KIEV PRINCIPALITY, Old Russian principality in the 2nd third of the 12th century - 1470. Capital - Kyiv. It was formed in the process of the collapse of the Old Russian state. Initially, the Kiev principality, in addition to its main territory, included Pogorina (Pogorynya; lands along the Goryn River) and the Beresteisky volost (the center is the city of Berestye, now Brest). There were about 90 cities in the principality of Kiev, in many of them there were separate princely tables in different periods: in Belgorod Kiev, Berestye, Vasilevo (now Vasilkov), Vyshgorod, Dorogobuzh, Dorohichyn (now Drohichyn), Ovruch, Gorodets-Ostersky (now Oster ), Peresopnitsa, Torchesk, Trepol, etc. A number of fortress cities protected Kyiv from Polovtsian raids along the right bank of the Dnieper River and from the south along the Stugna and Ros rivers; Vyshgorod and Belgorod Kyiv defended the capital of the Kyiv principality from the north and west. On the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, in Porosie, nomads serving the Kyiv princes settled - black hoods.

Economy. The basis of the economic development of the Kyiv principality was arable agriculture (mainly in the form of two-field and three-field), while the population of cities was closely connected with agriculture. The main grain crops grown on the territory of the Kyiv Principality are rye, wheat, barley, oats, millet and buckwheat; from legumes - peas, vetch, lentils and beans; from industrial crops - flax, hemp and camelina. Cattle breeding and poultry farming also developed: cows, sheep, goats and pigs were bred in the Kiev principality; chickens, geese and ducks. Horticulture and horticulture are quite widespread. The most common industry in the Kiev principality was fishing. Due to the constant inter-princely conflicts and the increase in Polovtsian raids, from the middle (and especially from the last third) of the 12th century, a gradual outflow of the rural population from the Principality of Kyiv (for example, from Porosie) began, primarily to North-Eastern Russia, Ryazan and Murom principalities.

Most of the cities of the Kyiv Principality until the end of the 1230s were major centers of crafts; almost the entire range of ancient Russian handicrafts was produced on its territory. Pottery, foundry (the production of copper encolpion crosses, icons, etc.), enamel, bone carving, woodworking and stoneworking, and the art of niello have reached a high level of development. Until the middle of the 13th century, Kyiv was the only center of glassmaking in Russia (dishes, window glass, jewelry, mainly beads and bracelets). In some cities of the Kyiv Principality, production was based on the use of local minerals: for example, in the city of Ovruch, the extraction and processing of natural red (pink) slate, the manufacture of slate whorls; in the city of Gorodesk - iron production, etc.

The largest trade routes passed through the territory of the Kyiv principality, connecting it both with other Russian principalities and with foreign states, including the Dnieper section of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, the overland roads Kyiv - Galich - Krakow - Prague - Regensburg; Kyiv - Lutsk - Vladimir-Volynsky - Lublin; Salt and Zalozny paths.

Struggle of ancient Russian princes for dynastic seniority. The main feature of the political development of the Kyiv principality in the 12th - 1st third of the 13th century was the absence in it, unlike other ancient Russian principalities, of its own princely dynasty. Despite the collapse of the Old Russian state, the Russian princes until 1169 continued to consider Kyiv as a kind of “oldest” city, and its possession as obtaining dynastic eldership, which led to an aggravation of the inter-princely struggle for the Kiev principality. Quite often, the closest relatives and allies of the Kyiv princes received separate cities and volosts in the territory of the Kyiv principality. During the 1130-1150s, two groups of Monomakhoviches played a decisive role in this struggle (Vladimirovichi - children of Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh; Mstislavichs - children of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great) and Svyatoslavichi (descendants of the Chernigov and Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich). After the death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (1132), his younger brother Yaropolk Vladimirovich took the Kyiv throne without any difficulty. However, Yaropolk's attempts to implement some of the provisions of the will of Vladimir Monomakh (the transfer of the sons of Mstislav the Great to the princely tables closest to Kyiv, so that later, after the death of Yaropolk, they inherited the Kyiv table) caused serious opposition from the younger Vladimirovichs, in particular Prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky. The weakening of the internal unity of the Monomakhoviches took advantage of the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs, who actively intervened in the inter-princely struggle in the 1130s. As a result of these troubles, Yaropolk's successor on the Kiev table, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich, held out in Kyiv for less than two weeks (22.2-4.3.1139), after which he was expelled from the Kyiv principality by the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich, who, in violation of the agreements of the Lyubech Congress of 1097, deprived the Chernigov princes of the right to inherit the Kievan table, not only managed to take and hold the Kievan table until his death (1146), but also took steps to secure the inheritance of the Kievan principality for the Chernigov Olgovichi. In 1142 and 1146-57 the Principality of Kyiv included the Principality of Turov.

