer of 1346, nothing could prevent the troops of Edward the Third from crossing the strait and capturing the city of Caen. From there, the English army followed to Crécy, where on August 26 the famous battle took place, which ended in their triumph, and in 1347 they also captured the city of Calais. In parallel with these events, hostilities were unfolding in Scotland. However, fortune continued to smile on Edward the Third, who defeated the army of this kingdom at the battle of Neville's Cross, and eliminated the threat of war on two fronts.

The plague pandemic and the conclusion of peace in Brétigny

In 1346-1351, the "Black Death" visited Europe. This plague pandemic claimed so many lives that there could be no question of continuing the fighting. The only highlight of this period, sung in ballads, was the Battle of the Thirty, when the English and French knights and squires staged a massive duel, which was watched by several hundred peasants. After the end of the pestilence, England again began military operations, which were mainly led by the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward the Third. In 1356 he defeated and captured the French king John II. Later, in 1360, the Dauphin of France, who was to become King Charles V, signed the so-called Peace of Brétigny on very unfavorable terms.

Thus, the results of the Hundred Years War at its first stage were as follows:

• France was completely demoralized;
• England acquired half of Brittany, Aquitaine, Poitiers, Calais and almost half of the enemy's vassal possessions, i.e. John the Second lost power over a third of the territory of his country;
• Edward the Third undertook, on his own behalf and on behalf of his descendants, no longer to claim the throne of his grandfather;
• the second son of John the Second - Louis of Anjou - was sent to London as a hostage in exchange for the return of his father to France.

Peaceful period from 1360 to 1369

After the cessation of hostilities, the peoples of the countries involved in the conflict received a respite that lasted 9 years. During this time, Louis of Anjou escaped from England, and his father, being a knight true to his word, went into voluntary captivity, where he died. After his death, he ascended the throne of France, who in 1369 unjustly accused the British of violating the peace treaty and resumed hostilities against them.

Second phase

Usually, those who study the course and results of the Hundred Years' War characterize the time interval between 1369 and 1396 as a series of constant battles, in which, in addition to the main participants, the kingdoms of Castile, Portugal and Scotland were also involved. During this period, the following important events took place:

• in 1370 in Castile, with the help of the French, Enrique II came to power, who became their faithful ally;
• two years later the city of Poitiers was liberated;
• in 1372, at the battle of La Rochelle, the Franco-Castilian combined fleet defeated the English squadron;
• 4 years later the Black Prince died;
• in 1377, Edward III died, and the minor Richard II ascended the throne of England;
• from 1392 the king of France showed signs of insanity;
• four years later, a truce was concluded, caused by the extreme exhaustion of the opponents.

Truce (1396-1415)

When the madness of the king became obvious to everyone, internecine strife began in the country, in which the Armagnac party won. The situation was no better in England, which entered into a new war with Scotland, which, moreover, was supposed to pacify the rebellions of Ireland and Wales. In addition, Richard II was overthrown there, and Henry the Fourth, and then his son, reigned on the throne. Thus, until 1415, both countries were unable to continue the war and were in a state of armed truce.

Third stage (1415-1428)

Those who study the course and consequences of the Hundred Years War usually call its most interesting event the emergence of such a historical phenomenon as a female warrior who was able to become the head of an army of feudal knights. We are talking about Joan of Arc, born in 1412, whose personality was greatly influenced by the events that took place in 1415-1428. Historical science considers this period the third stage of the Hundred Years War and highlights the following events as key ones:

• the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, which was won by Henry V;
• the signing of an agreement at Troyes, according to which the distraught king Charles the Sixth declared the king of England his heir;
• the capture of Paris by the British in 1421;
• the death of Henry the Fifth and the declaration of his one-year-old son as king of England and France;
• the defeat of the former Dauphin Charles, whom a significant part of the French considered the rightful king, at the Battle of Cravan;
• the British siege of Orleans, which began in 1428, during which the world first learned the name of Joan of Arc.

End of the war (1428-1453)

The city of Orleans was of great strategic importance. If the British managed to capture it, then the answer to the question “what are the results of the Hundred Years War” would be completely different, and the French could even lose their independence. Fortunately for this country, a girl was sent down to her, calling herself Jeanne the Virgin. She arrived at the Dauphin Charles in March 1429 and announced that the Lord had commanded her to stand at the head of the French army and lift the siege of Orleans. After a series of interrogations and trials, Karl believed her and appointed her commander in chief of his troops. As a result, on May 8, Orleans was saved, on June 18, Jeanne's army defeated the British army at the Battle of Pat, and on June 29, at the insistence of the Virgin of Orleans, the Dauphin's “Bloody Campaign” began in Reims. There he was crowned, but soon after that he stopped listening to the advice of the warrior.

A few years later, Jeanne was captured by the Burgundians, who handed the girl over to the British, who executed her, accusing her of heresy and idolatry. However, the results of the Hundred Years' War were already a foregone conclusion, and even the death of the Virgin of Orleans could not prevent the liberation of France. The last battle in this war was the Battle of Castillon, when the British lost Gascony, which had been theirs for over 250 years.

Results of the Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

As a result of this protracted inter-dynastic armed conflict, England lost all its continental territories in France, retaining only the port of Calais. In addition, in response to the question of what were the results of the Hundred Years War, specialists in the field of military history answer that as a result of it, the methods of warfare changed dramatically, and new types of weapons were created.

Consequences of the Hundred Years' War

The echoes of this armed conflict predetermined relations between England and France for centuries to come. In particular, until 1801, the English, and then the monarchs of Great Britain, bore the title of kings of France, which in no way contributed to the establishment of friendly ties.

Now you know when the Hundred Years War took place, the causes, course, results and motives of the main characters of which have been the subject of study by many historians for almost 6 centuries.

So the two branches of the same family could not agree even in the face of foreign interference. The War of Succession in Brittany (1341-1365) is more than just a family quarrel. It shows the struggle of powerful interests. For France, which supports Charles de Blois, it is about avoiding the restoration of Plantagenet power in Brittany. The Blois party uses for this the Frenchized elements of the duchy: the grandees, the clergy, the Gallo region. For England, Brittany is an excellent springboard for the invasion of France. English assistance is provided to the House of Montfort, supported by the main Breton-speaking elements of the duchy, the petty nobility, representatives of the cities, the western regions of the country ...

Thus, Brittany again becomes, as in the XII century, a pawn in the struggle between France and England. It is important in this regard to recall that this conflict developed against the backdrop of the Hundred Years' War, which began in 1337.

Law

From a legal point of view, this case is very ambiguous: we recall that in 1328, after the death of Charles IV, who left no direct heir, the prelates and barons of France recognized Philip of Valois as king, bypassing Edward III of England, who was the grandson of Philip IV the Handsome. The nobility of the kingdom could not reconcile themselves to the idea that an Englishman would become the king of France, and lawyers tendentiously interpreted one of the points of Salic law, which says that women cannot inherit the throne (“it’s not good to spin lilies!”). And Edward III was the grandson of Philip IV through his mother. Thus, French law excluded women from the process of succession to the throne. The precedent has been set.

But what a passage! - Charles de Blois, who represented the interests of France in Brittany, claimed the ducal crown on the basis of the rights of his wife, that is, through the female line. Thus, the French king, supporting his nephew, questioned his own legitimacy.

History is full of such paradoxes related to the succession to the throne - sometimes, even more delicate and intricate situations did not lead to any serious consequences. But not in this case. All of the above took on a completely different look in the context of the Hundred Years War.

Busy with wars in Scotland, Edward III of England puts aside his claims for a while, however, enraged by the intervention of Philip VI in Guyenne, he declares himself, in October 1337, king of France and sends a challenge to King Philip: “If you value yourself, come on Valois, Do not be afraid. Do not hide, show yourself, show your strength; like your withered lily flower, you will fade and disappear. A hare or a lynx cannot compare with a lion ... ”(Geoffroy le Baker, Poemes).

The Hundred Years War begins.

Two kings, two dukes

Events follow each other very quickly. In 1341, Jean de Montfort, is proclaimed duke in Nantes, captures the main fortresses, and attracts the English to his side (June - July). Convened in Paris in August 1341, the assembly was to decide who would be the official heir to the Duchy of Brittany. Arriving in Paris, Jean de Montfort is easily convinced that there will be no fair (from his point of view) trial. Deciding that he had no reason to trust the king of France, Jean, despite the strict order of Philip VI to remain at court, fled and fortified himself in Nantes.

On September 7, the Peers of France named Charles de Blois Duke of Brittany, and French troops invaded the duchy through the Loire Valley. After a month of fighting, they captured Nantes. Jean de Montfort was escorted to Paris and imprisoned in the tower of the Louvre, where he remained for three years.

The anti-French party is beheaded. It seemed that nothing was preventing Charles de Blois from taking up the duties of the ruler of Brittany. And here, Montfort's wife, Jeanne of Flanders, becomes the leader of her husband's supporters. Immediately, she recognizes Edward III as King of France. Having established her general headquarters outside the fortress walls of the city of Ennebon, she not only held back all the French attacks, but carried out a number of demonstrative raids against Charles de Blois, which aroused the admiration of not only her supporters, but also the Bretons who held the side of Charles, as well as the French themselves. For her fearlessness and loyalty, she received the nickname Flaming Jeanne.

