M. Planck put forward the hypothesis that during thermal radiation, energy is emitted and absorbed not continuously, but in separate quanta (portions).

A quantum of electromagnetic radiation related to the optical range of the spectrum is called a Photon. The rest mass of a photon is zero. A photon exists only by propagating at the speed of Light. If you stop him in any way, he will disappear. But a photon with sufficient energy can at the same time generate particles that have a rest mass, for example, an electron-positron pair (a positron is a positively charged electron).

Let's trace the photon chain - it moves - there is mass - it stopped - there is no mass, and disappeared in an unknown direction - having no mass, gave birth to children with mass. You read and marvel at how this could be elevated to the rank of a great science and exist for a century? "... The nature of the photoelectric effect is affected by different energies of photons..." Photons with different energies cannot reach the speed of Light, that is, they cannot exist in the light of the above statement.

We already know that Light is ropes of neutrons with their own magnetic fields. Light has different speeds. A neutron in a hindered state is a heat carrier. A neutron in the structure of a hedgehog is a component of a chemical element. The speed of Light determines the color of the material, medium, etc. Now let's remember the main thing - this is that the Light is accelerated by the neutron (nuclear) force of the fives directed in one direction. This is only possible when forming ropes with magnetic fields. To form ropes, you need to have a flow of neutrons from a zone of high density to a zone of low density - this is usually the environment.

The radiation of solid bodies by means of heating is the formation of ropes of Light from neutrons obtained as a result of partial destruction of the hedgehogs of the body's crystal lattice, with a directed flow of the latter from a zone of high carrier density to a low one with the inclusion of a neutron (nuclear) accelerating mechanism. The power of the accelerating mechanism is determined by the spin of the neutrons. The higher the temperature - the greater the twist of neutrons - the greater the speed of Light and the shift of color from red to violet for a given body. Spirals and other bodies that radiate Light as a result of heating pay for this by destroying their crystal lattice. No electromagnetic radiation based on neutrinos can turn into visible Light, which is formed on the basis of neutrons.

All theories about quantum optical phenomena turned out to be nothing more than versions. .

In his calculations, Planck chose the simplest model of the radiating system (cavity walls) in the form of harmonic oscillators (electric dipoles) with all possible natural frequencies. Here Planck followed Rayleigh. But Planck came up with the idea to connect with the energy of the oscillator not its temperature, but its entropy. It turned out that the resulting expression describes the experimental data well (October 1900). However, Planck was able to substantiate his formula only in December 1900, after he more deeply understood the probabilistic meaning of entropy, which Boltzmann pointed out. .

Thermodynamic probability - the number of possible microscopic combinations compatible with a given state as a whole.

In this case, this is the number of possible ways to distribute energy between the oscillators. However, such a calculation process is possible if the energy does not take any continuous values, but only discrete values ​​that are multiples of some unit energy. This energy of oscillatory motion must be proportional to the frequency.

So, the energy of an oscillator must be an integer multiple of some unit of energy proportional to its frequency.

where n = 1, 2, 3…

The fundamental difference between Planck's conclusion and the conclusions of Rayleigh and others is that "there can be no question of a uniform distribution of energy between oscillators."

The final form of Planck's formula:

rv,t=(2Пv2/c2)*(hv/ehv/kt-1 (2)

Thus, Planck's formula fully explained the laws of black body radiation. Consequently, the hypothesis of energy quanta was confirmed experimentally, although Planck himself was not too favorable towards the hypothesis of energy quantization. Then it was not at all clear why the waves should be emitted in portions.

Black body radiation in the entire range of frequencies and temperatures. Theoretically, M. Planck presented the derivation of this formula on December 14, 1900 at a meeting of the German Physical Society. This day became the date of birth of quantum physics.

From the Planck formula, knowing the universal constants h, k and c, we can calculate the Stefan-Boltzmann constant y and Wien b. On the other hand, knowing the experimental values ​​\u200b\u200bof y and b, one can calculate h and k (this is how the numerical value of Planck's constant was first found).