In the mid-1140s - early 1170s, the role of the Kyiv veche increased, which discussed almost all key issues of the political life of the Kyiv principality and often determined the fate of the Kyiv princes or pretenders to the Kyiv table. After the death of Vsevolod Olgovich, his brother Igor Olgovich (August 2-13, 1146) reigned for a short time in the Principality of Kiev, who was defeated in a battle near Kyiv by the Pereyaslav prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. The 2nd half of the 1140s - the middle of the 1150s - the time of open confrontation between Izyaslav Mstislavich and Yuri Dolgoruky in the struggle for the Kiev principality. It was accompanied by various innovations, including in the political life of the Kyiv principality. So, in fact, for the first time, both princes (especially Yuri Dolgoruky) practiced the creation of numerous princely tables within the Kyiv principality (under Yuri Dolgoruky they were occupied by his sons). Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1151 went to recognize the seniority of his uncle - Vyacheslav Vladimirovich in order to create a "duumvirate" with him to legitimize his own power in the Kiev principality. The victory of Izyaslav Mstislavich in the Battle of Ruta in 1151 actually meant his victory in the struggle for the Kiev principality. A new aggravation of the struggle for the Principality of Kiev fell on the time after the death of Izyaslav Mstislavich (on the night of November 13-14, 1154) and Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (December 1154) and ended with the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky (1155-57) in Kyiv. The death of the latter changed the balance of power in the course of the struggle for the Kyiv table among the Monomakhoviches. All the Vladimirovichs died, only two Mstislavichs remained (Prince of Smolensk Rostislav Mstislavich and his younger half-brother Vladimir Mstislavich, who did not play a significant political role), the positions of Prince Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky strengthened in North-Eastern Russia, coalitions of sons gradually formed (later - descendants in the following generations) Izyaslav Mstislavich - Volyn Izyaslavich and sons (later - descendants in the next generations) Rostislav Mstislavich - Smolensk Rostislavich.

In the short second reign of the Chernigov prince Izyaslav Davidovich (1157-1158), the Turov principality was separated from the Kyiv principality, the power in which was seized by Prince Yuri Yaroslavich, who had previously been in the service of Yuri Dolgoruky (grandson of the Vladimir-Volyn prince Yaropolk Izyaslavich). Probably, at the same time, the Beresteisky volost finally passed from the Kyiv principality to the Vladimir-Volyn principality. Already in December 1158, the Monomakhoviches regained the Kiev principality. Rostislav Mstislavich, Prince of Kyiv from 12.4.1159 to 8.2.1161 and from 6.3.1161 to 14.3.1167, sought to restore the former prestige and respect for the power of the Kyiv prince and largely achieved his goal. Under his control and the authority of his sons in 1161-67 were, in addition to the Kyiv principality, the Smolensk principality and the Novgorod Republic; the allies and vassals of Rostislav were the princes of Vladimir-Volynsky, Lutsk, Galich, Pereyaslavl; the suzerainty of the Rostislavichs extended to the Polotsk and Vitebsk principalities. The eldership of Rostislav Mstislavich was also recognized by Vladimir Prince Andrey Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. The closest relatives and allies of Rostislav Mstislavich received new holdings on the territory of the Kyiv Principality.