During the whole of 1342, armed formations of many nationalities passed through Brittany; the French called for help the Genoese crossbowmen, the Spanish fleet, led by the Grandee of Castile, Louis of Spain. Supporters of the Montfort clan were known to be supported by the British: on October 30, 1342, King Edward personally arrives in the duchy at the head of a small army, which reinforces the English troops already in Brittany and supporters of his candidate. The Spaniards were quickly withdrawn from the game in Roscasguen (Quemperle), where out of three thousand Spaniards, only one in ten escaped, and the Spanish-Genoese fleet, which unloaded this army, was completely destroyed by the British and Bretons.

At the end of the year, French and English reinforcements arrived from both sides, and in January the war took a new turn when Pope Clement VI secured, on January 19, a truce between the warring parties, signed at Malestroy.

Edward III returned to his foggy island at the end of February 1343. Joan of Flanders, exhausted by the war that had been waged all the previous year, went there with her two children, one of whom would later become the Duke of Brittany, under the name of Jean IV. Philip VI of Valois, taking advantage of the truce, invited his main opponents among the Breton nobles to measure their strength at a tournament in Paris. There they were seized by the royal servants and about fifteen of them (including Olivier de Clisson) were beheaded in public. Clisson's head was sent to Nantes, as a warning to the Bretons who did not want to submit to the king of France.

Jean de Montfort, disguised as a merchant, manages to escape from the Louvre on March 27, 1345. He goes to England to receive reinforcements and lands in Brittany, where he besieges Quimper, however, without success. Returning to Ennebon, on September 26 of the same year, he died of an open wound and was temporarily buried in the abbey of Saint-Croix de Quimperlet, then his remains were transferred to the grave in the chapel of the Dominican monastery located in Bourgneuf de Quimperlet.

Several centuries later, during the French Revolution, the chapel of the monastery was demolished, the tomb was destroyed and Jean de Montfort fell into oblivion until 1883, when a certain man, excavating in the ruined churches, discovered the bones, which he placed in a small chapel. This man was none other than Theodor Ersart de Wilmarcke.

The period from 1347 to 1362 passes, basically, under the sign of mutual misses of applicants. Charles de Blois, taken prisoner by the English (1347), son of Jean de Montfort, too young for political activity, is in England. The only prominent fact of that time is the famous “Battle of the Thirty”, which took place in 1351, between the garrisons of the cities of Joselin and Ploermel.

Joselyn supports Charles de Blois. Ploermel, under the command of the Englishman Richard Bembrug, the part of Jean de Montfort. The country, divided into two camps, is devastated by the constant skirmishes of the warring parties. Outraged by this state of affairs, Beaumanua, captain of Joselina, writes to the leader of the English garrison:

“It’s time to stop torturing the people in this way [...]. May God be the judge between us! Let each of us choose thirty associates to support our cause. Let's see which side the truth will be on ... ".

Then they agree on the place and time of the meeting: an oak tree, halfway between Ploermel and Joselin, on Saturday, March 26, 1351. Beaumanois chooses nine knights and twenty squires. In the opposite camp, everything happens differently. Bembro could not find thirty Englishmen for this case. He is forced to invite six German mercenaries and four Bretons from Montfort's party. To fight, it was decided to dismount, using swords, daggers and axes. At the appointed time, the detachments gather at the agreed place and, on a signal, rush into battle. The fight continues until the fighters are completely exhausted. Wounded during the battle, the leader of the Bretons asks for drink and one of the participants in the battle utters the legendary phrase: “Drink your blood, Beaumanua, your thirst will leave you!”. The Bretons lost only three that day. On the part of the British, the losses amounted, according to Froissart, to a dozen dead, among whom was their captain Richard Bembro, the rest were taken prisoner.

Froissart noted this battle as an example of a knightly feat.

We also note the nine-month siege of Rennes by the British. The city is saved for the French by Bertrand du Guesclin, an outstanding Breton strategist of that era. Otherwise, the conflict takes on a protracted character. Both sides are exhausted by the war, which, among other things, has depleted the finances of the duchy, as well as the patrons of both applicants (for example, the landing of Edward III on the continent, in 1342, cost the English treasury 30,472 pounds).

Meanwhile, the Hundred Years' War is taking an extremely unfavorable turn for France. The defeat in the naval battle of Ecluse (1340) was followed by the disaster of Crécy (1346), and Calais fell after an eleven-month siege (1347). This is followed by a temporary truce, during which a plague rages in the country, destroying everyone indiscriminately, regardless of the camp. In 1356, the war resumes with the battle of Poitiers, where the French again suffer a crushing defeat. The son and heir of Philip VI, John the Good, is captured and sent to London as a prisoner.

The Treaty of Brétigny (1360), which temporarily put an end to the Franco-English conflict, imposes very heavy territorial sacrifices on France: the loss of Poitou, Perigord, Limousin, parts of Picardy and Calais. These regions return to the ownership of the King of England. As for Brittany, the two kings decide to divide the duchy between the claimants.

It was decided to give northern Brittany to Charles de Blois, the three southern dioceses to the young Jean de Montfort. However, the Breton parties concerned (in particular, Jeanne de Penthièvre) do not even want to discuss the division of their country.

Events have been rapidly growing since 1362, that is, from the moment the young Jean de Montfort, the future Jean IV, returned from England to Brittany. Now, the outcome of the War of Succession must be decided in a decisive battle between the pretenders.

September 29, 1364, Jean de Montfort leads the English army, consisting of two thousand soldiers and a thousand archers, to the city of Ouray. The troops of Charles de Blois are in a bad position, however, with him such a wise commander as Bertrand du Guesclin. Despite the advice of du Guesclin, Charles decides to attack, but his four thousand horsemen come under fire from the archers of Montfort. The fight was fierce: according to English sources, about half of Charles de Blois's army was put out of action (1,000 dead and 1,500 wounded). Du Guesclin is captured. The head of the English, with a wave of his hand, giving the order to send the prisoners, says to him: "This is not your day, sir Bernard, next time, you will be more fortunate." Charles de Blois is found dead on the battlefield. Over the body of his cousin, the young Montfort could not contain his excitement, Jean Chando, constable of Guyenne and head of his troops, tried to comfort him: “You cannot have your cousin alive and the dukedom at the same time. Thank God and your friends." In 1383, in order to perpetuate the memory of those who died in the battle of Auray, where representatives of the best families of Brittany fought against each other, a chapel was erected on the battlefield. Charles de Blois, already in our century, will be numbered among the saints.

So, the applicant remains only one and the conflict ends. According to the agreement in Guerande (1365), the representative of the house of Montfort, Jean IV, comes to power.

Jean IV is one of the most curious figures in Breton history. During his life, he had to endure shame, exile, return to his homeland, exile again and, in the end, universal popular adoration. Raised and educated in England, having become the sole ruler of the duchy, he surrounded himself with the British (for example, Thomas Melbourne was the chief treasurer of Brittany between 1365 and 1373, the British occupied a number of prominent posts; in some cities of the duchy there were strong English garrisons), which caused discontent not only supporters of the Blois-Pentevre clan, with whom he officially reconciled after coming to power, but also some of his associates. But what can be expected from a man whose childhood and youth were spent in England, whose guardian was an English king, and whose wife was an English princess?

The situation inside the duchy is heating up again. The Breton nobility, unaccustomed to self-control over a quarter of a century of civil strife, is not satisfied with Montfort's attempts to restore strong ducal power, the heavy tax of 1365, causes disappointment among the people. The situation is aggravated by the fact that, having brought, in 1366, homage to the king of France, Jean de Montfort refuses to support him in 1369, when Charles V decides to recapture from the British the lands lost under the treaty in Brétigny, although this was required by his vassal duty.

Thus, the young duke is left with practically no allies on the Continent; he is again forced to seek help from his allies in England. July 12, 1372 Duke enters into a secret agreement with Edward III. However, it was not secret for long, since already in October, the French took possession of the original contract, however, not yet signed by the duke. The King of France sends copies to the Breton lords. In April, the landing at Saint-Malo of the Earl of Salisbury, at the head of a military contingent, convinces the last doubters of the violation of the vassal duty by Jean IV.

On April 28, 1373, he, abandoned by everyone, leaves Brittany. December 18, 1378, the Parliament of Paris, at the instigation of Charles V, decides to include Brittany in the royal domain.

This was a big mistake of King Charles.

Of course, the Breton nobles could have different attitudes towards Jean de Montfort and his politics, but they were not going to put a Frenchman on their neck (even if his name was Valois) instead of their duke. Everywhere patriotic leagues are formed, which come into contact with Jean IV. Now all of Brittany supports him, even the followers of the Penthièvre family. The widow of Charles de Blois, Jeanne de Penthièvre, was in the forefront of the most noble nobles of the duchy, who receive the duke to Dinard, where he arrives in triumph on August 3, 1379, amid general rejoicing. Moreover, Bertrand du Guesclin, who made a brilliant career at the French court (by that time he had already become the constable of France), did not react in any way to the categorical orders received from the king: he had no desire to start a war in his homeland. The king, who realized his mistake, will not be too strict with him.

However, Charles V is not going to go towards the duchy, but his death, which suddenly followed in September 1380, allows the situation to defuse: the second treaty in Gueranda, signed on January 15, 1381, settled relations between the two states. Breton neutrality is recognized and Jean IV expresses, in all forms, obedience to Charles VI. Now it is difficult to judge how pleased the new French monarch was with this: due to his complete mental insanity, the unfortunate king was under the tutelage of the States General. The diplomacy of Jean IV thus triumphs: English influence ends without being replaced by French. At the moment, Charles VI is nominally recognized as overlord. Until the end of his reign, Jean IV kept his word.

