Napoleon declared: “Victory will give me the opportunity, as a master, to accomplish everything I want.”

Napoleonic Wars 1799-1815- were waged by France and its allies during the years of the Consulate (1799-1804) and the empire of Napoleon I (1804-1815) against coalitions of European states.

The nature of wars:

1) aggressive

2) revolutionary (undermining feudal orders, development of capitalist relations in Europe, dissemination of revolutionary ideas)

3) bourgeois (conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to consolidate its military-political, commercial and industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the English bourgeoisie into the background)

Main opponents: England, Russia, Austria

Wars:

1) fight against the 2nd anti-French coalition

2 anti-French coalition was formed in 1798-99 .participants: England, Russia, Austria, Türkiye and the Kingdom of Naples

18 Brumaire (November 9) 1799 - establishment of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became first consul - conditional date for the start of the Napoleonic wars

May 1800 - Napoleon, at the head of an army, moved through the Alps to Italy and defeated Austrian troops at the Battle of Marengo (June 14, 1800).

Bottom line: 1) France received Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine and control over all of Northern Italy, where the Italian Republic was created (Treaty of Luneville)

2) the 2nd anti-French coalition virtually ceased to exist,

Russia withdrew due to disagreements; Only Great Britain continued the war.

After the resignation of W. Pitt the Younger (1801), the new English government entered into negotiations with France

Result of negotiations:

1802 - signing Treaty of Amiens. France withdrew its troops from Rome, Naples and Egypt, and England - from the island of Malta.

BUT 1803 - resumption of war between France and Great Britain.

1805 – Battle of Trafalgar. The English fleet under the command of Admiral G. Nelson defeated and destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. This defeat thwarted the strategic plan of Napoleon I to organize a landing in Great Britain of the French expeditionary army, concentrated in the Boulogne camp.

1805 - creation 3 anti-French coalition(Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Sweden).

Military operations along the Danube. Within three weeks, Napoleon defeated the 100,000-strong Austrian army in Bavaria, forcing the main Austrian forces to capitulate on October 20 in Ulm.

December 2, 1805 - the Battle of Austerlitz, in which Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on Russian and Austrian troops.

December 26, 1805 - Peace of Presburg. Austria pays indemnity; it has lost a huge part of its lands. From the southern German states, Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine and appointed himself its head. In turn, Russian Emperor Alexander I did not accept defeat and did not sign peace with Napoleon.

September 1806 - was concluded between Russia and Prussia new anti-French alliance, which England and Sweden joined

October 14, 1806 In two battles of Jena and Auerstadt, the French defeated the Prussian army, and thirteen days later Napoleon's army entered Berlin.

Bottom line:

surrender of Prussia, all possessions west of the Elbe went to Napoleon, where he formed the Kingdom of Westphalia

The Duchy of Warsaw was created on Polish territory

A 100 million indemnity was imposed on Prussia, until payment of which it was occupied by French troops.

2 battles with the Russian army:

French troops threw back the Russian army and approached the Neman. Both Napoleon, who by this time had conquered all of Europe, and Alexander I, who had lost all allies, considered further continuation of the war pointless.

July 7, 1807 – World of Tilsit. A meeting between the two emperors took place on a specially placed raft in the middle of the Neman River. Result:

Russia recognized all the conquests of the French Empire

Russia received freedom of action against Sweden and Turkey.

According to a secret clause of the agreement, Alexander promised to stop trade with England, that is, to join the continental blockade, shortly before announced by Napoleon.

May 1808 - popular uprisings in Madrid, Cartagena, Zaragoza, Murcia, Asturias, Grenada, Balajos, Valencia.

A series of heavy defeats for the French. Portugal rebelled, and British troops landed on its territory. The defeats of Napoleonic troops in Spain undermined France's international position.

Napoleon sought support in Russia.

Napoleon managed to achieve an extension Franco-Russian union, but only at the cost of recognizing Russia's rights to Moldova, Wallachia and Finland, which then still belonged to Sweden. However, on the most important issue for Napoleon, about Russia’s attitude towards Austria, Alexander I showed persistence. He was well aware of Napoleon's difficulties and was completely in no mood to help him pacify Austria. The discussion on the Austrian problem took place in a tense atmosphere. Having failed to achieve concessions, Napoleon screamed, threw his cocked hat on the floor, and began to trample on it with his feet. Alexander I, remaining calm, told him: “You are a hot-tempered person, but I am stubborn: anger has no effect on me. Let’s talk, reason, otherwise I will leave” - and headed for the exit. Napoleon had to hold him back and calm down. The discussion resumed in a more moderate, even friendly tone.

Bottom line: October 12, 1808 signing union convention, but no real strengthening of the Franco-Russian alliance occurred.

The conclusion of a new convention with Russia allowed Napoleon to throw his forces against Spain and recapture Madrid.

April 1809 - Austria began military operations on the Upper Danube with support from England, which formed the 5th coalition against France.

a heavy defeat for the Austrians, after which Franz I was forced to begin peace negotiations.1

Napoleon annexed almost all of Western Galicia to the Duchy of Warsaw

The Tarnopol district was ceded to Russia.

Austria lost Western Galicia, the provinces of Salzburg, parts of Upper Austria and Carniola, Carinthia, Croatia, as well as lands on the Adriatic coast (Trieste, Fiume, etc., which became the Illyrian departments of the French Empire). The Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809 was the greatest success of Napoleon's diplomacy.

Russian-French relations began to deteriorate rapidly due to:

conclusion of the Treaty of Schönbrunn and significant expansion of the Duchy of Warsaw at the expense of Western Galicia

Napoleon's reluctance to delimit spheres of influence in the Middle East. He tried with all his might to subjugate the Balkan Peninsula to his influence.

July 1810 - The Kingdom of Holland was annexed to France

December 1810 - Swiss territory of Wallis near France

February 1811 - the Duchy of Oldenburg, parts of the Duchy of Berg and the Kingdom of Hanover were ceded to France.

Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck also belong to France, which was becoming a Baltic power

Napoleon’s unsuccessful attempt to woo Alexander 1’s sister Anna Pavlovna (of course, this is not the main thing)

Napoleon's support for the Poles' desire for independence, which did not suit Russia

Napoleon's failure to fulfill his promise to support Russia against Turkey

Russia's violation of the agreement on the continental blockade.

This was the cause of the War of 1812.

Both countries violated the terms of the Tilsit Peace. War was being prepared. Napoleon sought, first of all, to tie Prussia and Austria more tightly to France.

February 24, 1812 - Frederick William III concluded a secret convention with France, according to which Prussia pledged to send a 20,000-strong corps to participate in the war against Russia.

March 14, 1812 - Austria also pledged to take part in the war against Russia, sending a 30,000-strong corps for action in Ukraine. But both of these agreements were signed under brutal pressure from French diplomats.

Napoleon demanded that Russia fulfill the terms of the Tilsit Peace.

On April 27, Kurakin, on behalf of the Tsar, informed Napoleon that a precondition for this could be:

withdrawal of French troops from Prussia beyond the Elbe

liberation of Swedish Pomerania and Danzig

consent to Russia's trade with neutral countries.

Napoleon refused. He stationed armed forces in Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw, close to the borders of Russia.

Alexander I's representative Balashov tried to convince Napoleon to stop the invasion. The latter responded to the royal envoy with a rude and arrogant refusal. After Balashov's departure from Vilna, diplomatic relations between the Russian and French governments ceased.

The first failures of Napoleon, who failed to defeat the troops of General Barclay de Tolly in border battles, forced him to seek an honorable peace.

August 4-5 – Battle of Smolensk. Retreat of Russian troops. After Smolensk, Bonaparte first tried to start negotiations with the Russian government, but the negotiations did not take place.

November 14-16 – Battle of the Berezina. The retreat towards the Berezina and Vilna led Napoleon's army to almost complete destruction. The already catastrophic situation of the French troops was further worsened by the transition of Prussian troops to the side of Russia. Thus, a new, 6th coalition against France was created. In addition to England and Russia, Prussia and then Sweden also opposed Napoleon.