Thus, Planck's formula not only agrees well with experimental data, but also contains particular laws of thermal radiation. Consequently, Planck's formula is a complete solution to the basic problem of thermal radiation posed by Kirchhoff. Its solution became possible only thanks to Planck's revolutionary quantum hypothesis. . kepler continuum planck

In physics, not all phenomena and objects are observed directly. For example, an electric field. What we observe is the interaction of bodies, and by the interaction of bodies we judge the electric charge, the electric field that is created around it. If we cannot observe something directly, we can judge it by its manifestations.

We also do not see a beam of light until something hits it: a midge, smoke, a wall (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Midge in the path of a beam of light

Compare how you see sunlight in a room with clean air - only in the form of sunbeams on the floor and furniture (see Fig. 2) (the fact that air molecules come across in the path of the beam is difficult to notice with the naked eye), and in a dusty room - in the form of explicit rays (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 2. Light in a clean room

Rice. 3. Light in a dusty room

When studying light by its interaction with matter, its very interesting property was discovered: light energy is emitted and absorbed in portions, which are called quanta. Unusual to hear? But in nature, this property is not so rare, we do not even notice it. This is what we will talk about today.

There are things that we can count in pieces, like fingers on a hand, pens on a table, cars ... There is one car, and there are two, there can be no average, half a car is already a pile of spare parts. Now, pencils, cars, all things that are separate and that we can count are discrete. Unlike them, try to count the water: one, two ... Water is continuous, it can be poured in a stream, which can always be interrupted (see Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Water is continuous

Is sugar continuous? At first glance, yes. It, like water, can be taken with a spoon as much as you like. What if you look closer? Sugar consists of grains of sand, which we can count (see Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Sugar crystals

It turns out that if there is a lot of sugar in the sugar bowl and we take it from there with a spoon, we are not interested in individual crystals and we consider it continuous. But for an ant that carries one or two crystals, and for us, watching it through a magnifying glass, sugar is discrete. The choice of model depends on the problem being solved. You understand well what discreteness and continuity are when you buy some products by the piece, and others by weight.

If you look even closer, you can also consider water as discrete: for a long time you will not surprise anyone with the fact that substances consist of individual atoms and molecules. And it is also impossible to take half a molecule of water (see Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Close view of the water

We know the same about electric charge: the charge of a body can only take values ​​that are multiples of the charge of an electron or a proton, because these are elementary charge carriers (see Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Elementary charge carriers

Everything continuous at some level of study becomes discrete, the only question is at what level.

Examples of discreteness in nature

Look at the species diversity of the living world: there is a hippopotamus with a short neck and there is a giraffe with a long one. But there are not many intermediate forms among which one could find an animal with any neck length. It is clear that there are other animals with all kinds of necks, but the length of the neck is only one sign. If we take a set of features, then each species has its own set, and again there is no set of intermediate forms with all intermediate features (see Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. A set of signs of animals

Animals, like plants, come in separate distinct species. The key word is individual, that is, wildlife in its species diversity is discrete.

Heredity is also discrete: traits are transmitted by genes, and there cannot be half a gene: it either exists or it does not. Of course, there are many genes, so the traits they code for seem to be continuous, like sugar in a big bag. We do not see people in the form of constructors assembled from a set of templates: one of three standard hair colors, one of five eye colors (see Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. A person is not assembled like a constructor from a set of features.

In addition, the body, in addition to heredity, is influenced by environmental conditions.

Discreteness is also visible in resonant frequencies: lightly hit a glass standing on the table. You will hear a ringing: the sound of a certain - resonant for this glass - frequency. If the blow is strong enough and the glass staggers, then it will also stagger with a certain frequency (see Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Strong blow to the glass

If it is with water, circles will go along it, the surface of the water will oscillate with a frequency that is resonant for this water in a glass (see Fig. 11).

Rice. 11. Full glass of water

In this system, in our example it was a glass of water, the oscillations do not occur at any frequency, but only at certain ones - again discreteness.