In 1399, the first duke of the Montfort dynasty dies. He rescued and partly restored the duchy, but he leaves his son a heavy legacy of a turbulent age: a long-contested power and a precarious position between France and England. On the whole, however, Brittany emerged strengthened from this long string of "state" marriages and succession disputes. The 15th century will be a reflection of this newfound power.

N.B. It is about Jean IV that the wonderful Breton song An Alarc‘h (The Swan) is spoken of, which in our century has become one of the patriotic hymns of Brittany.

Brittany in the 15th century.

The 15th century is without any doubt the great Breton century, known even more because it was during its course that the duchy dissolved, finally this time, in the French kingdom. In all works devoted to the history of Brittany, special attention is paid to him. The denouement fell on the finale of this period, especially turbulent and difficult.

The Hundred Years War continues. The reinforcement of the English garrison at Calais, in 1400, clearly shows the renewed hostility. Breton diplomacy is on the eve of a particularly delicate situation. The Bretons are divided. Some great lords take a pro-French position, because they are too much associated with France. They know that if Brittany chooses England, they will lose either their Breton or French lands. To these motives are added the worries of domestic politics: the strengthening of the influence of the king of France in Brittany will result in a weakening of the ducal power. Of course, these same arguments are a temptation for the duke to take the side of the British. The Bretons, however, proved in 1272-1273 that, if they were hostile to French domination, they treated the English no better. The only solution, therefore, possible, but very difficult to implement, is cautious neutrality.

The period in which the reign of Jean V (1399-1442) falls is cardinal for Brittany. The personality of this sovereign was given the most controversial assessments, both during his lifetime and after his death. For some, “the mind is mediocre and timid, without high virtues, greedy and driven exclusively by selfish concern for their interests and their peace of mind"(A. Rebillon, Histoire de la Bretagne), for others he is a benevolent person, pious, but cheerful, able to be wide ... Everyone, in any case, recognizes his presence of personal style in foreign policy, which, from this era, determines the totality of ducal politics in general. In Jean V, it is subtle and changeable, rich in unexpected twists.

The period from 1399 to 1419 is characterized by a gradual stagnation of Breton neutrality. From 1403, the Bretons and the English mutually devastate each other's shores. This small war is included in a wider conflict when, in 1404, the Bretons, together with the French, send 300 ships to Devonshire. The English will answer in Gueranda... fighting follows the same rhythm in 1405-1406. Brittany enters the war on the side of the French.

Very quickly, however, Jean V realizes the danger of this policy, and again takes a position of neutrality. From that moment on, he acts as an intermediary between England and France, first in 1416, then in 1418.

It is on this decisive turn of Breton diplomacy that the conspiracy of the incorrigible Penthièvre clan falls. From 1410, the situation inside Brittany was quite calm. But, the tension rises in 1419, due to the instigation of the Dauphin of the Penthièvre family. This is a direct consequence of the duke's transition from pro-French politics to neutrality.

February 13, 1420, the duke is lured into a trap by representatives of the House of Penthièvre, and remains imprisoned in one of their castles until July 5. Jean V's only concern then is to survive. He promises everything: pensions, estates, marriages... Salvation comes thanks to the energy of his wife, Jeanne. Having shown diplomatic foresight, she surrounds herself with the highest nobility of Brittany, appoints the viscount de Roan, viceroy of the duchy. It thus prevents the expansion of the rebellion.

Since the French support the Penthièvre family, this provides her with the help of the British, but she, appealing also to the heir to the French throne, asks him, as overlord, to protect her vassal! Embarrassed, the Dauphin takes a wait-and-see attitude. Jeanne also addresses the commercial partners of Brittany: Rochelles, Bordeaux, Spaniards, Scots ... Thus, she isolates the Penthièvre family, avoiding a new War of Inheritance. On May 8, she begins the siege of the castle in which her husband was imprisoned. Two months later, the liberated duke returns to Nantes.

This incident had two consequences. This is the collapse, on the one hand, of the Penthièvre house. All their possessions are confiscated and divided for the most part among the grandees, thus rewarded for their loyalty to the duke. With regard to France, on the other hand, the realism of the sovereign of Brittany and the defeat of the English at Beaujeux help him overcome his rancor. From 1422, Jean V returns to neutrality. Thus, the case did not have significant consequences, except that it strengthened the duke's distrust of France.

The policy of balance characterizes the last twenty years of his reign ... but then, at the initiative of the British, the Hundred Years War resumes.

In the face of danger, Jean V lays a new twist. The years 1427-1435 are pro-English, but the duke avoids a general quarrel with France. The Breton nobleman Arthur de Richemont is a loyal companion of Joan of Arc, and the duke allows Bretons such as Gilles de Retz, another companion of the Maid of Orleans, to serve in the French army. Another significant factor that pushed the duke to leave the alliance with the British was a powerful public opinion in Brittany itself. Joan of Arc symbolized the idea of ​​French unity...

The end of the reign is the apogee of ducal politics. Jean comes, finally, to absolute neutrality. It is symbolic that it was in the midst of mediation between the French and the British that the Duke died on August 28, 1442.

His merit is not only in maintaining, in general, peace in Brittany. "He left his country peaceful, rich and abundant in every commodity," states Alan Bouchard. At the same time, his position of neutrality laid the foundation for the policy of independence. But it becomes more and more difficult to maintain as the power of royalty is restored in France. Jean V belonged to that category of large feudal lords, the destruction of which "as a class", the kings of France now consider their first task. The Middle Ages, and with it the feudal freemen, are coming to an end ...

From 1442 to 1458, the three dukes share this period.

First, the eldest son of Jean V, Francis I (1442-1450). Very loyal to France, he is encouraged in this policy by the moderation of the claims of Charles VII, who is content with the fief dependence only of the French lands of the duke. As a result, Brittany enters the war on the side of France, July 31, 1449.

The reign of Francis I, who died on July 18, 1450, is interesting in its divergence from the policy of his predecessor, Jean V. The balance is followed exclusively by the playing of the French card, which can, of course, be justified by the political and military conjuncture, which is very favorable for the king of France. However, the policy of the next sovereign of Brittany, his brother Pierre, will return everything to its place.

Frail, timid, prone to bouts of cruelty, Pierre II occupies a prominent place in Breton history. He removes from the ducal court supporters of excessive rapprochement with France, but continues to support the kingdom against England, albeit moderately. He allows the Bretons to fight for the French. It was the Breton fleet, led by Jean Quelennec, that blockaded Bordeaux in 1453 and landed a landing force of 8,000 soldiers who occupied the city.

But at the same time, the duke is trying to assert the independence, or at least the independence of Brittany. He maintains direct relations with foreign rulers and signs commercial agreements with Castile and Portugal in 1451. When Charles VII demands a fief homage from Brittany, Pierre evades ...

The position of the duchy is distinguished, then, by a resurgent prosperity and a clear tendency to defend its independence. The very short reign of Arthur III (Arthur de Richemont, September 1457-December 1458) marks no change in this respect. Remaining constable of France, loyal to the king, this stern old soldier shows, however, the same vigilance as Pierre II when it comes to protecting Breton rights.

The results of this policy, pursued with great constancy (with the exception of Francis I), from 1422 to 1458, are, however, unsatisfactory. Brittany is now much less independent than, for example, Burgundy. She is regarded as part of France by many foreign rulers, and part of her own aristocracy. The coming to power in Brittany of Francis II coincides with the reign of the very energetic Louis XI, King of France from 1461.

The Hundred Years' War is the name of a long military conflict between England and France (1337-1453), caused by England's desire to return Normandy, Maine, Anjou, etc., which belonged to her on the continent, as well as the dynastic claims of English kings to the French throne. England was defeated, on the continent she retained only one possession - the port of Calais, held until 1559.

The Hundred Years' War 1337-1453, the war between England and France. Main causes of the war: the desire of France to oust England from the south-west of the country (the province of Guyenne) and eliminate this last stronghold of English power in the French. ter., and England - to gain a foothold in Guyenne and return the previously lost Normandy, Maine, Anjou and other French. areas. Anglo-French contradictions were complicated by rivalry over Flanders, which was formally under the rule of the French. king, but actually. independent and connected with trade, ties with England (English, wool was the basis of cloth making in Flanders). The pretext for war was the claims of the English king Edward III to the French throne. The Germans, feudal lords and Flanders came out on the side of England. France enlisted the support of Scotland and Rome. dads. English, the army was mostly mercenary, was under the command of the king. It was based on infantry (archers) and mercenary knightly detachments. The basis of the French the army was a feud, a knightly militia (see Knightly army).

The first period of S. century. (1337-1360) was characterized by the struggle of the parties for Flanders and Guyenne. In 1340 the British inflicted the French. the fleet was severely defeated and gained dominance at sea. In Aug. 1346 at the Battle of Crecy, they achieved superiority on land, and in the course of 11 months. The siege took possession of the sea. fortress and port of Calais (1347). After an almost 10-year truce (1347-55), the English army launched a successful offensive to capture the south-west of France (Guienne and Gascony). In the battle of Poitiers (1356), the French. the army was again defeated. The exorbitant taxes and requisitions established by the British, and the devastation that reigned in the country, became the cause of the uprisings of the French. people - the Parisian uprising led by Etienne Marcel 1357-58 and Jacquerie (1358). This forced France to sign in Brétigny (1360) a peace treaty on extremely difficult conditions - the transfer of land south of the Loire to the Pyrenees to England.

