However, in general, victory in World War I strengthened French imperialism and brought it to the forefront in Western Europe. After Germany's defeat, France emerged as the strongest military power on the European continent.

Thus, under the influence of the First World War, major structural changes occurred in the French economy. The government, actively using the mechanism of state regulation of the economy and taking steps to restore industry and ease social tensions, paid special attention to heavy industry and bringing the country out of the crisis.

The economic development of France in the period between the two world wars was extremely uneven. Periods of revival, recovery and stabilization of the economy were followed by economic shocks that sharply worsened the economic and socio-political situation in the country. Under these conditions, the economic policy of the ruling circles was aimed at increasing state intervention in the French national economy. State regulation helped the French bourgeoisie find ways out of difficult socio-economic situations and avoid disaster through the reform and modernization of capitalism.

After the end of World War II, France faced a number of economic and political problems. In order to overcome the current situation, partial nationalization was carried out in the country, and the influx of investment into national industry increased. By the end of the 40s. The country's economy was restored. France joined the Marshall Plan, which to a certain extent limited its sovereignty, but allowed it to modernize its production potential.

The development of the French economy was influenced by the scientific and technological revolution. The tendencies of state-monopoly capitalism intensified, and industrial capital began to play a decisive role. The structure of the economy has changed, its main sectors have been modernized. France's active participation in economic integration has significantly intensified foreign trade relations. The volume of foreign trade was 4 times higher than the pre-war level. By 1965, France eliminated its debt to the United States and again became a creditor country, occupying third (after the United States and England) position in the world's capital exports.

In the 70s France's economic position in the world, judging by basic statistical indicators, share in world production and trade, remained relatively stable and did not undergo radical changes. The country has firmly entered the top five largest capitalist states and, economically, has taken the position of the second Western European power after Germany.

In the early 80s. In a number of developed capitalist countries, the economic situation worsened, which could not but affect the position of the French economy. The rise of the dollar in 1981-1982. led to an increase in France's trade deficit, which amounted to 65 billion francs in 1981, and more than 92 billion in 1981. The country's balance of payments sharply deteriorated, and the position of the franc was shaken. The crisis caused an increase in unemployment and prices for consumer goods, and many social problems worsened.

In October 1981, the government of P. Maurois was forced to devalue the franc by 3%, in June 1982 - by another 10% in relation to the West German mark and by 5.75% in relation to most other currencies of the European Monetary System.

Restructuring the industrial structure of France in the early 80s. relied not only on the nationalized sector, but also on the creation of a significant number of relatively small private enterprises using the latest technologies. Their financing and the associated risk had to be assumed by nationalized banks.

The last part of the liberal reforms is the deregulation of various areas of economic activity. Since the beginning of 1987, all industrial and service enterprises have received the right to independently set prices for their products, focusing on market conditions.

In just a short period of time, the new government prepared approximately 30 bills that had a positive impact on the state of the French economy in the second half of the 80s. In 1986-1989 The country experienced economic growth. The annual increase in gross domestic product averaged about 3%, industrial production - 4%.

However, by the beginning of the 90s, growth factors had exhausted themselves. The first signs of a slowdown in growth appeared already in the spring of 1990. Due to a sharp decrease in the investment demand of enterprises, a slowdown in the growth of personal consumption of the population and exports of products to European countries, the crisis intensified even more in the spring of 1992. In the fall of 1992, the country's economic situation deteriorated again due to a decline in world prices for some of its export goods.

Only from the end of 1993 did the economic situation begin to improve. The government launched a program to revive the economy, which included, in particular, the expansion of public works, housing construction, measures to stimulate production growth and prevent an increase in unemployment.

As a result, in 1995 the growth rate of gross domestic product, capital investment, and personal consumption increased. The number of jobs increased, inflation decreased to 1.8% per year.

France's participation in the European Economic Community had a huge impact on France's economic development.

In preparing this work, materials from the site http://www.studentu.ru were used

The government of the republic carried out a number of important measures in domestic policy, for example, in 1881-1882 laws on education were adopted. According to them, the school was separated from the church. Secular education was provided, and compulsory free education for children up to 13 years of age was introduced. In schools, education was conducted on the basis of special state programs.