Even water, while it flows from the tap in a trickle, we consider continuous, and when it starts to drip - discrete. Yes, we do not think that drops are indivisible, like molecules, but we consider them individually, we are not talking about the rate of water outflow, for example, 2 ml per second, if one drop falls, for example, in 5 seconds. That is, we apply a model of water consisting of drops.

Prior to this, discreteness, or quantization, was noticed in matter. Max Planck was the first to point out that energy also has this property. Planck suggested that the energy of light is discrete, and one portion of energy is proportional to the frequency of light. He did this when solving the problem of thermal radiation. We do not have enough knowledge to understand this problem, but Planck solved it, and most importantly, his assumption was confirmed experimentally.

Planck's hypothesis is as follows: the energy of vibrating molecules and atoms does not take any, but only certain certain values. This means that during radiation, the energy of radiating molecules and atoms changes in jumps. Accordingly, light is not emitted continuously, but in some portions, which Planck called quanta(see fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Light quanta

Planck's hypothesis was proved by the discovery and explanation of the photoelectric effect: this is the phenomenon of the emission of electrons by a substance under the influence of light or other electromagnetic radiation. It happens like this: the energy of one quantum is transferred to one electron (see Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Quantum energy is transferred to one electron

It goes to tear the electron out of the substance, and the remaining energy goes to accelerate the electron, goes into its kinetic energy. And here's what they noticed: the higher the frequency of light, the faster the electrons accelerate. This means that the energy of one radiation quantum is proportional to the radiation frequency. Planck accepted:

where E is the radiation quantum energy in joules, ν is the radiation frequency in hertz. Obtained by matching the experimental data with the theory, the coefficient of proportionality is equal to , was named Planck's constant.

It is surprising that we say: “light exhibits the properties of a stream of particles”, and we associate the energy of these particles with frequency - a characteristic of a wave, not a particle. That is, we do not say that light is a stream of particles, we simply apply the model, if only it would help us describe the phenomenon.

Photoelectric effect. Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect

The phenomenon of the photoelectric effect has become a confirmation of the quantum hypothesis, here the quantum model works well.

How a wave can knock an electron out of matter is not clear. And even more so it is not clear why radiation with one frequency knocks out an electron, and with another frequency - no. And how is the radiation energy distributed among the electrons: will the radiation impart more energy to one electron or less energy to two?

Using the quantum model, we can easily understand everything: one absorbed quantum of light energy (photon) can pull out only one photoelectron from a substance (see Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. One photon knocks out one photoelectron

If a quantum of light energy is not enough for this, the electron is not knocked out, but remains in the substance (see Fig. 15).

Rice. 15. Electron remains in matter

Excess energy is transferred to the electron in the form of the kinetic energy of its movement after leaving the substance. And how many such quanta will be, so many electrons will be affected by them.

We will have a separate lesson on the photoelectric effect, and then we will talk about it in more detail, but already now we will understand the Einstein equation for the photoelectric effect (see Fig. 16).

Rice. 16. The phenomenon of the photoelectric effect

It reflects what we have said, and looks like this:

is the work function is the minimum energy that must be imparted to an electron in order for it to leave the metal. This is a characteristic of the metal and the state of its surface.

A quantum of light energy is spent on doing the work function and on communicating kinetic energy to the electron.

The photoelectric effect, and the equation that describes it, was used to derive and test the value of , obtained by Planck. See the next thread for more on this.

Experimental determination of Planck's constant

Using the Einstein equation, you can determine the Planck constant, for this you need to experimentally determine the frequency of light, the work function A, and the kinetic energy of photoelectrons. This was done, and a value was obtained that coincided with that which was theoretically found by Planck when studying a completely different phenomenon - thermal radiation.

In physics, we often come across constants (for example, the Avogadro number, the boiling point of water, the universal gas constant, etc.). Such constants are unequal, among them there are so-called fundamental ones, on which the building of physics is built. Planck's constant is one of these constants, in addition to it, the fundamental constants include the speed of light and the gravitational constant.