The second period of S. century. (136 9-8 0). In an effort to eliminate the conquests of England, King Charles V of France (reigned 1364-80) reorganized the army and streamlined the tax system. Franz. the knightly militia was partially replaced by mercenary infantry. detachments, field artillery and a new fleet were created. Commanders-in-Chief. The talented military leader B. Dgogsk-len was appointed army (constable) and received broad powers. Using the tactics of surprise attacks and par-teese. war, French army at the end of the 70s. gradually pushed back the English troops to the sea. The success of the military actions contributed to the use of French. army of art. Having retained a number of ports on the coast of France (Bordeaux, Bayonne, Brest, Cherbourg, Calais) and part of the French. ter. between Bordeaux and Bayonne, England, in connection with the aggravated situation inside the country (see Wat Tyler's uprising of 1381), concluded a truce with France, in which the Nar. unrest.

The third period of S. century. (141 5-2 4). Taking advantage of the weakening of France, caused by the exacerbation of internal. contradictions (civil war of feuds, groups - Burgundians and Armagnacs, new uprisings of peasants and townspeople), England resumed the war. In 1415, at the battle of Agincourt, the British defeated the French, and with the help of the Duke of Burgundy, who had entered into an alliance with them, captured the North. France, which forced France to sign a humiliating peace treaty in Troyes on May 21, 1420. Under the terms of the treaty, France became part of the united Anglo-French. kingdoms. English, King Henry V was declared the ruler of France as regent, and after the death of the French. King Charles VI received the rights to the French. throne. However, both Charles VI and Henry V died suddenly in 1422. As a result of the intensified struggle for the royal throne (1422-23), France found itself in a tragic situation: dismembered, plundered by the invaders. The population in the territory occupied by the British was crushed by taxes and indemnities. Therefore, for France, the war for the royal throne grew into a national liberation. war.

March 6, 1429 Jeanne arrived at the castle of Chinon to the King of France Charles VII

The fourth period of S. century. (1424-1453). With the introduction of Nar. masses in the war nar-tiz. the struggle (especially in Normandy) acquired a wide scope. Partiz. detachments provided great assistance to the French. armies: they set up ambushes, captured tax collectors and destroyed small detachments of the pr-ka, forcing the British to keep, therefore, garrisons in the rear of the conquered territory. When in Oct. 1428 English, the army and the Burgundians besieged Orleans - the last strong fortress on the territory not occupied by the French, nationally liberated. the fight intensified. It was headed Joan of Arc, under the leadership of which the battle for Orleans was won (May 1429). In 1437 the French troops took Paris, in 1441 they retook Champagne, in 1459 - Maine and Normandy, in 1453 - Guyenne. Oct 19 1453 the English army surrendered at Bordeaux. This meant the end of the war.

Siege of Orleans by the British

Jeanne d'Arc leads the French into battle

S. v. brought great distress to the French. people, caused great damage to the country's economy, but it contributed to the growth of nat. self-awareness. After the expulsion of the British, historical progress ended. process of French unification. In England, S. century. temporarily consolidated the dominance of the feud, the aristocracy and chivalry, which slowed down the process of centralization of the state. S. v. demonstrated the advantage of the English, mercenary troops over the French. fief, a knightly militia, which forced France to create a permanent mercenary army. This army, in the service of the king, had the features of a regular army in organization, military discipline, and training (see Ordonan companies). Political and the material basis of the mercenary army was the union of the royal power and the townspeople, interested in overcoming the feud, fragmentation. The war showed that the heavy knightly cavalry had lost its former importance, the role of the infantry, especially archers, had increased, which successfully fought with the knights. Appeared during the war, firearms. although the weapon was inferior to the bow and crossbow, it was increasingly used in the course of battles. The change in the nature of the war, its transformation into a popular, liberation war, led to the liberation of France from the invaders. (See the insert on page 401 for a map.)

N. I. Basovskaya.

Used materials of the Soviet military encyclopedia in 8 volumes, v. 7.

Read further:

Literature:

Pazin E. A. History of military art. T. 2. M., 1957,

Delbrück G. The history of military art within the framework of political history. Per. with him. T. 3. M., 1938,

Society at war. The experience of England and France during the Hundred years war. Edinburgh, 1973

Se ward D. The Hundred years war. L., 1978;

Brune A.H. The Agmcourt war. A military history of the latter part of the Hundred years war from 1369 to 1453. L., 1956;

Contamine Ph. La guerre de Cent ans. P., 1968.

The Hundred Years' War is a series of military conflicts between England and France that lasted approximately from 1337 to 1453.

Reasons for the start of the war

1337 - The French governor of Flanders arrested merchants from England who traded here. In response, the import of wool from Flanders to England was banned, which could threaten the ruin of the Flemish cities, which lived at the expense of English trade. They rebelled against French rule, and received open support from the British.

Beginning of the Hundred Years War - 1337

1337, November - French flotilla attacked the English coast. After that, King Edward III of England declared war on France. On his mother's side, he was the grandson of King Philip IV the Handsome and claimed the throne of France.

1340, June - The British won the naval battle of Sluys at the mouth of the Scheldt River, thereby securing control of the English Channel. In this battle, the French squadron was reinforced by ships hired from the Genoese, but this did not save it from defeat. The British fleet, in turn, was reinforced by light Flemish ships. The French admirals hoped that in a cramped bay the enemy fleet would not be able to maneuver freely. But King Edward was able to rebuild his fleet downwind and break through the line of French ships. After the victory at Sluys, the British gained dominance at sea.

The English expeditionary force landed in Flanders, but failed to capture the fortress of Tournai, occupied by the French garrison. King Edward III of England signed a truce with King Philip VI of France. It lasted until 1346, when the British landed immediately in Normandy, Guyenne and Flanders.

The first successes were achieved in the south, where the British troops were able to capture almost all the castles. The main forces under the command of Edward were operating in Normandy. They numbered 4,000 cavalry, 10,000 English and Welsh archers, and 6,000 Irish spearmen. Edward moved to Flanders. The king of France came to meet him with 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Despite the fact that the French destroyed the bridges, Edward managed to force the Seine and the Somme, and in August 1346 he went to the village of Cressy, where he decided to give battle to the French pursuing him.

The English troops lined up in battle formation at a height facing the enemy with a gentle slope. The right flank was reliably covered by a steep slope and dense forest, the left - by a large forest, which would take a lot of time to bypass. Edward hastened his knights, and sent the horses to the wagon train, hidden behind the back slope of the hill. The knights stood interspersed with the archers, who lined up in a checkerboard pattern in 5 lines.

On the night of August 26, the French army entered the Abbeville area, about 20 km from the British camp. The French had a significant numerical superiority over the enemy, especially in knightly cavalry, but they were badly organized. The knights did not obey a single command well.

At 3 pm the French approached Cressy. Considering that his warriors were tired after a long march, Philip decided to postpone the attack until the next day. But, seeing the English army, the knights already rushed into battle. Then the king of France sent crossbowmen to help them. But English bows shot farther than crossbows, and archers spent less time on each shot. The crossbowmen did not have the opportunity to use their advantage in shooting accuracy and almost all fled or were killed.

Meanwhile, the French knights managed to line up in battle order. The left wing was commanded by the Count of Alençon, the right wing by the Count of Flanders. During the offensive, the mounted knights trampled on some of their crossbowmen. The French were forced to climb the hillside under a cloud of arrows. Those who managed to get to the enemy line could not withstand the fight with the dismounted English knights. The French were only able to slightly push the right flank of the British, but Edward transferred 20 knights from the center there and quickly restored the situation.

The French lost 11 princes, 1,200 knights and 4,000 ordinary cavalry and squires, as well as a significant number of foot soldiers. Philip's army retreated from the battlefield in disarray.

The British had much smaller losses, but they did not pursue the enemy. The dismounted knights needed a long time to get back on their horses, and during this time the French cavalry was already far away.

Conclusion of a truce from 1347 to 1355 (8 years)

After the victory at Cressy, Edward laid siege to Calais. The fortress fell in 1347 after an 11-month siege. The British occupied the territory between the rivers Laura and Garonne. 1347 - a truce was concluded, which lasted 8 years.

1355 - hostilities resumed. The British troops went on the offensive in the north and south. 1356 - The English, under the leadership of Edward, the "Black Prince", the eldest son of King Edward III, landed in southwestern France and laid siege to the fortress of Ramorantin near Orleans. The English army had 1,800 knights, 2,000 archers and several thousand lancers.

Soon, the King of France, John II the Good, at the head of 3,000 knights and an infantry detachment, unblocked the fortress. Edward retreated to Poitiers. He began negotiations for a truce, and then began to withdraw. The vanguard of the French pursuing the British came under fire from archers, and then was counterattacked by mounted knights.

On the shoulders of the French cavalry, the British broke into the battle formation of the main French forces. John ordered the knights to dismount, hoping to repeat the success of Edward III at Cressy, but the panic-stricken army could no longer resist. Not everyone was able to escape. Many knights, along with the king, were captured. To ransom John from captivity, a special tax had to be introduced.

The setbacks in the war and the growing tax burden caused an uprising in Paris and the cities of Northern France. 1358 - a large peasant uprising broke out, called Jacquerie, but the Dauphin (heir to the throne) Charles managed to suppress it a few months later.

Peace from 1360 to 1369 (9 years)

1360 - peace was concluded in Bretigny, according to which the French ceded Calais and the southwestern coast to the British. Returning to Paris, John began to prepare for the continuation of the struggle. He created a strong fleet, streamlined the recruitment of troops, and repaired the fortress walls. 1369 - the war resumed.