Teacher training was established in higher pedagogical educational institutions. The compulsory education program for boys included compulsory gymnastics. This was aimed at preparing teenagers physically mature for future military service. Lyceums for girls were opened. Special higher educational institutions began to train women teachers. In 1884, laws were passed allowing trade unions to operate freely and strike. Workers created their own trade unions and labor exchanges, which defended the interests of the unemployed.
Municipal councils were given the right to elect their own mayors. Previously, they were appointed by the central government.

Political situation

The republic increasingly strengthened its position in the country. In 1876, the Republicans won the Senate elections. President MacMahon, a supporter of the monarchy who had led the state until this time, was forced to resign. The uniqueness of internal political life during this period was the formation of a multi-party system. Among the parties, the parties of radicals, socialists and republicans had great authority.

In addition, the reaction against democracy intensified in French political life. In particular, the ideas of nationalism and chauvinism began to spread widely in the country. Supporters of these ideas believed that only a strong army could return Alsace and Lorraine. In the internal political life of France, the activity of anarchists and monarchists intensified. Their goal was to overthrow the existing system, and to achieve this goal, the anarchists used terror as a method of struggle. In particular, they threw a bomb at the parliament building, as a result of which 80 people were injured.

In 1894, the country's president, Sadi Carnot, was assassinated. French counterintelligence discovered that secret information about the country's military forces was being transmitted to Germany through a spy. The intelligence services began to suspect Captain A. Dreyfus, a Jewish nationality serving on the General Staff of the French Army. He was soon accused of espionage and prosecuted. In fact, A. Dreyfus was not a spy, but with the help of falsified documents and false witnesses, the accusation was fabricated. A military court sentenced him to life exile. Political reaction took advantage of the Dreyfus Affair to strengthen the anti-democratic trend in the country and to fan nationalist and chauvinistic sentiments.

There were people in the country who believed in the innocence of A. Dreyfus. They continued their search to uncover the real spy. And finally, the real spy was exposed. It was Major Esterhazy of the General Staff.

However, the General Staff and the forces associated with it considered it a great shame for themselves to make this information public. But they failed to hide it. In 1897 the press wrote about this.

All democratic forces in France demanded a review of the A. Dreyfus case. Forces that did not want publicity organized the murder of a false witness. Esterhazy managed to escape from France. The struggle over the Dreyfus Affair continued for a long time. The ruling circles were forced to release A. Dreyfus. But he was released not because of his innocence, but because of “deteriorating health.” Only in 1906 A. Dreyfus was completely acquitted.

Changes in economic life

By the beginning of the 20th century, relative political stability had established in the country. This was achieved thanks to economic growth that began in the mid-90s of the 19th century. In particular, in iron ore production in 1913, France left behind the USA and Germany.

In industry, new industries began to develop rapidly (electrical engineering, automotive and chemical engineering), as a result of which the number of the population employed in industry amounted to 36%. 40% of the population was employed in agriculture. In France's exports, wool occupied first place, cotton fabric second, silk fabric third, and wine fourth. In terms of the export of capital abroad, France came in second place after England. By 1914, it allocated capital to Russia in the amount of 13 billion francs, England and the USA - 5 billion, and the states of South America - 6 billion francs. These investments not only brought very large profits in percentage terms, but thanks to them France acquired political allies.

Social movement

The situation was very difficult for the French workers. They were forced to work 10-12 hours a day, and sometimes 14-16. Workers began to fight for their rights. It was very important to organize the workers' movement. In 1880, representatives of workers' organizations created the Workers' Party of France. Workers began to create trade unions and labor exchanges. They took care of the unemployed and strikers. According to the Labor Code, compensation began to be paid for injuries sustained at work. One day off per week was established.

In 1910, a pension law was adopted, which established the retirement age at 65 years (in Germany and England this figure is 70 years). There were two main trends in the social movement. One of them is the restructuring of society by parliamentary means (through reforms), the second is restructuring by force (armed uprising). The second way lost its significance over time.