On August 10, Austria joined the 6th coalition at a time when a huge army consisting of Russian, Prussian, Swedish and English contingents was concentrated in Germany against Napoleon.

October 16-19, 1813 - “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig. Napoleon's defeated armies were forced to retreat across the Rhine, and soon hostilities were transferred to the territory of France itself.

March 31 - Alexander I and Frederick William III, at the head of their troops, solemnly entered the streets of the French capital. Located in Fontainebleau, 90 kilometers from Paris, Napoleon was forced to abandon the continuation of the fight

April 6 – Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son; Later, he dutifully headed to the south of France to continue by sea to the island of Elba, which was given to him by the allies for lifelong possession.

May 30, 1814 – Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden:

restoration of the independence of Holland, Switzerland, German principalities (united in a union) and Italian states (except for the lands that went to Austria).

Freedom of navigation on the Rhine and Scheldt was declared.

Most of the colonial possessions it had lost during the Napoleonic Wars were returned to France.

September 1814 – June 1815 – Congress of Vienna. Convened under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Representatives of all European countries (except Turkey) participated

Tasks:

the elimination of political changes and transformations that took place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars.

the principle of “legitimism,” i.e., the restoration of the “legitimate” rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of “legitimism” was only a cover for the arbitrariness of reaction

creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon and the resumption of wars of conquest by France

redistribution of Europe in the interests of the victorious powers

Solutions:

France is deprived of all conquests, its borders remain the same as in 1792.

Transfer of Malta and the Ionian Islands to England

Austrian power over northern Italy and some Balkan provinces

Division of the Duchy of Warsaw between Austria, Russia and Prussia. The lands that became part of the Russian Empire were called the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king.

inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands

Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland

Formation of the German Confederation

Significance of the Congress:

determined the new balance of power in Europe that had developed towards the end of the Napoleonic wars, long denoting the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations.

The Vienna system of international relations was formed

the creation of the Holy Alliance of European States, which aimed to ensure the inviolability of European monarchies.

« 100 days» Napoleon – March-June 1815

Napoleon's return to power

June 18, 1815 – Battle of Waterloo. Defeat of the French army. Napoleon's exile to Saint Helena.

Event, result: The military coup of the 18th Brumaire takes place in France. As a result of the coup, Napoleon came to power in France, taking the post of First Consul of the Republic.

Event, result: Napoleon defeats Italian and Austrian troops at the Battle of Marengo. As a result of this battle, the Italian region of Lombardy goes to France.

Event, result: Defeated Austria is forced to cede its lands to Napoleon. The border between the states now runs along the Rhine and Etsch rivers.

Event, result: The English fleet defeated Napoleon's fleet at the famous Battle of Trafalgar off the coast of Spain.

Event, result: Napoleon defeated his opponents from the “third coalition” in the legendary Battle of Austerlitz. In it, the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary opposed Napoleon. The battle is called in history "the battle of three emperors"

Event, result: A toy Confederation of the Rhine was created, with which Napoleon “conquered” Germany. He received the right to keep his troops there and direct German affairs from France.

Event, result: Entered Warsaw (Poland) with troops

Event, result: The Peace of Tilsit was concluded, which completely consolidated Napoleon's rule in Germany, and now in Poland

Date of: February 1808

Event, result: Napoleon's troops occupied the "eternal city" of Rome and annexed it to the possessions of their commander

Event, result: Defeated the troops of the Austrian emperor, who, after so many years, still did not want to give up, in the Battle of Wagram

Date of: July 1810

Event, result: Napoleon annexed Holland to France

Event, result: Napoleon attacked Russia. His troops crossed the border river Neman without any declaration of war.

Event, result: Battle for Smolensk. The beginning of a nationwide war against the invader. Smolensk was taken by Napoleon only with great effort.

Event, result: The battle on the Borodino field near Moscow. Huge losses for both armies. Actual draw.

Event, result: Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Kutuzov decided to surrender Moscow to Napoleon. Bonaparte enters the city with an army. But there is no food in the city and it was set on fire by the retreating forces.

Event, result: Bonaparte and the French leave the burned, empty Moscow, which has become unnecessary to them. The French retreat begins through half of Russia back to Europe. Bonaparte's army suffers severely from malnutrition, surprise attacks by Kutuzov's army, partisans and bad weather.

Event, result: Battle of Berezina. Napoleon throws 21 thousand (more than half the army) of his soldiers into the hands of the enemy at the crossing of the Berezina River, ordering the bridges to be burned. And goes to the border.

Event, result: Bonaparte returns to Europe with nothing. Less than 10 percent of his soldiers are with him. The French army abandoned by him almost all died in the Russian snows from frost and hunger. France is seething with indignation. Napoleon's authority is destroyed.

Event, result: The Battle of Waterloo with the Seventh Coalition of European Powers, where Russia did not participate. Complete defeat of Bonaparte.

Event, result: The Paris Peace Treaty was concluded in Europe. In France, as a result of it, the royal throne was returned to the previously reigning Bourbon dynasty. Bonaparte is forced to go into exile on the remote island of St. Elena. Where he died later.

It is hardly possible to give an unambiguous assessment of the significance of the Consulate and the Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte for European history. On the one hand, the Napoleonic wars brought enormous human casualties to France and other European states. They were conducted for the sake of conquering foreign territories and robbing other peoples. By imposing huge indemnities on the defeated countries, Napoleon weakened and ruined their economies. When he autocratically redrew the map of Europe or when he tried to impose a new economic order on it in the form of a continental blockade, he thereby interfered with the natural course of historical development, violating the boundaries and traditions that had developed over centuries. On the other hand, historical development always results from the struggle between old and new, and from this point of view, the Napoleonic Empire personified the new bourgeois order in the face of old feudal Europe. As in 1792-94. French revolutionaries tried to carry their ideas across Europe with bayonets, and Napoleon also tried to introduce bourgeois orders in the conquered countries with bayonets. Establishing French domination in Italy and the German states, he simultaneously abolished the feudal rights of the nobility and the guild system there, secularized church lands, and extended the application of his Civil Code to them. In other words, he destroyed the feudal system and acted in this regard, according to Stendhal, as a “son of revolution.” Thus, the Napoleonic era was one of the stages and one of the manifestations of the transition from the old order to the new times in European history.

The victories won by France over the armies of feudal-absolutist states were explained, first of all, by the fact that bourgeois France, which represented a more progressive social system, had an advanced military system created by the Great French Revolution. An outstanding commander, Napoleon I perfected the strategy and tactics developed during the revolutionary wars. The army also included troops from states subordinate to Napoleon I and foreign corps fielded by allied countries. The Napoleonic army, especially before the defeat of its best forces in Russia in 1812, was characterized by high combat training and discipline. Napoleon I was surrounded by a whole galaxy of talented marshals and young generals (L. Davout, I. Murat, A. Massena, M. Ney, L. Berthier, J. Bernadotte, N. Soult, etc.), many of whom came from soldiers or from the lower strata of society. However, the increasing transformation of the French army during the Napoleonic wars into an instrument for carrying out the aggressive plans of Napoleon I, huge losses (according to rough estimates, in 1800 - 1815, 3153 thousand people were called up for military service in France, of which only in 1804 - 1814, 1,750 thousand people died) led to a significant decrease in its fighting qualities.

As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly controlled by France. Napoleon I plundered the conquered countries. The supply of the army during the campaign was carried out mainly through requisitions or direct robbery (according to the principle “war should feed war”). Customs tariffs favorable to France caused great damage to countries that were dependent on the Napoleonic Empire. The Napoleonic wars were a constant and important source of income for the Napoleonic government, the French bourgeoisie, and the elite of the military.

The wars of the French Revolution began as national ones. After the defeat of Napoleon, a feudal reaction was established in many European countries. However, the main result of the fierce wars was not the temporary victory of reaction, but the liberation of European countries from the domination of Napoleonic France, which ultimately contributed to the independent development of capitalism in a number of European states.