Truce in the Hundred Years' War from 1380 to 1415 (aged 35)

Now the French are on the offensive. They avoided major clashes, but carried out actions on enemy communications and blocked small detachments and garrisons of the British. 1372 - the Castilian (Spanish) fleet allied with France defeated the English fleet at La Rochelle. That made it difficult for the British to transfer reinforcements from the British Isles. By the end of 1374 they held only the cities of Calais, Bordeaux, Brest, Cherbourg and Bayonne in France. 1380 - a truce was concluded, which lasted 35 years.

1415 - A large English army under the command of King Henry V again invaded French territory. She captured the fortress of Gafleur at the mouth of the Seine and advanced to Flanders through Abbeville. But at the Somme, Henry's army was met by well-fortified French troops. The British did not force the river, but went to its upper reaches, where they could easily cross to the right bank.

The French followed a parallel march. On October 25, at Agincourt, they overtook the enemy and blocked his further movement. The French army numbered from 4 to 6,000 knights, crossbowmen and spearmen. The Duke of Brabant hurried with his army to help the main forces of the French. But he arrived with the vanguard only at the very end of the battle and could no longer influence its outcome.

The French settled down on a plowed field between two forests. Their front was about 500 m. Part of the knights dismounted, and the other part formed two cavalry detachments that stood on the flanks of the position. The British army, numbering 9,000 thousand people, had a significant numerical superiority. But the French had more mounted knights - 2–3,000 versus 1,000 from the British.

Henry hastened his knights and placed them interspersed with archers. It rained all night before the start of the battle. The British went on the offensive across a muddy plowed field, along which knights in heavy armor moved with difficulty. Heinrich ordered them to stay where they were. The archers, having approached the enemy at a distance of an effective shot, quickly built a palisade from the stakes they had and began to hit the enemy knights with arrows. The French counterattack was repulsed.

The retreating mounted knights upset the order of battle of their own infantry. Then the dismounted knights of the English arrived in time and, together with the archers, rushed to the attack. With the help of special darsonniers, the French knights were dragged off their horses. Many of them were taken prisoner. The overturned French army retreated in disorder. The English, as usual, did not pursue, because it took a long time for the dismounted knights to reach their horses in the rear.

In the following years, the French suffered a number of defeats. 1419 - the Duke of Burgundy became allies of the British. 1420 - Peace was concluded in Troyes, which gave a good half of France under the control of the British, and the mentally ill King of France, Charles VI the Mad, recognized the English King Henry V as his heir. But the son of Charles the Mad, Dauphin Charles, did not recognize this agreement, and the war continued.

1421 - The French troops, with the help of the allies of the Scots, defeated the British at the Battle of God. 1422 - Charles the Mad died and his son ascended the throne. But in the next two years, the French army suffered new defeats, and the British did not recognize Charles VII as the French king.

1428 - The British and their allies, the Burgundians, occupied the capital of France and laid siege to Orleans on October 8. The stone walls of this fortress with 31 towers were considered impregnable, and the British were going to starve Orleans out. The siege lasted 7 months.

The British blockade line around Orleans stretched for 7 km and consisted of 11 fortifications. In the spring of 1429, an English detachment of 5,000 people remained near Orleans. King Charles VII of France came to the rescue of Orleans with 6,000 army. At the same time, an English detachment with a food convoy was heading towards Orleans. Charles' troops attacked this detachment near the city of Rouvre, but the British took cover behind a well-fortified palisade and well-aimed archery forced the enemy knights to retreat in disarray.

Joan of Arc in the Hundred Years War

Charles VII was about to withdraw to Provence. But here in the struggle near Orleans there was a turning point associated with the name of Joan of Arc, later nicknamed the Maid of Orleans.

18-year-old, the daughter of a peasant from the village of Domremy, in March 1429, dressed in a man's dress, arrived in the city of Chinon, where King Charles was. She told the king that she was sent by God to save him and the people.

Charles allowed Jeanne to form a detachment of volunteers to deblockade Orleans. This detachment was created in the city of Blois.

Jeanne was able to introduce iron discipline among her people. She removed women from the camp, banned robbery and foul language, and made it mandatory for everyone to attend church services. The people saw Jeanne as a new saint. In Blois, she issued a proclamation, where she addressed the British with a formidable warning: "Go away, or I will kick you out of France", "Those who do not get out kindly will be destroyed." These words encouraged the French and inspired them to believe in victory.

1429, April 27 - the campaign for the liberation of France began. At the insistence of the military leaders, Jeanne led her detachment to Orleans on the left bank of the Loire. She herself advocated the movement of the right bank. Then the French would not have had to cross the river, although they would have been forced to pass the heavily fortified castles occupied by the British.

On the morning of the 29th, the French passed the southern English fortifications. But the Loire still had to be crossed. The headwind prevented the French ships from ascending the river. Jeanne predicted that the direction of the wind would soon change. In fact, the wind soon changed to a fair one, and the ships arrived at Chessy, where Jeanne's detachment was. But there were too few of them. Jeanne crossed with only 200 horsemen, and returned the rest of the soldiers to Blois in order to continue to follow the right bank to Orleans.

Upon arrival in Orleans, Jeanne demanded that the British leave French soil. The English commander, in response, promised to burn Jeanne if she fell into his hands. On May 4, part of the Orleans garrison, led by Jeanne, left the city to meet her detachment, which had come from Blois. The French passed the English fortifications without hindrance. The English blockade force was too weak to attack them.

On May 6, the French attacked Augustine's Bastille and captured it after a fierce battle. On May 7, Jeanne led the attack on the last English fortification on the left bank of the Loire. She was wounded by an arrow, but continued to inspire the warriors until the English tower was taken. The next day, the British lifted the siege of Orleans and retreated.

On September 8, Charles allowed his army to storm Paris, but the attack ended in failure. The French retreated to the Loire. In the future, the fighting concentrated at Compiègne, where the Burgundians, allies of the British, operated. 1430 - in one of the skirmishes, the Burgundian detachment captured the Virgin of Orleans.

1431 - Joan was tried in Rouen, found guilty of witchcraft and burned at the stake as a witch. 1456 - as a result of a new trial, she was posthumously rehabilitated, and in 1920 the Catholic Church canonized her as a saint.

The results of the Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

The death of Joan of Arc did not change the unfavorable course of the Hundred Years War for the British. 1435 - the Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of Charles VII, which predetermined the final defeat of the British. The following year, French troops liberated Paris. Normandy came under French control by 1450 and Guyenne, with the exception of Bordeaux, by 1451. In 1453, the Hundred Years War ended with the capitulation of the English garrison of Bordeaux - without the formal signing of any peace treaty, the natural course of things. The British managed to keep only the port of Calais in France. He went to France only in 1558.

England failed to conquer France, and France failed to annex the lands of Flanders. The French kings had much more manpower than the English, and this doomed the English occupation of France to failure. The British simply did not have enough strength to hold the occupied territories. In addition, they did not succeed in attracting any of the major French feudal lords to their side for any length of time.

But the French troops, which consisted mainly of a knightly militia, were inferior in combat training to the English infantry archers. In addition, the French knights did not obey a single command well. All this did not allow the British army to inflict such a defeat that could radically suppress its power. The French could not land on the British Isles because of the English domination of the sea. There is no reliable data on the losses of the parties in the Hundred Years War.

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Introduction

Hundred Years' War 1337-1453 between England and France is the longest military-political conflict in the history of the past. The term "war" in relation to this event, as well as its chronological framework, is rather arbitrary, since military operations have not been constantly conducted for more than a hundred years. The source of the contradictions between England and France was the bizarre interweaving of the historical destinies of these countries, which began with the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The Dukes of Normandy, established on the English throne, came from northern France. They united under their rule England and part of the continent - the northern French region of Normandy. In the 12th century the possessions of the English kings in France increased sharply as a result of the annexation by dynastic marriages of regions in Central and South-Western France. After a long and difficult struggle, the French monarchy at the beginning of the 13th century. regained most of these lands. Together with the traditional possessions of the French kings, they formed the core of modern France.

However, under English rule, the territory in the southwest remained - between the Pyrenees and the Loire Valley. In France she was called Guienne, in England Gascony. "English Gascony" and became one of the main reasons that caused the Hundred Years' War. The preservation of English domination in the south-west made the position of the French Capet unreliable, hindered the real political centralization of the country. For the English monarchy, this area could become a springboard in an attempt to regain the former huge possessions on the continent. In addition, the two largest Western European monarchies competed for political and economic influence in the virtually independent County of Flanders (modern Netherlands).

The Flemish cities, which bought English wool, sent a wealthy merchant from Ghent, James Artevelde, to England and offered Edward III the crown of France. At this time, the Valois dynasty (1328-1589), the younger line of the Capetians (the previous royal dynasty) settled in France.

Another object of sharp contradictions was Scotland, whose independence was threatened by England. In search of political support in Europe, the Scottish kingdom sought an alliance with the main rivals of the English crown - France. As the Anglo-French contradictions aggravated, both monarchies tried to strengthen their positions in the Iberian Peninsula. The Iberian countries were especially interested in them due to the fact that they bordered on the "English Gascony". All this led to the emergence of military-political alliances: Franco-Castilian (1288), Franco-Scottish (1295), between the English crown and the cities of Flanders (1340).

In 1337, the English King Edward III declared war on France, resorting to a legal form natural for that time: he proclaimed himself the legitimate king of France in opposition to Philip VI of Valois, who was elected to the throne by the French feudal lords in 1328, after the death of his cousin, who had no sons, King Charles IV - the last of the older branch of the Capetian dynasty. Meanwhile, Edward III was the son of the elder sister of Charles IV, who was married to the English king.