Anarchism (Greek anarchia - anarchy, lack of authority) is a movement that recognizes only the desire and will of an individual, as a leader, and denies any power and political system.
Chauvinism (French chauvinisme) is extreme nationalism aimed at inciting national enmity and hatred. Political reaction is a political force that resists progress and supports the preservation of old social orders.

TO early 20th century France still remained one of the most powerful powers in the world in terms of economic potential. The modernization of French industry took place intensively, including the formation of new industries - aluminum, chemicals, non-ferrous metals. France was then ranked second in the world in terms of heavy industry output, and first in automobile production. Metallurgical production developed extremely rapidly during these years. Increasing industrial use of electrical energy began. France remained Europe's leader in the use of water energy. Freight and passenger transportation by rail has increased, and the total length of railways in the country has increased. Their length at the beginning of the century was already more than 50 thousand km (the Fraction occupied fourth place in the world after the USA, Russia and Germany). The French merchant fleet consisted of almost one and a half thousand ships with a total tonnage of 2 million tons (fifth place in the world). The World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 demonstrated the high level of French scientific and technical thought.

At the same time, the growth of alarming trends in the development of French economy . For the period 1870-1913. French production as a whole tripled, but in the same years world production increased fivefold. According to this total indicator, France moved from second to fourth place, behind the rapidly accelerating rates of industrial growth in the United States and Germany. France's lag was not fatal. Moreover, the French economy, which did not experience such a rapid rise at the turn of the century, turned out to be less vulnerable to the cyclical crises of overproduction that acquired a global, universal character during this period. The crisis of 1900 affected mainly the development of the metallurgical industry, which had experienced a boom in previous years. By 1905, the level of production was not only restored, but also increased significantly. Moreover, it was almost entirely provided by domestic demand. Having survived the crisis of 1907 with relative ease, the French economy entered a period of further sustainable growth on the eve of the First World War. So, steel production in 1909-1913. increased by 54%. In these years, France took third place in the world in iron ore mining, and first in bauxite development. However, these successes still prevented France from achieving the same growth rates as its main competitors on the world stage.

The main reason for the relative slowdown in the rate of economic development in France was the structural specificity of the French economy. A significant place in the sectoral structure of French industry was occupied by the production of consumer goods. Jewelry, perfumes, shoes, furniture, textiles remained the most preferred types of exports. Only on the eve of the First World War, having embarked on the path of militarization of the economy, France achieved significant success in increasing production of mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, and the construction industry. But at the same time, more than 80% of machine tools were still imported from abroad.

The process of concentration of industrial production in France led to the formation at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. powerful monopolistic associations - the metallurgical syndicate "Comité des Forges", the sugar and kerosene cartels, the military concern "Schneider Creuzot", the automobile trusts "Renault" and "Peugeot", the chemical concern "Saint-Gobain". Nevertheless, small industry as a whole prevailed - in 1900, 94% of all enterprises had from 1 to 10 employees. The non-capitalist sector also remained significant. According to the 1906 census, out of 2.3 million enterprises, only 76.9 thousand were capitalist, of which only 9 thousand were industrial enterprises, while the rest were manufactories.

Despite the general increase in industrial production, at the beginning of the 20th century in agriculture in France more than 40% of the population was employed. The agricultural sector was experiencing a protracted crisis that began in the 80s of the 19th century. The parceled nature of peasant land ownership prevented the formation of economically efficient, profitable farms. In 1908, 38% of peasant families owned land plots of less than 1 hectare. Small farms did not allow peasants to concentrate investment funds sufficient for the technical modernization of production. The cost of production turned out to be too high (for example, French wheat cost 20 times more than American wheat). The low profitability of agricultural production has caused a reduction in the area of ​​vineyards and grain crops. The growth of livestock farming, fruit and vegetable production could not compensate for the overall losses in the agricultural sector.

The more contradictions in the development of the real sector of the French economy grew, the more important the role of the financial system became in ensuring revenues for the national budget and private entrepreneurship. France was a confident leader in the level of centralization of banking capital. Of the 11 billion francs of total deposits within the country, 8 billion were concentrated in the five largest banks. Four of them had a monopoly on the issue of securities. At the same time, an extremely extensive system of bank branches developed, covering the entire territory of the country and making it possible to attract clientele from the most distant regions.