Thus, we can say that Napoleon’s wars were not just pan-European, but global in nature. They remain forever in history.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

GOU VPO "BLAGOVESCHENSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

Faculty of History and Philology

Department of World History

COURSE WORK

on the topic

Analysis of the Napoleonic Wars era

Blagoveshchensk

Introduction

1.Personality of Napoleon Bonaparte

2. Napoleonic Wars

2.1 War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)

2.2 War of the Third Coalition (1805)

2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)

2.3 War of the Sixth Coalition (1813-1814)

2.4 Capture of Paris and end of the campaign (March 1814)

3. Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

Conclusion

List of sources and literature used

Application

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the topic is due to the rapid development of public international law in connection with the dramatic changes in the international situation that have periodically occurred in recent decades. The modern world, like Europe during the Napoleonic wars, is shaken by a series of grandiose events: international conflicts, civil wars, natural, man-made and humanitarian disasters.

The Napoleonic Wars shook the whole world. And at the same time, they contributed to the unification of many countries against Napoleonic rule.

A significant amount of work has been written on this topic.

The study of the era of Napoleon Bonaparte in Soviet historiography went in two directions. One of the directions was the study of personality and political biography (E.V. Tarle, A.Z. Manfred). Work by E.V. Tarle "Napoleon", published in 1936. and then went through more than 10 reprints. E.V. Tarle worked on it for almost 20 years. The author’s main task was “to give as clear a picture as possible of the life and work of the French emperor, his characterization as a person, as a historical figure, with his properties, natural data and aspirations. Monograph by E.V. Tarle influenced the formation of the views of many new historians on the history of Europe, and was simply popular among non-specialists.

A.Z. also worked in the same direction. Manfred. In 1971 His monograph “Napoleon Bonaparte” was published. In the preface to it, he writes that the work of E.V. Tarle had a huge influence on him. However, he considers it necessary to revisit this topic due to the fact that the source base has expanded. A.Z. For the first time in the history of research into Bonaparte's life, Manfred used his literary heritage to study his political views. He pays great attention to Napoleon's desire for self-education, his talent as a commander and a person who, in a difficult situation, could lead the masses.

From the first direction, gradually by the end of the 70s. The second also stands out, where there was a study of the role in the formation of Bonapartism and the political regime of France during the period of consulate and empire (D. M. Tugan-Baranovsky).

Currently, the problem of the significance of the Napoleonic wars has been fully studied. But this does not prevent researchers from finding other approaches to studying that era. Today's historians are more interested in Napoleon's diplomacy (Sirotkin V.G.), the military history of Napoleonic campaigns (Internet sites and forums dedicated to Bonaparte's army), and his psychological state in different periods of his life. The range of methods used in conducting research has expanded significantly due to contacts between Russian and foreign researchers; after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the opportunity to work in European archives arose.

The topic of the course covers the time of the Napoleonic wars, namely 1799 -1814. The upper limit is determined by the fact that in 1799. Napoleon came to power in France. In 1814, Napoleon abdicated the throne, ending the era of the Napoleonic Wars.

The geographical scope of this work covers the whole of Europe.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the era of the Napoleonic wars

Study the personality of Napoleon as a commander

Describe the wars of the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth coalitions

Identify the significance of the Napoleonic Wars for France, and for Europe in general.

We can judge Napoleon's foreign policy from the normative documents of that time, as well as from the problematic works of historians. Thus, it is assumed that it is possible to combine sources into groups. The first group includes Napoleon’s personal works, namely, the essay “17 Remarks” on the work entitled “Discourses on the Art of War” (Napoleon. Selected Works), which reflects Napoleon’s personal position on the successes and failures of his foreign policy.

The second group includes international treaties of the Napoleonic era. According to the treaty establishing the Confederation of the Rhine, Napoleon was proclaimed King of Italy (“Protector”). “Protectorate” consisted of unquestioningly fulfilling the will of the autocratic ruler. As for the Peace of Amiens, it turned out to be only a short truce. In general, this agreement did not infringe on the interests of France. The Treaty of Presburg finally buried the Franco-Russian agreements, strengthened Napoleon's power over Austria and served as the first step for Napoleon on the path to world dominion. The creation of the Confederation of the Rhine made sixteen German states completely dependent on France, thus expanding Napoleon's sphere of influence over the German principalities.

With the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Napoleon became the complete ruler of Germany, in addition, a continental blockade was created, which caused considerable damage to the economy of England. Those. In general, the agreement was pro-Napoleonic in nature. According to the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809. Austria actually turned into a state dependent on France. In addition, Prussia pledged to close its ports to England, which is a continuation of Napoleon's policy of continental blockade. All this undoubtedly strengthens France's position.

The Peace of Paris on May 30, 1814 brilliantly crowned the efforts of England. Napoleon fell, France was humiliated; all seas, all harbors and shores opened again. When writing the course work, these works were used to the fullest.

1. Napoleon’s rapid rise was due to the “concentration” in one person of genius, ambition, and correct understanding of the situation around him.

2. As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly controlled by France.

3. Despite a number of private victories won by the French army at the beginning of 1814 over the Allied forces that entered French territory, it was ultimately defeated.

1. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE'S PERSONALITY

Napoleon was a French statesman and commander, first consul of the French Republic (1799 - 1804), emperor of the French (1804 - 14 and March - June 1815). Born on August 15, 1769 in the family of a poor Corsican nobleman, lawyer Carlo Buonaparte. Napoleon's character from early childhood turned out to be impatient and restless. “Nothing appealed to me,” he later recalled, “I was prone to quarrels and fights, I was not afraid of anyone. I beat one, scratched another, and everyone was afraid of me. My brother Joseph had to endure the most from me. I hit him and bit him. And they scolded him for this, because it happened that even before he came to his senses from fear, I would already complain to my mother. My cunning brought me benefit, since otherwise Mama Letizia would have punished me for my pugnacity; she would never have tolerated my attacks!” . Napoleon grew up as a gloomy and irritable child. His mother loved him, but she gave him and her other children a rather harsh upbringing. They lived frugally, but the family did not feel any need. The father was a man, apparently kind and weak-willed. The true head of the family was Letitia, a firm, strict, hardworking woman, in whose hands was the upbringing of the children. Napoleon inherited his love of work and strict order in business from his mother. The situation of this island, secluded from the whole world, with its rather wild population in the mountains and forest thickets, with endless clashes between clans, with family blood feuds, with carefully hidden but persistent hostility towards the French newcomers, strongly affected the young impressions of little Napoleon. At the age of ten he was placed at the Autun College in France, and then in the same 1779 he was transferred to the Brienne Military School on a government scholarship. In 1784 he successfully graduated from college and moved to the Paris Military School (1784 - 85). In February 1785, his father Carlo Bonaparte died from the same disease that Napoleon himself later died from: stomach cancer. The family was left almost without funds. There was little hope for Napoleon's older brother, Joseph: he was both incapable and lazy; the 16-year-old cadet took upon himself to take care of his mother, brothers and sisters. After a year's stay at the Paris Military School, he entered the army on October 30, 1785 with the rank of second lieutenant and went to a regiment stationed in the south, in the city of Valence. Life was difficult for the young officer. (Appendix 1) He sent most of his salary to his mother, leaving himself only for the meager food, not allowing himself the slightest entertainment. In the same house where he rented a room, there was a second-hand bookstore, and Napoleon began to spend all his free time reading books that the second-hand bookstore gave him. He was aloof from society, and his clothes were so plain that he neither wanted nor could lead any kind of social life. He read avidly, with unheard-of greed, filling his notebooks with notes and notes. He was most interested in books on military history, mathematics, geography, and travel descriptions. He also read philosophers.