There are four stages in the history of the war, between which there were periods of relatively long calm.

1. Background of the Hundred Years War

centenary janna war battle

The traditional borders of the Anglo-French war, which has been called since the 19th century. Centennial, are considered 1337-1453. Military operations for such a long time, of course, were not continuous. The accepted chronological framework of the war is, rather, the approximate boundaries of the protracted military-political conflict between the two Western European monarchies. But this conflict was only the final act of a longer historical drama of rivalry between the two royal houses. Its origins, according to most historians, must be sought in the events of the 11th and 12th centuries.

The Kingdom of France began to take shape as a relatively isolated state by the end of the 10th century. There was still no political and territorial unity within it, although the king from the first proper French Capetian dynasty was already at the head. The largest feudal lords - dukes and counts - behaved in relation to the early Capetians quite independently. The concept of the state border was completely absent, and the right of the strong often decided the most serious political issues. It was on it that the audacious and, in fact, adventurous enterprise of Duke William of Normandy was based, who in 1066 landed on the southern English coast, accompanied by a relatively small army, and surprisingly easily defeated the militia of the scattered and more backward Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. William the Conqueror became King of England, naturally retaining the Duchy of Normandy in Northern France under his rule. This event marked the beginning of centuries-long attempts by the Norman dynasty of English kings and their successors to create and maintain under their rule a kind of political entity that extended to the British Isles and the territory of France.

Taking advantage of the political weakness of the early Capetians, the House of Normandy established its power over the counties of Maine and Anjou in the center of the French lands. In 1154, Henry II, the founder of the new Plantagenet dynasty, became king of England. His mother Matilda came from the Norman dynasty, she was the granddaughter of William the Conqueror. Henry II's father was a French count from the Anjou family. In 1152, while still not an English king, Henry married Eleanor of Aquitaine, who brought him huge dowries in southwestern France as a dowry. About half of the French lands were under the rule of the English crown: all of their western part, except for the independent duchy on the Brittany peninsula. It should be noted that the Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine was the divorced wife of the French king from the Capetian house of Louis VII.

During the long reign of Henry II (1154-1189), conflicts between the English and French royal houses arose almost every year. At the beginning of the XIII century. the French king Philip II, who eventually received the honorary title "August" and is considered one of the true creators of a strong independent France, won a significant part of the French possessions from the heir of Henry II, John the Landless. Normandy, Maine, Anjou and Touraine returned to the French crown. But Aquitaine remained under the rule of the English Plantagenets. This duchy was the cause of the ongoing conflict between England and France.

In the XIII century. the enmity between the Capetians and the Plantagenets grew into a clash of state interests between France and England. Allies began to group around rival countries, especially from among those relatively small political entities that were forced to seek protection and patronage against stronger neighbors. Scotland, neighboring England, was increasingly drawn to the French crown, which, not without reason, was afraid of being absorbed by the English kingdom. The rich Flanders cities began to count on an alliance with England. Although the count of Flanders was considered a vassal of the French king, the townspeople of this powerful cloth-making center hoped to maintain de facto independence. In addition, the wool they needed was imported from England.

In the 13th century, the money provided by trade (wine, cloth, etc.) became more and more important. And it became more and more obvious that under these conditions both the struggle for the preservation of the remnants of the Duchy of Aquitaine under English rule and the rivalry in rich Flanders could be resolved only by armed means.

Conflicts followed one after another. In 1215, France took advantage of the dissatisfaction that broke out in England with the policy of John the Landless and sent troops to England under the leadership of the French prince, who had remote rights to the English throne. French troops were expelled not without difficulty in 1217. In 1294-1302. in the South-West, in the area of ​​English rule, a local war broke out between England and France, which did not bring any practical results. In 1295, France concluded an openly anti-English military-political treaty with Scotland. Rival countries began to look for allies in the Iberian Peninsula, where the English monarchy gained support in the small but strategically very important Navarre, and the French achieved an alliance with Castile. In 1323-1325. the Anglo-French military conflict broke out again in the former Aquitaine. Again, local, without the participation of allies, but without results.

The papacy and the German Empire, as well as the rulers of virtually independent counties and duchies in the Netherlands, were involved to some extent in the Anglo-French contradictions. The inevitable big war between France and England was resolutely placed on the agenda. It was clear that without this, the English kings would not give up trying to realize the old dream of the Plantagenets of a kingdom, or even an empire, stretching on both sides of the English Channel. There was no other way for the French monarchy to complete the long and painstaking effort to gather French lands around Paris. Without joining the territory of the former Duchy of Aquitaine, which had been greatly reduced over several centuries (it began to be called the “English Gascony”), the Capetians could not feel like masters in their own kingdom. The existence of English rule there has become an obvious historical anachronism. It was to be either eliminated or used as the basis for the formation and growth of the Anglo-French empire that the Plantagenets dreamed of.

The impetus for the beginning of a serious war, which acquired almost Western European proportions, was the dynastic situation that developed in 1328. The question of succession to the crown is the most important for any monarchy. After the death of the French king Charles IV, the direct line of the Capetian house, which had ruled the country since 987, ceased. The assembly of representatives of the highest French nobility had to decide which of the indirect heirs to recognize as the most worthy of the royal title. Among the applicants, the sixteen-year-old English king Edward III, who was the nephew of the last Capet, declared his rights. His mother, Queen Isabella, daughter of the famous ruler of France, Philip IV the Handsome, was married to the English King Edward II. Referring to the "Salic Truth" - a barbarian judicial code written around 500, members of the assembly of the highest French nobility rejected the claims of Edward III.

In the domestic historiographical tradition, this plot has long been called a "pretext" for the start of the Anglo-French war. N.I. Basovskaya points out that the issue of succession to the crown was the most important in feudal times, and that the rights of Edward III were not at all fictional. According to the researcher, “the option of acquiring the crown of France dynastically promised a seductively easy solution to the long and persistent desire of the Plantagenets to gain a foothold in France. It was one of the many unrealized, alternative, as they say today, options for the development of historical events. It was about creating a united kingdom, which was not such an impossible thing for the Middle Ages.

However, the crown was transferred to the representative of the lateral branch of the Capetians - Philip VI of Valois (1328-1350). Then Edward III decided to achieve his rights with the help of weapons.

2. The course of hostilities

The first period of the war (1337-1 360 gg.)

The first period of the war - the struggle for supremacy at sea, the defeat of France and popular uprisings.

The English in 1339 undertook the first invasion of the continent, where they besieged the fortress of Cambrai in the province of Artois. The fortress could not be taken, and Edward returned to England to prepare the next campaign. Equipping a large fleet and a strong army, the British laid siege to the fortress of Tournai. In June 1340, the French hired ships from the Genoese, mobilized merchant ships, reinforcing their fleet, and moved to the shores of Flanders to attack the English fleet, stationed at the mouth of the river. Scheldts. In the battle, called the Battle of Sluys (Ecluse), the French fleet was completely destroyed and the British gained dominance at sea. But on land, they again failed - the British could not take Tournai. Edward lifted the siege and concluded a truce that lasted until 1346.

In 1341, Jean III, Duke of Brittany died. The throne of Brittany was empty, and the so-called. War of succession (1341-1364), between French and English henchmen.

Meanwhile, the British government, having gathered significant forces, resumes hostilities. In 1346, the British landed in three places - in Flanders (a distraction), Brittany and Guyany. They systematically plundered and ravaged France, in the south they took possession of almost all the castles. In the second half of 1346, King Edward himself landed in Normandy. Having devastated this province, he decided to march to Flanders, which was probably due to the departure of his fleet to Britain. The French destroyed the bridges across the Seine and the Somme, forcing the British to make a detour. However, Edward managed to force these rivers and go north of Abbville, where the famous battle of Crecy (Cressy), brilliantly won by the British, took place. Then Edward laid siege to Calais and took it 11 months later.

After that, a truce was signed, which lasted until 1355. And in 1348-1349. both warring countries were covered by a terrible plague epidemic - the Black Death, which claimed millions of lives - a good half of all people living then. In 1355, the war resumed, the British (the Black Prince's chevosche) ravaged the south of France (Languedoc) and even reached the Mediterranean, destroying everything in their path. In 1356 Edward the Black Prince laid siege to Ramorantin, south of Orleans. The French under the command of King John released the city and forced the enemy to retreat in the direction of Poitiers. Here the British took a strong position and gave the battle that went down in history as the battle of Poitiers. Despite a significant numerical superiority, the French were utterly defeated, and the king himself was captured. After this shameful defeat, a wave of discontent swept through the country, resulting in armed uprisings: the Parisian uprising (1357) and the Jacquerie (1358). Trying to exploit the difficulties of the heir to the crown, the young Dauphin Charles (since 1364 King Charles V), Edward III began another company in France (1359-1360) and reached the very walls of Paris, but could not take Reims to receive there anointing. Exhausted and devastated, France could not continue the war, so a peace was signed at Brétigny on difficult terms. As a result, France lost a considerable part of its lands (see diagram).

Second period of the war (1369-1 380 gg.)

The second period of the war (1369-1380) was marked by the transition of France to the offensive and the liberation of most of the occupied territories. The peace concluded in 1360 was a necessary respite, which allowed the French to somewhat improve the internal political situation in the country and strengthen the army and navy. The system of hiring troops was streamlined, fortresses were erected, artillery was improved, and a strong fleet was created.