One portion of radiation can be considered a particle of light - a photon. The energy of a photon is equal to one quantum. In the formulation of the problems, we will equally use the terms "photon energy" and "quantum of light energy". Also, these properties of light are called corpuscular (corpuscle means particle).

In accordance with Planck's hypothesis, the radiation energy is the sum of the minimum fractions, i.e., the total radiated energy takes on discrete values:

where is a natural number.

Since the size of the minimum portion of energy is , then, for example, a portion (or quantum) of radiation in the red range has a lower energy than a portion (or quantum) of radiation in the ultraviolet range.

Let's solve the following problem.

The radiation power of a laser pointer with a wavelength is . Determine the number of photons emitted by the pointer in 2 s.

3. Development of Planck's hypothesis. Quantum of action

When constructing his theory of equilibrium thermal radiation, Planck proceeded from the assumption that matter is a collection of electronic oscillators, through which energy is exchanged between matter and radiation. Such an oscillator is a material point held near its equilibrium position by force. The magnitude of this force increases in proportion to the deviation from the equilibrium position, and the oscillator is a mechanical system characterized by one peculiar property. This property lies in the fact that the oscillation frequency of the oscillator does not depend on the magnitude of its amplitude.

Following Planck, we define the energy quantum of an oscillator as a quantity equal to the product of the frequency of this oscillator and a constant h, and suppose that when an oscillator interacts with radiation, it can lose or gain energy only in a jump, and the magnitude of this jump is equal to the corresponding energy quantum. But in this form, the energy quantization hypothesis turns out to be applicable only in the case of harmonic oscillators. Indeed, in the general case of a system whose oscillation frequency is not constant, but depends on the oscillation amplitude, the introduced definition of an energy quantum becomes ambiguous. Planck understood the need to give a more general formulation of the principle of quantization, applicable to any mechanical systems and coinciding in the particular case of a harmonic oscillator with the above. He reasoned as follows. Since the constant has the dimension of action, i.e., the dimension of the product of energy and time or momentum per path, it can be regarded as an elementary quantity of action, a kind of unit of action in the atomic world. Let us now consider a mechanical system that performs periodic motion and is characterized by only one variable, say, a system consisting of one particle that performs periodic motion along some straight line. For such a system, one can calculate the action integral according to Maupertuis, which coincides with the action integral, which appears in the principle of least action, taken over the full period of motion.

This value is a certain characteristic of periodic motion. Requiring that it be equal to the product of an integer and Planck's constant, we obtain a new formulation of the quantization principle applicable to any one-dimensional periodic motion. It is easy to see that in the special case of a harmonic oscillator this new principle is completely equivalent to the previous principle of energy quantization. In order to give the quantization principle a more general form, Planck had to abandon the original energy quantization hypothesis and replace it with the action quantization hypothesis.

The fact that in the general formulation of the principle of quantization it is action that appears was both natural and somewhat strange. Natural because this quantity plays an essential role in all analytical mechanics according to Hamilton's principle and the principle of least action. This, in turn, led to the fact that the entire apparatus of analytical mechanics, as it were, was already ready to accept the new principle of quantization. The quantization of the action seemed strange because from a purely physical point of view it was difficult to understand how such a quantity as action, which is rather abstract in nature and does not directly satisfy any conservation laws, can be a characteristic of the discreteness of the processes of the atomic world.

The action is always expressed as the product of certain quantities of a geometric nature by the corresponding quantities of a dynamic nature. Pairs of these quantities form canonically conjugate variables in analytical mechanics. Thus, the integral that appears in the Maupertuis principle of least action is a curvilinear integral of the momentum along the trajectory. And a kind of discrete action, expressed by the introduction of Planck's constant, indicates the presence of a certain relationship between space and time, on the one hand, and dynamic phenomena that we are trying to localize in this space and time, on the other. This interrelation has a completely new character, absolutely alien to the concepts of classical physics. And therein lies the profound and revolutionary significance of the ideas that Planck laid at the basis of the theory of equilibrium radiation of a black body.