Brought up on the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment, a follower of J.J. Rousseau, G. Raynal, Bonaparte perceived the Great French Revolution with warm approval; in 1792 he joined the Jacobin Club. His activities took place mainly in Corsica. This gradually brought Bonaparte into conflict with the Corsican separatists led by Paoli, and in 1793 he was forced to flee Corsica. During the long and unsuccessful siege of Toulon, captured by monarchist rebels and English interventionists, by the Republican army, Bonaparte proposed his plan to capture the city. On December 17, 1793, Toulon was taken by storm. For the capture of Toulon, the 24-year-old captain was promoted to brigadier general. From this time on, Bonaparte's rapid ascent began. After a short disgrace and even arrest during the days of the Thermidorian reaction for his closeness with O. Robespierre, Napoleon again attracted attention - already in Paris - with energy and determination in suppressing the monarchist rebellion on 13 Vendémière (October 5), 1795. Following this, he was appointed commander the Paris garrison and in 1796 - commander-in-chief of the army created for operations in Italy. [ 1 p. 45].

In Napoleon's subsequent military campaigns, aggressive tendencies intensified. The Peace of Campoformia of 1797 revealed Napoleon's diplomatic abilities. On November 9-10, 1799 (18-19 Brumaire of the VIII year) he carried out a coup d'etat, which established the consulate regime and actually gave him, although not immediately, full power.

In 1802 Napoleon achieved his appointment as consul for life (Reader on modern history, ed.), and on April 18, 1804, the Senate passed a resolution giving the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, the title of hereditary emperor of the French (Appendix 2) [9 p.130]. ​​To strengthen the new , the bourgeois monarchy and give it external shine, Napoleon I created a new imperial nobility, a magnificent imperial court, dissolved his marriage with his first wife Josephine and in 1810 married Maria Louise, the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I.

Victorious wars with coalitions of powers, the enormous expansion of the territory of the empire and the transformation of Napoleon I into the de facto ruler of all Western (except Great Britain) and Central Europe contributed to his extraordinary glory. The fate of Napoleon I, who in 10 years achieved unprecedented power, forcing the monarchs of Europe to reckon with their will, seemed inexplicable to many of his contemporaries and gave rise to various kinds of “Napoleonic legends.” A man of enormous personal talent, exceptional ability to work, a strong, sober mind and unyielding will, merciless in achieving his goals, Napoleon I was an outstanding representative of the bourgeoisie at a time when it was still a young, rising class; he most fully embodied all the strong traits inherent in her at that time, as well as her vices and shortcomings - aggressiveness, self-interest, adventurism.

In the field of military art, Napoleon I developed and improved what was new that had previously been created by the armies of revolutionary France. The merit of Napoleon I was that he found the most appropriate tactical and strategic use of the colossal armed masses, the appearance of which became possible thanks to the revolution, in the given historical conditions.

Napoleon knew the map and knew how to handle the map like no one, he surpassed in this his chief of staff and the learned cartographer Marshal Berthier, surpassed in this all the commanders who had thundered in history before him, and at the same time the map never bound him, and when he broke away from it, going out into the field, inspiring the troops with his appeals, issuing orders, moving huge dense columns, then here too he found himself in his own, that is, in the first and inaccessible place. His orders, his letters to the marshals, some of his sayings still have the meaning of basic treatises on the issue of fortresses, artillery, rear organization, flank movements, detours, and the most diverse subjects of military affairs.

He showed himself to be a remarkable master of strategy and maneuver tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy, Napoleon I sought to separate his forces and destroy them piecemeal. His principle was: “to compensate for numerical weakness with speed of movement.” On the march, Napoleon I led his troops dispersed, but in such a way that they could be collected at the right time at any point. This is how the principle “go separately, fight together” developed.

Napoleon I perfected new maneuverable column tactics in combination with loose formation, based on the clear interaction of various types of troops. He made extensive use of quick maneuver in order to create superiority in decisive directions, was able to deliver surprise attacks, carry out outflanking and outflanking maneuvers, and build up efforts in decisive sectors of the battle. Considering the defeat of enemy forces to be his main strategic task, Napoleon always sought to seize the strategic initiative. The main way to defeat the enemy for him was a general battle. Napoleon sought to develop the success achieved in the general battle by organizing persistent pursuit of the enemy. Napoleon provided ample opportunity for initiative to the commanders of units and formations. He knew how to find and promote capable, talented people [8 p. 70].

But the rapid rise of Napoleonic France and the victories of French arms were explained not so much by the personal qualities of Napoleon and his marshals, but by the fact that in the clash with feudal-absolutist Europe, Napoleonic France represented a historically more progressive, bourgeois social system. This was reflected in the military sphere, where Napoleon’s military leadership had an undoubted advantage over the backward, routine strategy and tactics of the armies of feudal Europe, and in the superiority of the system of bourgeois social relations, boldly introduced in the countries of Western Europe by Napoleonic legislation, over backward patriarchal-feudal relations. However, over time, the Napoleonic wars lost their previously characteristic (despite their aggressive nature) progressive elements and turned into purely aggressive ones. Under these conditions, no personal qualities or efforts of Napoleon could bring victory. The Patriotic War of 1812 not only destroyed Napoleon’s “grand army,” but also gave a powerful impetus to the national liberation struggle against Napoleonic oppression in Europe. The inevitable defeat of Napoleon under these conditions, completed by the entry of allied troops into Paris (March 1814), forced him to abdicate the throne (April 6, 1814). The victorious allies retained the title of emperor to Napoleon and gave him the possession of Fr. Elbe. Napoleon's landing in France (March 1, 1815) and the “Hundred Days” (March 20 - June 22, 1815) of his secondary reign again showed not only his talent, but to an even greater extent the importance of the social forces behind him. The unprecedented “conquest” of France in 3 weeks without firing a single shot became possible only because the people considered Napoleon capable of expelling the Bourbons and aristocrats, hated by the masses, from France.

Napoleon's tragedy was that he did not dare to fully rely on the people who supported him. This led to his defeat at Waterloo and his second abdication (June 22, 1815). Exiled to Fr. St. Helena, he died 6 years later as a prisoner of the British (May 5, 1821).

Thus, the era in which Napoleon Bonaparte lived contributed to his rapid rise and brilliant career. Napoleon was certainly a talented man. Having set himself a goal in his distant youth - to achieve power, he walked consistently and patiently towards it, using his full potential. The Great French Revolution and the Republican Wars allowed the rise of a number of talented but not noble commanders, including Bonaparte. The rapid rise of Napoleon was due to the “concentration” in one person of genius, ambition, and a correct understanding of the situation around him.

2. NAPOLEONIC WARS

2.1 War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)

The conditional date for the beginning of the Napoleonic wars is considered to be the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798 - 1799 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples (1st anti-French coalition consisting of Austria, Prussia, England and a number of other European states fought against revolutionary France in 1792-1793). Having come to power, Bonaparte sent a proposal to the English king and the Austrian emperor to begin peace negotiations, which was rejected by them. Then Napoleon set himself the task of a war with England, which was to be waged not off the English coast, in the face of the powerful British fleet, but on the European continent , against England's allies, primarily against the Austrian Empire. . France began to form a large army on its eastern borders under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, on the Swiss border, in secrecy, the formation of the so-called “reserve” army was underway, which delivered the first blow to the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult transition through the Saint Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800, Moreau's Rhine army defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801, Austria was forced to make peace with France and recognize its seizures in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After this, the 2nd coalition actually collapsed.

On March 27, 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic, on the other. Peace negotiations took place in Amiens and lasted a little less than six months, but already on October 1, 1801, all hostilities between France and England ceased after the “preliminary peace” was signed in London. In Amiens, Napoleon and Talleyrand managed to achieve favorable peace terms. True, Napoleon agreed to the evacuation of French troops from Egypt and the return of Egypt to Turkey. But England abandoned almost all of its colonial conquests (except for Ceylon and the island of Trinidad on the Atlantic Ocean). But, most importantly, England took upon itself the obligation not to interfere in the affairs of Holland, Germany, Italy (the Apennine Peninsula), and Switzerland (the Helvetic Republic). She even undertook to evacuate Malta over time. The Peace of Amiens could not have turned out to be very long; England had not yet felt so defeated. But at the moment when Paris and the provinces learned about the signing of a peace treaty with England, the satisfaction was complete. The most formidable, the richest, the most stubborn and irreconcilable enemy seemed to admit himself defeated and confirmed with his signature all of Bonaparte’s conquests. The long, difficult war with Europe ended, and ended in complete victory on all fronts

Thus the second anti-French coalition collapsed. The fierce war between France and England became the center of all diplomatic combinations and intrigues of the near future.