Although England and France were officially at peace, skirmishes continued. The parties raided each other's territory, the war for Brittany continued. A typical example: in 1364 (that is, during the period of peace), the knight Matthew Gurnay, captain of Brest (Brittany), was subjected to confiscation of property "for having crossed the sea and engaged in war, while it was forbidden to him" . The royal army was defeated by the soldiers of the Free Companies (rutiers) at Brignes (1362). In 1364, an open war began with the British ally Charles II of Navarre (Charles the Evil), who claimed the duchy of Burgundy (as well as the crown of France - he was the son of Jeanne, the eldest among the grandchildren of Philip the Handsome). Du Guesclin defeated him at Kocherel (May 1364). In 1367-1369. The Hundred Years' War spread to the lands of the Iberian Peninsula - both warring parties fought for influence on the Castilian throne. The French supported Enrique Trastamarsky, and the British supported his half-brother, Pedro the Cruel. The Franco-Castilian army lost the Battle of Navaretta (Naher; 1367). However, later the British stopped helping Pedro the Cruel, and Enrique (with the help of Dugueclin) defeated and killed his rival at Montiel (1369). The new king (Enrique II), in gratitude for the support, sent his fleet to fight against the British.

In 1369 the war resumed in France. Charles V the Wise announced the confiscation of Aquitaine and sent troops into it, freeing several cities. The French now had different ways of waging war: avoiding major military clashes (nevertheless, field battles are also known, at Shiz, for example), the detachments carried out surprise attacks, interrupted enemy communications, made night sorties, and worked closely with the local population who opposed English. In 1372, the allied Castilian fleet under command defeated the English fleet under the command of the Earl of Pembroke, sailing to liberate La Rochelle, and Du Guesclin won the battle of Chise in the same year, freeing Saintonge and Poitou. By the end of 1374, the British had lost almost all of their possessions in France, except for Calais, Cherbourg and a small area with the cities of Bordeaux and Bayonne (see diagram).

In 1375 a truce was concluded, but in 1377 hostilities resumed. An attempt to attack England from the sea failed, but on the continent the French defeated the Anglo-Gascon army at Aime. Since 1380, after the death of Charles V (Dugueclin also died in the same year), during the reign of the young (in the year of his father's death he was only 12 years old) Charles VI, the period of decline of central power begins - the so-called. "The Feudalism of Princes".

The country was slowly recovering from the colossal devastation inflicted by the British interventionists and mercenaries. The French countryside has been sacked, the French cities have been devastated, and the royal treasury is empty. In connection with high taxes, a wave of uprisings swept through the country (1382). In the spring of 1382, the French defeated the Flemings at Rosebeck. To the worsening of the internal political situation of the country, in 1392, Charles VI had the first bouts of mental illness, and the struggle for regency between the Orleans and Burgundy houses (the uncles of the king Philip of Burgundy and Louis of Orleans) began, which eventually escalated into a civil war ("Armagnac strife and Burgundians). In 1396, an Anglo-French truce was concluded for 28 years, which, however, did not resolve more than one controversial issue. In the same year, a crusade against the Turks was undertaken, culminating in the defeat of the western chivalry at the Battle of Nicopolis. This campaign is not part of the Hundred Years' War, but still significant, since a significant part of the crusaders were French knights led by the young Jean of Nevers, the eldest son of the Duke of Burgundy, and almost all of them died.

Third period of the war (1415-1 428 gg.)

The third period of the war - a new invasion of the British in France, the defeat of the French chivalry and the capture by England of a significant territory, which called into question the very existence of France as a nation and an independent state.

The beginning of the 15th century was marked by the complete ruin of France and the disorganization of the state apparatus as a result of the struggle of noble groups for power. The weak royal government was unable to either restore order within the country or organize the defense of the border areas from the British raids that devastated Normandy, Picardy, Poitou and Aquitaine. The population was ruined by constant requisitions, trade and crafts were dying out. In November 1407, the Burgundians killed the Duke of Orleans, and in 1411 an open civil war began between the "Armagnacs" (after the death of Orleans, they were led by his father-in-law Bernard VII, Count d "Armagnac, constable of France) and the" Burgundians "(supporters of Jean the Fearless , Duke of Burgundy.) In 1413, an uprising of cabochens broke out in Paris.

The British decided to take advantage of the chaos that reigned in France, and in 1415 they landed in Normandy with about 10,000 troops under the command of a talented commander, the young king Henry V. palisades and defended with large forces. The British moved to the upper reaches of the river and, having overcome over 100 km, crossed it, after which they headed for Calais. The French army moved parallel to the British and, after a five-day march, outstripped them at Agincourt. Here the French suffered a crushing defeat, many nobles were captured, including Duke Charles of Orleans, son of Louis. But even this tragedy did not force the nobility to agree among themselves, civil strife continued. Queen Isabella of Bavaria and the Burgundians create a government in Troyes (1417), and in 1418 they take possession of Paris, having staged a terrible massacre (see civil war). The remnants of the Armagnacs, led by Dauphin Charles (the future Charles VII), took refuge behind the Loire, in Bourges. Meanwhile, the British capture Normandy (1417-1419). The Burgundians do not provide any assistance to the besieged Caen (1417) and Rouen (1419), and after the murder of Jean the Fearless by supporters of the Dauphin on the bridge of Montero (September 10, 1419), his son Philip concludes an alliance with England. On May 21, 1420, on behalf of Charles VI (relapses of the disease struck him again and again, as a result, he hardly realized what he was doing), a peace treaty was concluded in Troyes, according to which Henry V was declared regent of France and heir to Charles VI after his death. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of the English king to Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. Their children (Henry VI) were to become rulers of both England and France. In accordance with the treaty, the French king disinherited his own son, the Dauphin Charles, who "behaved unworthily" in order to succeed to the throne.

But Henry V died in the prime of life on August 31, 1422, in the midst of preparations for a campaign in southern France. His brother John, Duke of Bedford, becomes regent for his infant nephew, ten-month-old Henry. In October of the same year, abandoned by everyone, the poor madman Charles VI, whose reign was a model of misfortune, dies. At the funeral procession in Saint-Denis, the herald announced: "May the Lord grant a long life to Henry, by God's grace, the king of England and France, our sovereign." But the inheritance of Henry VI, both mental and territorial, brought him eventually to a fatal end.

Dauphin, during the life of Henry V, won a victory at God (1421), but then suffered defeat after defeat: Mont-en-Vimeux (1421), Cravan (1423), Verneuil (1424). By 1425, the British gradually capture Maine, but due to the intensification of the partisan movement in the captured provinces, which fetters quite significant forces, the pace of advance slows down. To completely subdue France, the English had only to cross the Loire, occupy the western provinces, and link up with that part of their forces that was in Guiheny. This was precisely the strategic plan of Bedford, which he began to implement in the autumn of 1428. On October 12, a four thousandth English army laid siege to Orleans. The British command attached exceptional importance to the capture of this large, well-fortified city. Located on the right bank of the Loire, in the center of its gentle bend towards Paris, Orléans occupied a key strategic position, controlling the roads that linked northern France with Poitou and Guienne. In the event of its capture, the British got the opportunity to launch a full-scale offensive, since the French did not have fortresses south of Orleans that could stop the enemy’s onslaught (see diagram).

By February 1429, Dauphin Karl had hardly gathered forces to unblock the city, but, trying to destroy the convoy with reinforcements going to the British from Paris, the French suffered another defeat at Rouvre ("battle of the Herrings"). The situation was getting out of control - the remnants of the troops were completely demoralized, Charles had no troops, no money to hire them, no desire to fight further (the Dauphin was thinking about fleeing to Provence), Orleans was actually left to himself, and the British closed the ring siege. It was the darkest period in the history of France.

Fourth period of the war (1429-1 453 gg.)

The fourth period of the war is the victory of France in the war and the expulsion of the British. So, by March 1429, France's position seemed hopeless. But in this gloomy time, the cause of liberation is taken into their own hands by the people. In April, a girl appeared to the Dauphin, declaring that she was sent by God to save France, lift the siege of Orleans and crown the Dauphin as king in Reims. Jeanne Dark, a 17-year-old peasant woman from the village of Domremy near Lorraine, makes a deep impression on the king and people. There is an unprecedented patriotic upsurge, and, despite the intrigues of traitors, after many delays, Jeanne is appointed commander in chief, and troops gather in Blois. In addition to mercenaries, a large number of volunteers signed up for the army, and on April 27 the detachment moved to Orleans. On May 8, 1429, after 5 (!) days of hostilities, the siege of Orleans, which lasted 7 months, was lifted. For this epic feat, Jeanne was nicknamed the "Maid of Orleans". But due to the slowness of the king, the fighting continued only after a month. On June 10, a company unprecedented in speed and results began in the Loire Valley.

On June 14, Jarjot was taken, on June 17, Beaugency, on June 18, at the Battle of Patay, the British were defeated in a field battle, and Sir John Talbot himself, a thunderstorm of the French, was captured. “The impression of this eight-day company was unimaginable,” a contemporary wrote, “the people and soldiers knew only Jeanne. The great child not only changed happiness, she changed souls. On July 17, after the so-called "Bloody March", when the cities surrendered without a fight on the way to Reims, as soon as Jeanne appeared, the Dauphin was crowned under the name of Charles VII. After that, Jeanne proposed to go without delay to Paris, where at that time there were almost no Englishmen, and to take it before the enemy had time to draw troops. The king, instigated by advisers, became more and more afraid of Jeanne's huge influence on the army and people, and gradually ceased to support her. The king gave permission to storm Paris only on September 8, when the British and Burgundians pulled in reinforcements and came to their senses a little. At the same time, out of envy of the glory of the Virgin, some military leaders took all measures to ensure that “misfortune happened to Jeanne”, preventing the assault from being completed. Instead of sending reinforcements, which Jeanne constantly asked for, the king ordered the troops to be withdrawn to the Loire. Paris then failed to take. Despite her numerous requests, the king was afraid to let Jeanne go home. Charles ordered Jeanne not to leave his court, and as a consolation he raised her and all her relatives to the noble dignity.