At the beginning of the 20th century, out of 40 million French people, 2 million were depositors in national banks. As a result, a powerful credit and financial system emerged, capable of providing a high level of return on investment. But the main type of financial transactions was not industrial investment within the country, but the export of capital. This trend was universal for the era of monopoly capitalism, but in France it acquired an exaggerated character. By 1914, of the 104 billion francs in which securities were valued on the French financial market, only 9.5 billion accounted for national industry. The rest of the securities provided loan capital, mainly foreign investments. The return on foreign investments (4.2%) exceeded the return on domestic securities (3.1%). It is not surprising that in such conditions, during the period from 1880 to 1914, French capital investments abroad tripled and amounted to 60 billion francs. According to this indicator, France came in second place in the world after Great Britain. The main areas of capital placement were Russia, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. Moreover, the structure of capital investments was dominated by centralized loan loans, rather than investments in foreign industry.

This kind of usury has become a distinctive feature of the French economic system at the beginning of the 20th century. It not only fueled the gigantic fortunes of the financial elite, but also ensured the existence of hundreds of thousands of small rentiers. The negative consequence of this practice was the threat of investment starvation in French industry itself, and the excessive dependence of the national economy on the well-being of the financial system. The consequences of such dependence will become obvious after the First World War.

18.04.2012

In the 18th century France was one of most developed economic powers of Europe. The revolution gave a new impetus, and at the end of the century a technical revolution began in the country. France received its sales markets, which especially expanded during the period of the continental blockade.

Negative point, holding back the growth of the French economy was the lack of significant number of workers, which were in abundance in England since the enclosure, in France, after the revolution, the land was transferred to the ownership of peasants, who then had no incentive to move to the cities and participate in industry. In addition, the flow of workers into the economy was prevented endless wars 1791-1814.

Defeat in the war led to the loss of France's conquered positions and protracted economic crisis. The volume of foreign trade fell from 933,000,000 francs in 1806 to 585,000,000 in 1814 and only recovered in 1824 - 896,000,000 francs.

According to economic growth rates France lagged behind England, but was superior to other states. Also, after the end of the war, France lost its advantages, in addition, France, unlike England, did not have significant mineral reserves on its territory, with the exception of the territory Alsace and Lorraine. This led to a lag in mechanical engineering, which required metal and coal. Political crises had a negative impact on the economy.

Population growth rates were low- approximately 1-2 million people per year. The population of France grew much slower than in England - 4 times, in Italy - 2 times, in Germany - 3 times, in France - only 50%. In terms of population structure, France remained an agricultural country until the beginning of the 20th century. The process of urbanization proceeded slowly - the influx of population occurred only in Paris, which in 1841 became the only millionaire city. Only three cities had a population of more than 100,000 people - Marseille, Lyon and Bordeaux.

Agriculture played a leading role in the economy until the middle of the 19th century, parcel land ownership was most widespread, the main production of bread took place in large landowner farms, small farms produced grapes, potatoes, and so on. The French government patronized large producers with protective duties.

Industrial development continued, small manufacturing industry predominated, no more than 10 people worked in the workshops, this was especially common in Paris, Lyon, in Rouen, Alsace there were large factories. The introduction of steam engines began, from 1820 to 1850 their number increased from 65 to 5,000. There was an increase in the consumption of raw materials, the import of raw materials for light industry increased significantly.

France needed more than England in imported raw materials, which limited the development of heavy industry. The first cars were purchased abroad, only in the 20s did machine-building production begin in France, and only in the 30s did the production of their own cars begin, after which their export began.

Communications were developing. In France, for a long time, the main means of communication remained canals, the owners of which hindered the development of railways. In 1827, the Lyon - Saint-Etienne horse-drawn railway, 23 kilometers long, was built. In 1832, the Saint-Etienne-Rouen road was built, for which steam locomotives were purchased from England. In 1837, the Paris-Orléans road was built, at the same time the first Saint-Lazare station in Paris was built. Only in 1838 did the targeted construction of railways begin. The French railway network was initially tied to Paris; in 1842, the construction of main railways began, the center of which was Paris. By 1843, the road to Rouen was built, by 1847 - to Belgium and Tours, and by 1856, the main network of railways was created, connecting all the major cities of France. By 1848, the total length of roads was about 1,800 km.