2.2 Third anti-French coalition

The War of the Third Coalition (also known as the Russo-Austro-French War of 1805) was a war between France, Spain, Bavaria and Italy on one side and the Anti-French Third Coalition, which included Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal - with another. In 1805, Russia and Great Britain signed the St. Petersburg Union Treaty, which laid the foundation for the third coalition. That same year, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden formed a third coalition against France and its allied Spain. While the coalition fleet fought successfully at sea, the armies acted unsuccessfully and were defeated, so the coalition disintegrated quite quickly - in December. Napoleon had been planning an invasion of England since the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, signed by Cornwallis for England and Joseph Bonaparte for France. At this time (summer 1805), Napoleon’s 180,000-strong army (“Grand Army”) stood on the French coast of the English Channel, in Boulogne, preparing to land in England. These ground forces were quite sufficient, but Napoleon did not have enough navy to cover the landing, so it was necessary to pull the British fleet away from the English Channel. As for military operations at sea, the attempt to distract the British by threatening their dominance in the West Indies failed: the Franco-Spanish fleet under the command of the French admiral Villeneuve was defeated by an English squadron on the way back to Europe at Cape Finisterre, and retreated to Spain, to the port of Cadiz, where it was blocked. Admiral Villeneuve, despite the poor state of the fleet, to which he himself had brought him, and having learned that he was going to be replaced by Admiral Rossigli, followed Napoleon’s instructions and went to sea at the end of October. At Cape Trafalgar, the Franco-Spanish fleet fought with the English squadron of Admiral Nelson and was completely defeated, despite the fact that Nelson was mortally wounded in this battle. The French fleet never recovered from this defeat, losing supremacy at sea to the English fleet. As for military operations on land, in order to finally protect itself from the French invasion, England hastily put together another anti-French coalition, unlike the first and second, which was no longer anti-republican, but anti-Napoleonic. Having joined the coalition, Austria, taking advantage of the fact that most of Napoleon's army was concentrated in northern France, planned to unleash military operations in northern Italy and Bavaria. Russia sent two armies to help the Austrians, under the command of generals Kutuzov and Buxhoeveden. Having received information about the actions of the coalition forces, Napoleon was forced to postpone the landing on the British Isles indefinitely and move troops to Germany. It was then that Napoleon said: “If I am not in London in 15 days, then I must be in Vienna in mid-November”[9 p.150]. Meanwhile, the 72,000-strong Austrian army under the command of Baron Karl Mack von Leiberich invaded Bavaria, without waiting for the Russian troops, who had not yet reached the theater of operations. Napoleon left the Boulogne camp and, having made a forced march to the south, reached Bavaria in the shortest possible time. The Austrian army capitulated at the Battle of Ulm. The corps of General Jelacic managed to avoid capture, however, he was subsequently overtaken by the French Marshal Augereau and capitulated. Left alone, Kutuzov was forced to retreat with rearguard battles (the Battle of Merzbach, the Battle of Hollabrunn) to join the Buxhoeveden army that had not yet arrived. Napoleon occupied Vienna without serious resistance. Of the entire Austrian army, only the formations of Archduke Charles and Archduke John continued the war, as well as a few units that managed to unite with Kutuzov’s army. Russian Emperor Alexander I and Austrian Emperor Franz II arrived at the army. At the insistence of Alexander I, Kutuzov’s army stopped retreating and, without waiting for the approach of Buxhoeveden’s troops, entered the battle with the French at Austerlitz, in which it suffered a heavy defeat and retreated in disarray. The French victory was complete.

Emperor Franz humbly asked Napoleon for a truce, to which the winner agreed, but on the condition that Russian troops were removed from Austrian territory (December 4). On December 26, Austria concluded the Peace of Presburg with France, which deprived the Habsburg monarchy of its possessions in southwestern Germany, the Tyrol and the Venetian region (the first were divided between Baden and Württemberg, the second was annexed to Bavaria, the third to the Kingdom of Italy), which finally abolished the Holy Roman Empire and providing the royal crowns of Naples and Holland to Napoleon's brothers.

Russia, despite heavy losses, continued military operations against Napoleon as part of the fourth anti-French coalition, also organized with the active participation of England. On July 12, 1806, an agreement was concluded between Napoleon and many German sovereigns (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Darmstadt, Kleve Berg, Nassau, etc.), under the terms of which these sovereigns entered into an alliance with each other, called the Rhineland, under Napoleon’s protectorate and with the obligation to keep an army of sixty thousand for him [2 p.215]

The formation of the union was accompanied by a new mediatization, that is, the subordination of small direct rulers to the supreme power of large sovereigns. The mediatization of 1806 produced the same effect in Germany as in 1802-1803. - secularization: Paris again became the center for the distribution of all sorts of favors, where the German princes used all possible means, some to prevent their mediatization, others to mediatize other people's possessions in their favor. The Ligurian Republic (Genoa) and the Kingdom of Etruria were annexed to France. The very next day after the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg, Napoleon declared by a simple decree that “the Bourbon dynasty ceased to reign in Naples,” because Naples, contrary to the previous agreement, joined the coalition and allowed the landing of troops that arrived on the Anglo-Russian fleet. The movement of the French army towards Naples forced the court there to flee to Sicily, and Napoleon granted the Kingdom of Naples to his brother Joseph. Benevent and Pontecorvo were given, as fief duchies, to Talleyrand and Bernadotte. In the former possessions of Venice, Napoleon also established a significant number of fiefs, which were connected with the ducal title, gave large incomes and complained to French dignitaries and marshals. Napoleon's sister Elisa (by Bacciocchi's husband) received Lucca even earlier, then Massa and Carrara, and after the destruction of the kingdom of Etruria she was appointed ruler of Tuscany. Napoleon also gave ownership to his other sister, Paulina Borghese. In the Kingdom of Italy, Lucca, Tuscany and Naples, many French orders were introduced. Napoleon's brother, Louis, reigned in Holland.

Thus, Napoleon's wars with England at sea were unsuccessful, but on land Bonaparte won a number of significant victories, as a result of which Austria withdrew from the anti-French coalition, Napoleon was declared Emperor of Italy.

2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, concerned about the strengthening of French dominance in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, during two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena, Napoleon defeated the units of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Frederick William and the Duke of Brunswick. Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army, moving to help the allies, met the French, first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloodshed, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807, Napoleon won the Battle of Friedland over the Russian troops, commanded by L.L. Bennigsen.

On July 7, 1807, in the middle of the Neman River, a meeting between the French and Russian emperors took place on a raft, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded, under the terms of which Prussia lost half of its possessions. [3 p. 216] From the Polish lands that Prussia received under the first two sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was organized, which came under the authority of the King of Saxony. All of its possessions between the Rhine and Elbe were taken away from Prussia, in conjunction with the Electorate of Hesse, Brunswick and southern Hanover to form the Kingdom of Westphalia, headed by Napoleon's brother, Jerome, who also joined the Rhine Union. In addition, Prussia had to pay a huge indemnity, maintain French garrisons at its own expense until the final payment, and comply with various restrictive conditions beneficial to France (regarding, for example, military roads). . Napoleon became the complete ruler of Germany. In many places, French orders were introduced, which were the fruit of the revolution and the organizational activities of Napoleon. The despotism of Napoleon and local rulers, constant recruitment into the army, and high taxes had a heavy impact on the German people, who felt their humiliation before a foreign ruler. After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon retained the city of Erfurt as a rallying point for the troops of the Confederation of the Rhine. Agreeing for France to dominate the West, Emperor Alexander I had in mind the same dominance in the East. An alliance of two emperors was being created against England, whose trade Napoleon sought to strike at with the so-called continental system. Russia had to close its ports to the British and recall its ambassadors from London. [6 p.84] Both powers undertook to demand that Sweden, Denmark and Portugal, which had until then acted in agreement with England, join the continental system. England responded to this by ordering its fleet to seize neutral ships leaving the ports of France or states allied with it.