With the death of Rostislav Mstislavich, among the pretenders to the Kievan principality, there was no prince left who would enjoy the same authority among relatives and vassals. In this regard, the position and status of the Kyiv prince changed: during 1167-74, he almost always turned out to be a hostage in the struggle of various princely groups or individual princes, relying on the support of the inhabitants of Kyiv or the population of some lands of the Kyiv principality (for example, Porosie or Pogorynya) . At the same time, the death of Rostislav Mstislavich made Prince Vladimir Andrei Bogolyubsky the oldest among the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh (the youngest son of Mstislav the Great, Prince Vladimir Mstislavich, was not a serious political figure and was younger than his cousin). The campaign against the Kiev principality in 1169 by the troops of the coalition created by Andrei Bogolyubsky ended in a three-day defeat of Kyiv (12-15.3.1169). The capture of Kyiv by the forces of Andrei Bogolyubsky and the fact that he himself did not occupy the Kyiv table, but handed it over to his younger brother Gleb Yuryevich (1169-70, 1170-71), marked a change in the political status of the Kyiv principality. Firstly, now seniority, at least for Vladimir princes, was no longer associated with the occupation of the Kyiv table (beginning in the autumn of 1173, only one descendant of Yuri Dolgoruky occupied the Kyiv table - Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in 1236-38). Secondly, since the beginning of the 1170s, the role of the Kyiv Council in making key political decisions, including in matters of determining candidates for the Kyiv table, has seriously decreased. After 1170, the main part of Pogorynya gradually entered the sphere of influence of the Vladimir-Volyn principality. The suzerainty of Andrei Bogolyubsky over the Principality of Kyiv remained until 1173, when, after the conflict between the Rostislavichs and Andrei Bogolyubsky, the troops of the Vyshgorod prince David Rostislavich and the Belgorod prince Mstislav Rostislavich captured Kyiv on 24.3. The Big Nest - and handed over the Kyiv table to his brother - Ovruch prince Rurik Rostislavich. The defeat in the autumn of 1173 of the troops of the new coalition sent to Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky meant the final liberation of the Kyiv principality from its influence.

Kiev principality - the sphere of interests of the South Russian princes. For the princes of South Russia, the occupation of the Kievan table continued to be associated with a kind of seniority until the mid-1230s (the only exception was the attempt of the Galician-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1201-05 to establish control over the Kyiv principality, similar to what Andrei Bogolyubsky did in 1169- 73). The history of the Kyiv principality in 1174-1240 is essentially a struggle for it (sometimes subsiding, then again escalating) of two princely coalitions - the Rostislavichs and the Chernigov Olgovichi (the only exception was the period 1201-05). For many years, the key figure in this struggle was Rurik Rostislavich (Prince of Kyiv in March - September 1173, 1180-81, 1194-1201, 1203-04, 1205-06, 1206-07, 1207-10). In 1181-94, a “duumvirate” of Prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Rostislavich acted in the Kiev principality: Svyatoslav received Kyiv and a nominal seniority, but at the same time the rest of the territory of the Kyiv principality was under the rule of Rurik. The sharp increase in the political influence of the Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest forced the South Russian princes to officially recognize his seniority (probably in 1194 at the congress of the Kyiv prince Rurik Rostislavich and the Smolensk prince David Rostislavich), but this did not change the sufficiently independent position of the rulers of the Kyiv principality. At the same time, the problem of "communion" was identified - recognized as the oldest, Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1195 demanded a "part" on the territory of the Kyiv principality, which led to a conflict, since the cities that he wanted to receive (Torchesk, Korsun, Boguslavl, Trepol, Kanev ), the Kyiv prince Rurik Rostislavich had already transferred to the possession of his son-in-law - Vladimir-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. The Kyiv prince took the required cities from Roman Mstislavich, which led to a conflict between them, which only worsened in the future (in particular, in 1196 the Vladimir-Volyn prince actually left his first wife, the daughter of Rurik Rostislavich Predslava) and largely determined the political fate of Kyiv principalities at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. The conflict of interests between Roman Mstislavich (who united the Vladimir-Volyn and Galician principalities in 1199) and Rurik Rostislavich led to the overthrow of the latter and the appearance on the Kiev table of Roman Mstislavich's henchman, Prince Ingvar Yaroslavich of Lutsk (1201-02, 1204).