Finally, unable to bear the inaction, in the spring of 1430 Jeanne secretly left the court, coming to the aid of the besieged Compiègne. She successfully fought there, but one day, after a sortie, under rather strange circumstances, she was taken prisoner. It is likely that she was simply given to the enemy. Karl disowned her, he distributed letters saying that the misfortune that happened to the Virgin happened solely through her own fault, because "she did not follow anyone's advice, but always acted in her own way." Jeanne was accused of pride: "She did not do what the Lord sent her to do, but showed her own will." April 30, 1431 in Rouen, the Virgin of Orleans was burned on charges of witchcraft. Already in 1456 the sentence was cancelled. After 500 years, the church officially recognized Joan of Arc as a saint.

Despite all this, France did not lose the initiative, and gradually began to oust the British. In 1432, Brittany again entered into an alliance with France, and in 1435 a peace treaty was signed with Burgundy in Arras. In 1436 Constable Arthur de Richemont occupied Paris. The talented merchant Jacques Coeur was appointed Minister of Finance, and undertook the reform of the financial and tax system, the revenues of the treasury increased dramatically. In 1444, a truce was signed with England, which lasted until 1449. A permanent mercenary army (ordinance companies) was created, firearms and artillery were significantly developed under the leadership of the Bureau brothers.

At the end of July 1449, after the capture of the fortress of Fougères (Brittany) by the detachment of Francois de Surienne (March 24) and the breaking of the truce of Tours, the war continued. From three sides, the French army invaded Normandy. In the east, from the side of Beauvais, the Counts d "O and Saint-Paul crossed the Seine, took Pont-Audemer, Pont-l" Eveque and Lisieux and proceeded to methodically liberate the Bre region. In the south, Dunois entered Verneuil, then linked up with the king at Louviers, captured Mantes and Vernon, and continued his advance as far as Argentan. And in the west, the army of the Duke of Brittany Francis I and his brother, the constable de Richemont, took Coutances, Saint-Lo, Carentan and Fougeres. Rouen capitulated in the fall, followed by Harfleur, Bellem, Honfleur and Fresnay-le-Vicomte. The English government reacted belatedly, and then it managed to hastily raise only a small army under the command of Thomas Chiriel, which landed in March 1450 at Cherbourg. But this expeditionary force was utterly defeated by the forces of the Count of Clermont and de Richemont near Bayeux, near the village of Formigny. The last stage of the campaign was marked by the fall of Caen, where most of the British fled, who were besieged by four armies: Kings Charles VII and Rene of Sicily, Duke of Alencon and Chancellor Jean Juvenel, Constable and Count of Clermont, Dunois and Sir d'Orval. The last strongholds of the British are Falaise , Donfront and Cherbourg - fell like overripe fruits. Jean Chartier, without hiding his admiration, wrote: “And the whole Duchy of Normandy was conquered, all burghs, cities and castles submitted to the king in just a year and six days, and this great miracle is worthy of surprise ".

Then began the liberation of Gascony. On June 30, 1451, Bordeaux fell, and in fact the Hundred Years' War ended. But in the fall of 1452, the British made an attempt to regain the southwest. Their troops, under the command of 80-year-old John Talbot, captured Bordeaux and some other cities and fortresses in Guyany. In the spring of 1453, Charles VII personally led the French army to liberate Gascony, and at Castillon his army won a complete victory. On October 19, 1453, Bordeaux surrendered. The Hundred Years War, which lasted 116 years, is over. Only Calais remained in the hands of the British (see diagram).

3. Joan of Arc

In the time of Joan of Arc, it was widely believed that France was destroyed by a woman, and an innocent girl would save. The destroyer meant Queen Isabella of Bavaria, the wife of the mentally ill King Charles VI, who in 1420 signed a treaty tragic for the French kingdom in Troyes about the actual transfer of the crown of France to the English ruling house.It was believed that Isabella pushed her husband, who understood little in real life, to this hated agreement.

Jeanne was born in 1412 in the town of Domremy on the border of France and Lorraine. Under the influence of military disasters that did not bypass her native places, and deep love for her homeland, the conviction matured in her that it was she who should save France, becoming the head of the army that would drive out the British. Being an impressionable and deeply religious girl, she assured that she heard the voices of the saints, who urged her to a military feat and promised her their help. Having learned about the siege of Orleans, she went to the nearest town of Vaucouleurs and convinced the commandant of the castle in her liberation mission. Having received weapons and a war horse, in men's clothing and accompanied by a military detachment, she went through the regions occupied by the Burgundians and the British to Chinon, to the Dauphin. News of her quickly spread throughout France, giving rise to faith in the miraculous role of the Virgin, as the people began to call her. Being in distress, the king placed Jeanne at the head of the army, surrounded by experienced military leaders. Her natural intelligence and observation, receptivity in comprehending the simple military tactics of that time helped her not only behave with dignity in unusual conditions, but also make the right decisions. Her resourcefulness was reinforced by exceptional personal courage, thanks to which she was ahead of everyone in the most dangerous places, captivating others with her example. Jeanne's deep awareness of the task of liberating her beloved homeland as the main goal of her life, her attitude towards soldiers as compatriots who had the same goal, regardless of their social status - all this gave rise to extraordinary enthusiasm in the French army.

At the end of April 1428, Jeanne arrived with an army in Orleans. Within four days, the English fortifications under the city were taken one by one by the French, and on May 8, the British lifted the siege from the fortress. The liberation of Orleans was of exceptional importance not only due to the strategic role of the fortress city. This was the first great French victory after many years of national humiliation and ignominious defeats. She strengthened the faith of Charles VII in the legitimacy of his right to the throne, which he was deprived of under the peace treaty in Troyes. The combination of his struggle for the throne with the war for the liberation and independence of France strengthened the position of Charles VII. Under pressure from Jeanne, he made a trip to Reims, where the French monarchs were crowned. The solemn coronation of Charles VII turned him into the only legitimate sovereign of France in the eyes of the people and governments of other European countries. The ensuing liberation of Champagne dramatically improved the position of the king. However, Jeanne's attempt to storm Paris ended in failure. At the same time, after Joan's impressive early successes, serious concerns arose in the king's inner circle in connection with her growing fame and influence.

In May 1430, in a skirmish near Compiegne, besieged by the Burgundians, she was captured. The Duke of Burgundy sold his captive to the British for 10,000 gold pieces. At the end of 1430, Jeanne was transferred to Rouen - the center of English rule - and handed over to the Inquisition. In an attempt to belittle the significance of the French military victories, the British wanted to prove that they were the work of the devil. The ecclesiastical court, headed by Bishop Cochin, defending the interests of the British, accused Jeanne of witchcraft. The minutes of the process preserved evidence of Jeanne's steadfast behavior and her reasonable answers to the questions of the court, who wanted to confuse and destroy her. The tribunal found her guilty of heresy. In May 1431, she was burned in the central square of Rouen. At the site of the burning, a monument has now been erected and a church has been erected.

Charles VII, who owed so much to Jeanne, did not help her. The death of Jeanne ultimately resolved the difficulties that arose for the king and his entourage in connection with the unusual popularity of the folk heroine. Only a quarter of a century later, Charles VII ordered a review of the trial. Jeanne was found not guilty of heresy, and later even declared a saint.

Conclusion

Hundred Years' War 1337-1453 became the largest war on a European scale, involving through the system of allied ties such political forces and countries as the Empire, Flanders, Aragon and Portugal - on the side of England; Castile, Scotland and the papacy are on the side of France. In this war, closely related to the internal development of the participating countries, the issue of territorial delimitation of a number of states and political entities - France and England, England and Scotland, France and Flanders, Castile and Aragon was decided. For England, it grew into the problem of the formation of a universal state, which included different peoples; for France - in the problem of its existence as an independent state. The victory of France meant the elimination of England's claims to the French crown and land on the continent. The end of the war in 1453 created favorable conditions for the further development of the process of centralization. At the same time, the French monarchy, in an extreme situation and partly thanks to it, managed to solve important tasks for its own strengthening - to create a standing army and permanent taxes. Joan of Arc played a huge role in France's victory in the Hundred Years' War. The feat of Joan of Arc strengthened the patriotic and national feelings of the French and contributed to a turning point in the war of liberation. It embodies the best qualities of the French people. France emerged from the war extremely devastated, many areas were devastated and plundered. Nevertheless, the victory objectively helped complete the unification of the French lands and develop the country along the path of political centralization. For England, the war also had serious consequences - the English crown abandoned its attempts to create an empire in the British Isles and the continent, national consciousness grew in the country. All this paved the way for the formation of nation-states in both countries.

List of used literature

1. Basovskaya N.I. Hundred Years' War 1337-1453 - M., 1985.

2. Guizot F. History of civilization in France. - M., 1980.

3. History of the Middle Ages / Ed. S.P. Karpov. - M., 1998.

4. Guizot F. History of civilization in France. - M, 1980.

5. Basovskaya N.I. Hundred Years War 1337-1453. - M., 1985.

6. Levandovsky A.P. Jeanne d "Arc. - M., 1982.

7. History of the Middle Ages / Ed. S.P. Karpov. - M., 1998.

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