Thus, consistent, merciless compliance with the rules of the “continental blockade” becomes the center of all Napoleon’s diplomatic and military activities.

Meanwhile, Austria decided to try its luck in the war of liberation. In April 1809, the Austrian emperor moved his military forces simultaneously to Bavaria, Italy and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but Napoleon, reinforced by the troops of the Union of the Rhine, repelled the attack and was already in Vienna in mid-May. The Habsburg monarchy, apparently, was about to collapse: the Hungarians were already invited to restore their former independence and elect a new king. Soon after, the French crossed the Danube and won a victory on July 5-6 at Wagram, followed by the Truce of Znaim (July 12), which was the threshold of the Vienna or Schönbrunn Peace (October 14). Austria lost Salzburg and some neighboring lands - in favor of Bavaria, western Galicia and part of eastern Galicia with Krakow - in favor of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and Russia and, finally, lands in the southwest (part of Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, Frioul, etc. .), which, together with Dalmatia, Istria and Ragusa, constituted the possession of Illyria, under the supreme authority of Napoleon. At the same time, the Viennese government pledged to join the continental system. This war was marked by a popular uprising in Tyrol, which, at the conclusion of the Peace of Vienna, was pacified and divided between Bavaria, Illyria and the Kingdom of Italy. On May 16, 1809, in Schönbrunn, Napoleon signed a decree that abolished the temporal power of the pope: the Church region was annexed to France, Rome was declared the second city of the empire. Austria had to recognize this change too. In July 1810, Napoleon, dissatisfied with his brother Louis, who weakly observed the continental system, annexed Holland to France; Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, the Duchy of Oldenburg and other lands between the Elbe and the Rhine, as well as the Swiss canton of Wallis, with a mountain road through Simplon, were also annexed.

The French Empire reached its greatest size, and, together with the vassal and allied states, included almost all of Western Europe. It included, in addition to present-day France, Belgium, Holland and a strip of northern Germany to the Baltic Sea, with the mouths of the Rhine, Ems, Weser and Elbe, so that the French border was only two hundred miles away from Berlin; further, the entire left bank of the Rhine from Wesel to Basel, some parts of present-day Switzerland, and finally Piedmont, Tuscany and the Papal States. Part of northern and central Italy made up the Kingdom of Italy, where Napoleon was the sovereign, and further, on the other side of the Adriatic Sea, on the Balkan Peninsula, there was Illyria, which belonged to Napoleon. As if by hand, in two long stripes from both the north and the south, Napoleon’s empire embraced Switzerland and the Union of the Rhine, in the center of which the city of Erfurt belonged to the French emperor. Strongly curtailed Prussia and Austria, bordering the Union of the Rhine and Illyria, had the former on its eastern border, the latter on its northern border, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which was under the protectorate of Napoleon and put forward as a French outpost against Russia. Finally, Napoleon's son-in-law Joachim I (Murat) reigned in Naples, and his brother Joseph reigned in Spain. (Appendix 3) Denmark had been in an alliance with Napoleon since 1807.

Thus, only England and Russia remained France's rivals, one at sea, the other on land, which determined Napoleon's further foreign policy.

2.5 War of the Sixth Coalition (1813-1814)

The formation of the sixth coalition was preceded by Napoleon's campaign in Russia, where the fate of his empire was decided. Napoleon counted on support from Turkey, which was at war with Russia, and from Sweden, which was ruled as crown prince by the former Napoleonic marshal Carl Bernadotte. With Turkey, Kutuzov, who turned out to be not only a wonderful strategist, but also a brilliant diplomat, managed to conclude just on the eve of the war - in May 1812 - a very beneficial peace for Russia, skillfully bringing the Grand Vizier to panic. Having learned about this sudden reconciliation between Russia and Turkey, Napoleon exclaimed in rage that he had not previously known what kind of idiots were ruling Turkey. As for Sweden, two offers were made to Bernadotte. Napoleon offered Sweden Finland if Sweden opposed Russia, and Alexander offered Norway if Sweden opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte, having weighed the benefits of both proposals, leaned towards Alexander, not only because Norway is richer than Finland, but also because Sweden was protected from Napoleon by the sea, and from Russia by nothing. Napoleon subsequently said that he should have abandoned the war with Russia at the moment when he learned that neither Turkey nor Sweden would fight with Russia. Immediately after the start of the war, England entered into an alliance with Alexander. With this balance of power, the war of 1812 began and ended. Diplomats throughout Europe followed with intense attention the behind-the-scenes struggle that was going on, especially at the very end of the war, between Alexander and Field Marshal Kutuzov. It was, in fact, a struggle between two mutually exclusive diplomatic attitudes, with Kutuzov pursuing his views in a number of strategic actions, and the tsar triumphed over Kutuzov only in Vilna, in December 1812 and January 1813. Kutuzov’s point of view, expressed by him to the English agent General Wilson, and before General Konovnitsyn, and other persons of his headquarters, was that the war began on the Neman, and should end there. As soon as there is no armed enemy left on Russian soil, the fight should stop and stop. There is no need to shed further blood to save Europe - let it save itself by its own means. There is no need in particular to strive to completely crush Napoleon - this will bring the most benefit not to Russia, but to England. If this “damned island” (as Kutuzov called England) completely fell through the ground, it would be the best thing. Kutuzov believed so. Alexander, on the contrary, believed that the matter of reckoning with Napoleon was just beginning. England did its best to support the king in his aspirations.

During the War of 1812, the strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov, and the partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400,000 “Great Army” [4 p. 90]. After Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Russian army crossed the Neman, then the Vistula. This caused a new rise in the national liberation struggle in Europe, and people's militia began to be created in a number of states.

In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria and a number of other states. In October 1813, the “Battle of the Nations” took place near Leipzig - Napoleon fought with a coalition consisting of Russians, Austrians, Prussians and Swedes [1 p. 702]. In his own army, in addition to the French, there were Poles, Saxons, Dutch, Italians, Belgians, and Germans from the Rhineland. (Appendix 4)

As a result of the “Battle of the Nations,” the territory of Germany was liberated from the French. Napoleon retreated from Leipzig to the borders of France, to the line that separated it from the German states before the start of Napoleonic conquests, to the Rhine line. [ 9 p. 300]. For the first time, Napoleon had to understand that the great empire was collapsing, that the motley conglomerate of countries and peoples, which he had tried for so many years to weld into a single empire with fire and sword, had disintegrated. On the way to the Rhine, even at Hanau (October 30), he had to fight his way with arms in hand through the Bavarian-Austrian detachments, and when on November 2, 1813, the emperor entered Mainz, he had only about 40 thousand combat-ready soldiers with him. The rest of the crowd of unarmed, exhausted, sick people who entered Mainz, who were also still in the army, could safely not be counted. In mid-November Napoleon was in Paris. The campaign of 1813 ended, and the campaign of 1814 began.

Thus, from 1812, the decline of Napoleon’s military power began, prepared by the failures of French weapons in Portugal and Spain (see the war on the Iberian Peninsula and so on). The Patriotic War, followed by the immediate war for the liberation of Germany and Europe, was the “beginning of the end.”

2.6 Capture of Paris and end of the campaign (March 1814)

The general situation at the end of February 1814 was difficult for Napoleon, but not hopeless. He set himself the task of concluding peace with the allies on the condition of maintaining the borders of France by the beginning of the era of the Napoleonic wars, that is, along the Rhine and the Alps.