An important milestone became the crisis of 1845-47, when there was a general decline in the economy by about 30% and a rise in prices. In 1847, a financial crisis began, France's gold reserves decreased by 7 times. Only the establishment of a stable political regime by Louis Napoleon and the proclamation of the empire stabilized the economy.

By 1850 The industrial revolution ended, large-scale production was created, but the dominance of small enterprises continued to be maintained. Large industrial centers did not develop; large enterprises were scattered throughout France.

Government of Napoleon III supported the development of the economy, subsidized the development of communications, in 1852, by order of the emperor, a large-scale reconstruction of Paris into a modern European city began, the city itself was expanded. Modernization of Paris became a stimulus for the development of industry, primarily for engineering and metallurgy. In 1855, Napoleon ordered the holding of an industrial exhibition, which became regular, 6 of them were held, the largest were the exhibitions of 1878, but which featured the Statue of Liberty and the exhibition of 1889, which featured the Eiffel Tower.

In the 2nd XIX century half a century, the French economy began to engage in pan-European economic cycles. The war of 1870-71 caused enormous damage to France. Were lost Alsace and Lorraine The northeast of France was occupied for more than six months. 500,000 people died, more than 1,500,000 people ended up in the seized territories. An indemnity of 5 billion francs was paid. However, this prevented the blow of the crisis of 1873-79.

In the 80s A new stage of economic development began, France gradually entered the process of the second industrial revolution, only 2,000,000 people out of 16,000,000 able-bodied people were employed in industry, 5,000,000 were employed in agriculture, 4,000,000 in trade. Only 40% of the population by 1896 lived in cities. 47% of all peasant farms had land up to 10 hectares, 38% had less than 1 hectare. Agricultural production was insignificant, France was in 11th place in Europe in terms of productivity, and the influx of grain from the New World was a strong blow to agriculture. There was constant deflation in the economy, leading to constant losses for producers - prices fell by about a third. The worst situation was in viticulture, where vine disease began, which caused a 3-fold decrease in wine production from 70 to 26 million hectoliters. In the last third of the century, the creation of agricultural unions began in France, which included thousands of peasants. These associations tried to introduce new technologies, purchased seeds, equipment and fertilizers; these unions included more than 1,000,000 people, which made it possible to overcome the crisis.

In industry in the 70s - 90s France experienced 3 crises, and 2 crises in the 20th century. However, the French economy continued to grow at 2% per year. Crises led to the concentration of production, the French government introduced protective duties. At the end of the 19th century, the formation of large industrial associations began - Schneider-Le Creusot (center of heavy industry, weapons) Saint-Gobain (glass, building materials, chemical industry). A heavy industry committee was created, uniting 250 companies. Production in heavy industry increased significantly, but the industry of France was many times inferior to that of England, Germany and Russia. The number of enterprises was being reduced due to their consolidation, and large trading and banking enterprises were created.

In 1898 The Renault company was created. Over the course of 15 years, the company went from producing primitive cars to producing tanks and airplanes. In 1889 was built Peugeot's first car and by 1903 this company provided 50% of France's automobile needs.

French industry developed due to the high qualifications of French workers and engineers. The volume of industrial production in Anna at the turn of the century increased by 75%, the number of enterprises increased 3 times.

Highest growth rates were in the financial sphere of France, French bankers could not actively invest in production, which led to the export of capital, Paris became the financial center of Europe. Bankers invested finances abroad, but also invested in French industry. By 1908 there were 266 banks in France, the value of French securities in 1906 was 100 billion francs. French banks lent to foreign countries - Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Latin American countries.

According to the main indicators of economic growth, France was among the developed countries, but in terms of growth rates it was seriously inferior to the countries of the new economy.