Planck proceeded from the assumption that matter can emit radiation not continuously, but only in separate finite portions. This, however, does not entail an unambiguous assumption about the discreteness of the radiation structure. Two different theories can be constructed, based on two opposite assumptions regarding the nature of the absorption of radiation by matter. The first, perhaps more consistent and subsequently universally recognized, is based on the assumption that the elements of matter, such as electronic oscillators, can only be in such states of motion that correspond to quantized values ​​of energy. It directly follows from this that both emission and absorption of radiation can occur only in discrete portions, or quanta. This, in turn, necessarily entails the assertion that the radiation structure is discrete.

Confused by this incomprehensible consequence of his own ideas, Planck tried for a long time to develop another, less radical form of quantum theory, in which only the emission of radiation was discrete, while the absorption remained continuous. It was believed that matter can continuously absorb radiation incident on it, but it can only emit it discretely, in separate quanta. It is easy to understand the goal that Planck pursued. He tried to defend and preserve the old idea of ​​the continuous nature of radiation, since it seemed that only in this case would the quantum theory not contradict the wave theory, which had been repeatedly confirmed in numerous and very accurate experiments.

However, for all the ingenuity that Planck put into developing this form of quantum theory, it was refuted by later developments in physics and, in particular, by Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect and by the success of Bohr's theory of the atom.

From the book Revolution in Physics author de Broglie Louis

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The world around us today is radically different in technology from everything that was customary in society a hundred years ago. All this became possible only because, at the dawn of the twentieth century, researchers were able to overcome the barrier and finally realize that any element on the smallest scale does not operate continuously. A talented scientist, Max Planck, opened this unique era with his hypothesis.

Figure 1. Planck's quantum hypothesis. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

The following physicists are named after:

• one of the physical theories
• scientific community in Germany,
• quantum Equation,
• asteroid,
• crater on the moon
• modern space telescope.

Planck's image was printed on banknotes and embossed on coins. Such an outstanding personality, with his assumptions, was able to conquer society and become a recognizable scientist during his lifetime.

Max Planck was born in the middle of the nineteenth century in an ordinary poor German family. His ancestors were ministers of the church and good lawyers. The physicist received a fairly good higher education, but fellow researchers jokingly called him “self-taught”. He gained key knowledge through obtaining information from books.

Formation of Planck's theory

Planck's hypothesis was born from the concepts he had originally deduced theoretically. In his scientific works, he tried to describe the principle “science is the most important”, and during the First World War, the scientist did not lose important connections with foreign colleagues from small German countries. The unexpected arrival of the Nazis found Planck in the position of head of a large scientific group - and the researcher sought to protect his colleagues, help his employees go abroad and escape from the regime.

So Planck's quantum theory was not the only thing for which he was respected. It is worth noting that the scientist never expressed his opinion regarding Hitler's actions, obviously realizing that he could harm not only himself, but also those who needed his help. Unfortunately, many representatives of the scientific world did not accept Planck's position and completely stopped corresponding with him. He had five children, and only the youngest survived his father. At the same time, contemporaries emphasize that only at home the physicist was himself - a sincere and fair person.

Since his youth, the scientist has been involved in the study of the principles of thermodynamics, which state that any physical process goes exclusively with an increase in chaos and a decrease in mass or mass.

Remark 1

Planck is the first to correctly formulate the definition of a thermodynamic system (in terms of entropy, which can only be observed in this concept).

Later, it was this scientific work that led to the well-known Planck's hypothesis being created. He was also able to separate physics and mathematics by developing a comprehensive mathematical section. Before the talented physicist, all natural sciences had mixed roots, and experiments were carried out at an elementary level by singles in laboratories.