The Allies agreed on a plan for further action in the campaign on March 24, deciding after disputes to resume the attack on Paris. A 10,000-strong cavalry corps under the command of the Russian general Wintzingerode was sent against Napoleon in order to mislead Napoleon about the intentions of the allies. The Wintzingerode Corps was defeated by Napoleon on March 26, but this no longer affected the course of further events. On March 30, Russian and Prussian corps attacked and, after fierce fighting, captured the suburbs of Paris. Wanting to save a city of thousands from bombing and street fighting, the commander of the right flank of the French defense, Marshal Marmont, sent a parliamentarian to the Russian emperor at 5 o'clock in the afternoon. Alexander I gave the following answer: “He will order to stop the battle if Paris is surrendered: otherwise by the evening they will not know the place where the capital was.” [9 p.331] The battle for Paris became one of the bloodiest for the allies in the campaign of 1814, losing more than 8 thousand soldiers in one day of fighting (of which more than 6 thousand were Russian). On March 31 at 2 a.m. the surrender of Paris was signed. By 7 o'clock in the morning, according to the terms of the agreement, the French regular army was supposed to leave Paris. At noon on March 31, the Russian and Prussian guards, led by Emperor Alexander I, triumphantly entered the capital of France. In early April, the French Senate issued a decree deposing Napoleon. Napoleon learned of the capitulation of Paris on the same day at the entrance to the capital. He went to his palace at Fontainebleau, where he awaited the arrival of his lagging army. Napoleon gathered all available troops (up to 60 thousand) to continue the war. However, under pressure from his own marshals, taking into account the mood of the population and soberly assessing the balance of forces, on April 4 Napoleon wrote a statement of conditional abdication in favor of his son Napoleon II under the regency of his wife Marie-Louise. While negotiations were ongoing, part of the French army went over to the side of the allies, which gave Tsar Alexander I a reason to tighten the terms of abdication. On April 6, Napoleon wrote an act of abdication for himself and his heirs from the throne of France. On the same day, the Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII king. On April 20, Napoleon himself went into honorable exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. “The grandest heroic epic of world history ended - he said goodbye to his guard,” - this is how English newspapers subsequently wrote about this day [9 p. 345].

Thus ended the era of the Napoleonic wars. On April 6, Napoleon I signed his abdication and was expelled from France.

3. RESULTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

It is hardly possible to give an unambiguous assessment of the significance of the Consulate and the Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte for European history. On the one hand, the Napoleonic wars brought enormous human casualties to France and other European states. They were conducted for the sake of conquering foreign territories and robbing other peoples. By imposing huge indemnities on the defeated countries, Napoleon weakened and ruined their economies. When he autocratically redrew the map of Europe or when he tried to impose a new economic order on it in the form of a continental blockade, he thereby interfered with the natural course of historical development, violating the boundaries and traditions that had developed over centuries. On the other hand, historical development always results from the struggle between old and new, and from this point of view, the Napoleonic Empire personified the new bourgeois order in the face of old feudal Europe. As in 1792-94. French revolutionaries tried to carry their ideas across Europe with bayonets, and Napoleon also tried to introduce bourgeois orders in the conquered countries with bayonets. Establishing French domination in Italy and the German states, he simultaneously abolished the feudal rights of the nobility and the guild system there, secularized church lands, and extended the application of his Civil Code to them. In other words, he destroyed the feudal system and acted in this regard, according to Stendhal, as a “son of revolution.” Thus, the Napoleonic era was one of the stages and one of the manifestations of the transition from the old order to the new times in European history.

The victories won by France over the armies of feudal-absolutist states were explained, first of all, by the fact that bourgeois France, which represented a more progressive social system, had an advanced military system created by the Great French Revolution. An outstanding commander, Napoleon I perfected the strategy and tactics developed during the revolutionary wars. The army also included troops from states subordinate to Napoleon I and foreign corps fielded by allied countries. The Napoleonic army, especially before the defeat of its best forces in Russia in 1812, was characterized by high combat training and discipline. Napoleon I was surrounded by a whole galaxy of talented marshals and young generals (L. Davout, I. Murat, A. Massena, M. Ney, L. Berthier, J. Bernadotte, N. Soult, etc.), many of whom came from soldiers or from the lower strata of society. However, the increasing transformation of the French army during the Napoleonic wars into an instrument for carrying out the aggressive plans of Napoleon I, huge losses (according to rough estimates, in 1800 - 1815, 3153 thousand people were called up for military service in France, of which only in 1804 - 1814 died 1750 thousand people) led to a significant decrease in its fighting qualities.

As a result of continuous wars and conquests, a huge Napoleonic empire was formed, supplemented by a system of states directly or indirectly controlled by France. Napoleon I plundered the conquered countries. The supply of the army during the campaign was carried out mainly through requisitions or direct robbery (according to the principle “war should feed war”). Customs tariffs favorable to France caused great damage to countries that were dependent on the Napoleonic Empire. The Napoleonic wars were a constant and important source of income for the Napoleonic government, the French bourgeoisie, and the elite of the military.

The wars of the French Revolution began as national ones. After the defeat of Napoleon, a feudal reaction was established in many European countries. However, the main result of the fierce wars was not the temporary victory of reaction, but the liberation of European countries from the domination of Napoleonic France, which ultimately contributed to the independent development of capitalism in a number of European states.

Thus, we can say that Napoleon’s wars were not just pan-European, but global in nature. They remain forever in history.

CONCLUSION

The era in which Napoleon Bonaparte lived contributed to his rapid rise and his brilliant career. Napoleon was certainly a talented man. Having set himself a goal in his distant youth - to achieve power, he walked consistently and patiently towards it, using his full potential. The Great French Revolution and the Republican Wars allowed the rise of a number of talented but not noble commanders, including Bonaparte.

Napoleon's rapid rise was due to the “concentration” in one person of genius, ambition, and correct understanding of the situation around him. In one of his interviews, the now famous Edward Radzinsky said: “Napoleon is a man who lived relating himself only to History.” And indeed, he is right - the attention of the whole world has been riveted on the life and death of Napoleon for two centuries. For example, if you type “Napoleon Bonaparte” in any Internet search engine, you will get more than 10 million links. These links will be different: from historical and literary portals and forums of historians studying the era of the Napoleonic wars, to sites that are completely ordinary and in no way related to history, intended for crossword puzzle lovers. Is this not confirmation that the first emperor of France became a kind of mega-figure in the history of mankind? Napoleon Bonaparte and his role in the development of European civilization will be the subject of close attention for many generations of historians, and readers around the world will turn to his image in literature for many years to come, trying to understand what the grandeur of this personality is.

In general, Napoleon's wars until 1812 were successful, almost all of Europe was in his hands. But the general situation at the end of February 1814 was difficult for Napoleon. As a result, “the most grandiose heroic epic of world history ended - he said goodbye to his guard,” as English newspapers subsequently wrote about this day.

However, I would like to end with the words of E.V. Tarle about the significance of Napoleon in world history: “In the memory of mankind there has forever remained an image that in the psychology of some echoes the images of Attila, Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, in the souls of others - with the shadows of Alexander the Great and Caesar, but which, as historical research grows, more and more is more evident in its unique originality and amazing individual complexity.”

LIST OF SOURCES AND LITERATURE USED

1. Sources

1. From the agreement on the creation of the Union of the Rhine under the protectorate of France // Reader on modern history, ed. A.A. Gubera, A.V. Efimova. – M.: Education, 1963. T.1 1640-1815. - With. 768.

2. From the Tilsit Peace Treaty between France and Prussia // Reader on new history, ed. A.A. Gubera, A.V. Efimova.

– M.: Education, 1963. T.1 1640-1815. - With. 768.

3. Napoleon. Selected works. – M.: Oborongiz, 1956. – p.788.

4. Expansion of the power of the first consul. From the senatus - consultation from 6 Thermidor X // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Comp. Sirotkin V.G. – M.: Education, 1990. – p. 286.

5. Tilsit Peace Treaty between France and Prussia // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Comp. Sirotkin V.G. Education – M.: Education, 1990. – p. 286.

6. Tilsit offensive and defensive alliance treaty between France and Russia // Reader on modern history 1640-1870. Comp. Sirotkin V.G. – M.: Education, 1990. – p. 286.