CHAPTER I. FRANCE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY

Political system and political associations

In the last quarter of the 19th century. A republican regime was established in France. The Second Empire was replaced by the Third Republic. The main law of the country was the Constitution of 1875, the state symbol was the blue-white-red flag, the anthem was “Marseillaise”, and the main national holiday was July 14 – Bastille Day. Democratic freedoms were introduced in the country - suffrage, freedom of association in unions and associations, meetings, rallies, processions, speech, religion, etc.

According to the Constitution of 1875, the head of the executive branch of the country was the President of the Republic. He appointed and dismissed the chairman of the Council of Ministers and other ministers, but was deprived of the right to make any important decisions on his own. The President of the Republic represented France in the international arena, signed decrees and promulgated laws, could return laws for re-discussion to parliament, and had the right to pardon.

Legislative power in the country belonged to a bicameral parliament. The lower house - the Chamber of Deputies - was elected in general elections for a term of four years, the upper house - the Senate - by special electoral colleges for nine years with the re-election of a third of its members every three years (not counting several dozen life-long senators). Only men at least 21 years of age, except military personnel, had the right to vote. At the congress - a joint meeting of both chambers - the president of the republic was elected for a term of seven years and amendments to the constitution were adopted.

Both chambers considered and passed laws and approved the budget. The Senate had the right of a “suspending veto”, i.e. could return laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies for reconsideration. However, the center of the country's political life was the lower house of parliament. Parties and associations that had a majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies formed a government that was responsible to parliament. The cabinet was obliged to resign if more than half of the deputies demanded it. In the French parliament of the late 19th century. Representatives of various political trends met: monarchists, republicans, clerics, radicals, socialists, etc.

During the formation of the Third Republic, the highest government officials and the country's parliament received permanent residences that exist to this day. The residence of the President of France was the Elysee Palace, and that of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, the Matignon Palace. Meetings of the Chamber of Deputies were held in the Bourbon Palace, the Senate in Luxembourg.

Beginning of the 20th century for France it was the time of the formation of the country's main political parties and the formation of the classical French multi-party system. On the right flank of the French political spectrum were the Democratic Alliance and the Republican Federation.

The Democratic Alliance was formed in 1901 by Republicans of various shades, representing small political groups. The main slogan of the party was the conservative motto “no revolution, no reaction.”

In 1903, moderate Republicans proclaimed the creation of the Republican Federation. The party actively defended the traditional way of life, criticized reforms aimed at modernizing social relations, especially anti-clerical legislation, and also preached nationalism. Both right-wing parties expressed the interests of the French big bourgeoisie.

The Republican Party of Radicals and Radical Socialists (Radicals), which emerged in 1901, united left-wing forces committed to the ideals of a democratic republic while maintaining private ownership of the means of production. The radicals' program was moderately reformist in nature and provided for the strengthening and protection of republican institutions, as well as an active social policy and the fight against clericalism.

The leftmost flank of the French party-political system was represented by the Socialist Party. It was formed in 1905 and officially bore the name French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). The party widely propagated socialist slogans, but in fact followed the path of social reformism.

The associations that arose in France at the beginning of the 20th century did not immediately acquire a clear organizational form. Not all political and government figures shared their interests. Many of them represented small movements and groups or were generally independent. Among the French politicians of the period of the Third Republic, along with radicals and socialists, there were moderate republicans, opportunist republicans, independent socialists, etc. Over the course of their careers, individual politicians left the ranks of one association and joined another, sometimes of just the opposite persuasion. Thus, radicals and socialists sometimes moved to the right camp. Within each individual party, as a rule, there were several directions. In this regard, definitions of politicians such as “right-wing radical” or “left-wing republican” were quite appropriate. Representatives of the Democratic Alliance and Republican Federation parties were often called simply right-wing, although in their ranks there were republicans of various stripes.

Back in 1895, the largest trade union organization in France was founded - the General Confederation of Labor (CGT). Following the path of class struggle, the CGT after some time switched to the position of anarcho-syndicalism. Anarcho-syndicalists considered trade unions (syndicates) to be the highest form of organization of the working class. They emphasized the need for class struggle against capitalism through “direct action” - strikes, boycotts, sabotage, but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat and the leading role of working-class political parties.

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