The quantum hypothesis

Exploring the entropy of electric and magnetic waves in terms of oscillators and relying on scientific data, Planck presented to the public and other scientists a universal formula, which would later be named after its creator.

The new equation connected with each other:

• wavelength;
• energy and saturation of the action of the electromagnetic field;
• the temperature of light radiation, which was intended to a large extent for absolutely black matter.

After the official presentation of this formula, Planck's colleagues, under the leadership of Rubens, set up experiments for several days in order to scientifically confirm this theory. As a result, it turned out to be absolutely correct, but in order to substantiate the hypothesis theoretically arising from this equation and at the same time avoid mathematical difficulties, the scientist had to admit that electromagnetic energy is emitted in separate portions, and not in a continuous stream, as previously thought. This method finally destroyed all existing ideas about a solid physical body. Planck's quantum theory revolutionized physics.

Contemporaries believe that initially the researcher did not realize the significance of his discovery. For some time, the hypothesis he presented was used only as a convenient solution to reduce the number of mathematical formulas for calculation. At the same time, Planck, like his colleagues, used Maxwell's continuous equations in their work.

The researchers were confused only by the constant $h$, which could not get a physical meaning. It was not until later that Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein, by carefully investigating the new phenomena of radioactivity and studying the mathematical foundations of optical spectra, were able to understand the full importance of Planck's theory. It is known that the scientific report, at which the energy quantization formula was first announced, opened the age of new physics.

Uses of Planck's theory

Remark 2

Thanks to Planck's law, the public received a weighty argument in favor of the so-called Big Bang hypothesis, which explains the expansion and emergence of the universe as a result of a powerful explosion with extremely high temperature.

It is believed that in the early stages of its formation, our Universe was completely filled with some kind of radiation, the spectral property of which should coincide with the radiation of a black body.

Since then, the world has only expanded and then cooled to its current temperature. That is, the radiation that is currently propagating in the Universe should be similar in composition to the alpha radiation of black matter with a certain temperature. In 1965, Wilson discovered this radiation at a magnetic wavelength of 7.35 cm, which constantly falls on our planet with the same energy in absolutely all directions. It soon became clear that this phenomenon could only emit a black body that arose after the Big Bang. The final measurement indicators indicate that the temperature of the specified substance today is 2.7 K.

The application of the theory of thermal and electromagnetic radiation can explain the processes that would accompany a nuclear explosion (the so-called "atomic winter"). A powerful explosion will lift colossal masses of soot and dust into the upper layers of the air. As the closest thing to a black body, soot completely absorbs almost all solar radiation, heats up to the maximum limit, and then emits radiation in both directions.

As a result, only half of the radiation that comes from the Sun hits the Earth, since the second half will be directed in the opposite direction from the planet. According to scientists, the average temperature of the Earth will decrease by 50 K (this is the temperature below the freezing point of water).

The world around us today is radically different in technology from everything that was customary in society a hundred years ago. All this became possible only because, at the dawn of the twentieth century, researchers were able to overcome the barrier and finally realize that any element on the smallest scale does not operate continuously. A talented scientist, Max Planck, opened this unique era with his hypothesis.

Figure 1. Planck's quantum hypothesis. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

The following physicists are named after:

• one of the physical theories
• scientific community in Germany,
• quantum Equation,
• asteroid,
• crater on the moon
• modern space telescope.

Planck's image was printed on banknotes and embossed on coins. Such an outstanding personality, with his assumptions, was able to conquer society and become a recognizable scientist during his lifetime.

Max Planck was born in the middle of the nineteenth century in an ordinary poor German family. His ancestors were ministers of the church and good lawyers. The physicist received a fairly good higher education, but fellow researchers jokingly called him “self-taught”. He gained key knowledge through obtaining information from books.

Formation of Planck's theory

Planck's hypothesis was born from the concepts he had originally deduced theoretically. In his scientific works, he tried to describe the principle “science is the most important”, and during the First World War, the scientist did not lose important connections with foreign colleagues from small German countries. The unexpected arrival of the Nazis found Planck in the position of head of a large scientific group - and the researcher sought to protect his colleagues, help his employees go abroad and escape from the regime.