7. Tolstoy L.N. about the role of partisans in the Patriotic War // Reader on new history 1640-1870. Comp. Sirotkin V.G. – M.: Education, 1990. – p. 286.

2. Literature

8. Zhilin P.A. The death of Napoleonic army in Russia. – M.: Nauka, 1989. – p.451.

9. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. – Sukhumi: Alashara, 1980. – p. 712.

10. New history of European and American countries: Textbook. for universities / Krivoguz I.M. – M.: Bustard, 2003. – 912 p.

11. New history, 1640-1870. Textbook for history students ped. in-tov/ Narochnitsky A.L. – M.: Education, 1986. – 704 p.

12. Tarle E.V. Napoleon. M.: Nauka, 1991. – p. 461.

13. Tarle E.V. Essays on the history of colonial policy of Western European states (late 15th – early 19th centuries) M.: Nauka, 1965. – p. 428.

APPLICATIONS

Annex 1

Napoleon in his youth

Appendix 2

Emperor Napoleon

Source - Straubing/napoleonovskie voyny/ru.

Appendix 3

napoleon war army commander

Napoleonic Empire, 1811. France shown in dark blue.

Source - Wikipedia/napoleon/ru.

Na-po-leo-new wars are usually called wars waged by France against European countries during the reign of Na-po-leo-na Bo. na-par-ta, that is, in 1799-1815. European countries created anti-Napoleonic coalitions, but their forces were not sufficient to break the power of Napoleonic army. Napoleon won victory after victory. But the invasion of Russia in 1812 changed the situation. Napoleon was expelled from Russia, and the Russian army began a foreign campaign against him, which ended with the Russian invasion of Paris and Napoleon losing the title of emperor.

Rice. 2. British Admiral Horatio Nelson ()

Rice. 3. Battle of Ulm ()

On December 2, 1805, Napoleon won a brilliant victory at Austerlitz(Fig. 4). In addition to Napoleon, the Emperor of Austria and the Russian Emperor Alexander I personally participated in this battle. The defeat of the anti-Napoleonic coalition in central Europe allowed Napoleon to withdraw Austria from the war and focus on other regions of Europe. So, in 1806, he led an active campaign to seize the Kingdom of Naples, which was an ally of Russia and England against Napoleon. Napoleon wanted to place his brother on the throne of Naples Jerome(Fig. 5), and in 1806 he made another of his brothers king of the Netherlands, LouisIBonaparte(Fig. 6).

Rice. 4. Battle of Austerlitz ()

Rice. 5. Jerome Bonaparte ()

Rice. 6. Louis I Bonaparte ()

In 1806, Napoleon managed to radically solve the German problem. He abolished a state that had existed for almost 1000 years - Holy Roman Empire. An association was created from 16 German states, called Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon himself became the protector (protector) of this Union of the Rhine. In fact, these territories were also brought under his control.

Feature these wars, which in history were called Napoleonic Wars, it was that the composition of France's opponents changed all the time. By the end of 1806, the anti-Napoleonic coalition included completely different states: Russia, England, Prussia and Sweden. Austria and the Kingdom of Naples were no longer in this coalition. In October 1806, the coalition was almost completely defeated. In just two battles, under Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon managed to deal with the Allied troops and force them to sign a peace treaty. At Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon defeated the Prussian troops. Now nothing stopped him from moving further north. Napoleonic troops soon occupied Berlin. Thus, another important rival of Napoleon's in Europe was taken out of the game.

November 21, 1806 Napoleon signed the most important document for the history of France decree on the continental blockade(a ban on all countries under his control to trade and generally conduct any business with England). It was England that Napoleon considered his main enemy. In response, England blocked French ports. However, France could not actively resist England's trade with other territories.

Russia remained a rival. At the beginning of 1807, Napoleon managed to defeat Russian troops in two battles in East Prussia.

July 8, 1807 Napoleon and AlexanderIsigned the Peace of Tilsit(Fig. 7). This treaty, concluded on the border of Russia and French-controlled territories, proclaimed good neighborly relations between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade. However, this agreement meant only a temporary mitigation, but not an overcoming of the contradictions between France and Russia.

Rice. 7. Peace of Tilsit 1807 ()

Napoleon had a difficult relationship with By Pope PiusVII(Fig. 8). Napoleon and the Pope had an agreement on the division of powers, but their relationship began to deteriorate. Napoleon considered church property to belong to France. The Pope did not tolerate this and after the coronation of Napoleon in 1805 he returned to Rome. In 1808, Napoleon brought his troops into Rome and deprived the pope of temporal power. In 1809, Pius VII issued a special decree in which he cursed the robbers of church property. However, he did not mention Napoleon in this decree. This epic ended with the Pope being almost forcibly transported to France and forced to live in the Fontainebleau Palace.

Rice. 8. Pope Pius VII ()

As a result of these conquests and Napoleon's diplomatic efforts, by 1812 a huge part of Europe was under his control. Through relatives, military leaders or military conquests, Napoleon subjugated almost all the states of Europe. Only England, Russia, Sweden, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire, as well as Sicily and Sardinia remained outside its zone of influence.

On June 24, 1812, Napoleonic army invaded Russia. The beginning of this campaign was successful for Napoleon. He managed to cross a significant part of the territory of the Russian Empire and even capture Moscow. He could not hold the city. At the end of 1812, Napoleon's army fled from Russia and again entered the territory of Poland and the German states. The Russian command decided to continue the pursuit of Napoleon outside the territory of the Russian Empire. This went down in history as Foreign campaign of the Russian army. He was very successful. Even before the beginning of spring 1813, Russian troops managed to take Berlin.

From October 16 to 19, 1813, the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars took place near Leipzig., known as "battle of the nations"(Fig. 9). The battle received this name due to the fact that almost half a million people took part in it. At the same time, Napoleon had 190 thousand soldiers. His rivals, led by the British and Russians, had approximately 300 thousand soldiers. The numerical superiority was very important. In addition, Napoleon's troops were not as ready as they were in 1805 or 1809. A significant part of the old guard was destroyed, and therefore Napoleon had to take into his army people who did not have serious military training. This battle ended unsuccessfully for Napoleon.

Rice. 9. Battle of Leipzig 1813 ()

The Allies made Napoleon a lucrative offer: they offered him to retain his imperial throne if he agreed to reduce France to the borders of 1792, that is, he had to give up all his conquests. Napoleon indignantly refused this offer.

March 1, 1814 members of the anti-Napoleonic coalition - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia - signed Chaumont Treaty. It prescribed the actions of the parties to eliminate Napoleon's regime. The parties to the treaty pledged to deploy 150 thousand soldiers in order to resolve the French issue once and for all.

Despite the fact that the Treaty of Chaumont was only one in a series of European treaties of the 19th century, it was given a special place in the history of mankind. The Treaty of Chaumont was one of the first treaties aimed not at joint campaigns of conquest (it was not aggressive), but at joint defense. The signatories of the Treaty of Chaumont insisted that the wars that had rocked Europe for 15 years would finally end and the era of the Napoleonic Wars would end.

Almost a month after the signing of this agreement, March 31, 1814, Russian troops entered Paris(Fig. 10). This ended the period of the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. It seemed that his story was over, but Napoleon tried to return to power in France. You will learn about this in the next lesson.

Rice. 10. Russian troops enter Paris ()

Bibliography

1. Jomini. Political and military life of Napoleon. A book dedicated to Napoleon's military campaigns until 1812

2. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M.: Mysl, 1989.

3. Noskov V.V., Andreevskaya T.P. General history. 8th grade. - M., 2013.

4. Tarle E.V. "Napoleon". - 1994.

5. Tolstoy L.N. "War and Peace"

6. Chandler D. Napoleon’s military campaigns. - M., 1997.

7. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. Modern History, 1800-1900, 8th grade. - M., 2012.

Homework

1. Name Napoleon’s main opponents during 1805-1814.

2. Which battles from the series of Napoleonic wars left the greatest mark on history? Why are they interesting?

3. Tell us about Russia's participation in the Napoleonic wars.

4. What was the significance of the Chaumont Treaty for European states?