So Planck's quantum theory was not the only thing for which he was respected. It is worth noting that the scientist never expressed his opinion regarding Hitler's actions, obviously realizing that he could harm not only himself, but also those who needed his help. Unfortunately, many representatives of the scientific world did not accept Planck's position and completely stopped corresponding with him. He had five children, and only the youngest survived his father. At the same time, contemporaries emphasize that only at home the physicist was himself - a sincere and fair person.

Since his youth, the scientist has been involved in the study of the principles of thermodynamics, which state that any physical process goes exclusively with an increase in chaos and a decrease in mass or mass.

Remark 1

Planck is the first to correctly formulate the definition of a thermodynamic system (in terms of entropy, which can only be observed in this concept).

Later, it was this scientific work that led to the well-known Planck's hypothesis being created. He was also able to separate physics and mathematics by developing a comprehensive mathematical section. Before the talented physicist, all natural sciences had mixed roots, and experiments were carried out at an elementary level by singles in laboratories.

The quantum hypothesis

Exploring the entropy of electric and magnetic waves in terms of oscillators and relying on scientific data, Planck presented to the public and other scientists a universal formula, which would later be named after its creator.

The new equation connected with each other:

• wavelength;
• energy and saturation of the action of the electromagnetic field;
• the temperature of light radiation, which was intended to a large extent for absolutely black matter.

After the official presentation of this formula, Planck's colleagues, under the leadership of Rubens, set up experiments for several days in order to scientifically confirm this theory. As a result, it turned out to be absolutely correct, but in order to substantiate the hypothesis theoretically arising from this equation and at the same time avoid mathematical difficulties, the scientist had to admit that electromagnetic energy is emitted in separate portions, and not in a continuous stream, as previously thought. This method finally destroyed all existing ideas about a solid physical body. Planck's quantum theory revolutionized physics.

Contemporaries believe that initially the researcher did not realize the significance of his discovery. For some time, the hypothesis he presented was used only as a convenient solution to reduce the number of mathematical formulas for calculation. At the same time, Planck, like his colleagues, used Maxwell's continuous equations in their work.

The researchers were confused only by the constant $h$, which could not get a physical meaning. It was not until later that Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein, by carefully investigating the new phenomena of radioactivity and studying the mathematical foundations of optical spectra, were able to understand the full importance of Planck's theory. It is known that the scientific report, at which the energy quantization formula was first announced, opened the age of new physics.

Uses of Planck's theory

Remark 2

Thanks to Planck's law, the public received a weighty argument in favor of the so-called Big Bang hypothesis, which explains the expansion and emergence of the universe as a result of a powerful explosion with extremely high temperature.

It is believed that in the early stages of its formation, our Universe was completely filled with some kind of radiation, the spectral property of which should coincide with the radiation of a black body.

Since then, the world has only expanded and then cooled to its current temperature. That is, the radiation that is currently propagating in the Universe should be similar in composition to the alpha radiation of black matter with a certain temperature. In 1965, Wilson discovered this radiation at a magnetic wavelength of 7.35 cm, which constantly falls on our planet with the same energy in absolutely all directions. It soon became clear that this phenomenon could only emit a black body that arose after the Big Bang. The final measurement indicators indicate that the temperature of the specified substance today is 2.7 K.

The application of the theory of thermal and electromagnetic radiation can explain the processes that would accompany a nuclear explosion (the so-called "atomic winter"). A powerful explosion will lift colossal masses of soot and dust into the upper layers of the air. As the closest thing to a black body, soot completely absorbs almost all solar radiation, heats up to the maximum limit, and then emits radiation in both directions.

As a result, only half of the radiation that comes from the Sun hits the Earth, since the second half will be directed in the opposite direction from the planet. According to scientists, the average temperature of the Earth will decrease by 50 K (this is the temperature below the freezing point of water).