On January 1-2, 1203, the combined troops of Rurik Rostislavich, the Chernigov Olgovichi and the Polovtsy subjected Kyiv to a new defeat. At the beginning of 1204, Roman Mstislavich forced Rurik Rostislavich, his wife and daughter Predslava (his ex-wife) to take monastic vows, and captured Rurik's sons Rostislav Rurikovich and Vladimir Rurikovich and took him to Galich. However, soon, after the diplomatic intervention in the situation of the father-in-law of Rostislav Rurikovich - the Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, Roman Mstislavich had to transfer the Kiev principality to Rostislav (1204-05). The death of Roman Mstislavich in Poland (June 19, 1205) made it possible for Rurik Rostislavich to start fighting again for the Kyiv table, now with the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny (Kyiv prince in 1206, 1207, 1210-12). During 1212-36, only Rostislavichs ruled in the Kiev principality (Mstislav Romanovich the Old in 1212-23, Vladimir Rurikovich in 1223-35 and 1235-36, Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1235). In the 1st third of the 13th century, the “Bolokhov land” became practically independent of the Kyiv principality, turning into a kind of buffer zone between the Kyiv principality, the Galician and Vladimir-Volyn principalities. In 1236, Vladimir Rurikovich ceded the Kiev principality to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod, probably in exchange for support in taking the Smolensk table.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of North-Eastern Russia (1237-38) led to the departure of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich from the Kyiv principality to Novgorod, and then to Vladimir. For the first time since 1212, a representative of the Chernigov Olgovichi, Mikhail Vsevolodovich, became the prince of Kyiv. After the capture of Pereyaslavl by the Mongols (3.3.1239), the arrival of Mongolian ambassadors from Tsarevich Möngke in Kyiv and their murder, Mikhail Vsevolodovich fled to Hungary. According to indirect data from a number of chronicles, it can be assumed that his cousin Mstislav Glebovich became his successor, whose name is named first among the names of three Russian princes (formerly Vladimir Rurikovich and Daniil Romanovich), who signed a truce with the Mongols in the fall of 1239. However, Mstislav Glebovich soon, apparently, also left the Kiev principality and fled to Hungary. He was replaced by the son of Mstislav Romanovich the Old - Rostislav Mstislavich, who took the Kyiv throne, probably after the death of Vladimir Rurikovich in Smolensk. Rostislav Mstislavich had no real support in the principality of Kiev and was easily captured by the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich, who left the thousandth Dmitri in Kyiv in the face of the Mongol-Tatar threat to organize defense. After more than a 10-week siege by the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, Kyiv fell on November 19, 1240, most of the cities of the Kyiv principality were taken by storm or destroyed.

Kiev principality under the control of the Mongol-Tatars . The destruction and devastation of cities and lands on the territory of the Kyiv principality led to a severe political and economic crisis. According to the Nikon chronicle (1520s), after the conquest of Kyiv and before continuing the campaign to the west, Batu left his governor in the city. Obviously, the appearance of the Mongol authorities in Pereyaslavl and Kanev, which was described by Carpini, dates back to 1239-40. One of their main functions at the first stage was the organization of the pit service and the recruitment of soldiers for a campaign against the countries of Western Europe. Already in 1241, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who returned to Russia, was forced to live not in the princely court in Kyiv (obviously occupied by representatives of another government), but on one of the islands on the Dnieper River, and then return to Chernigov. In the 1240s, he tried to unite the efforts of the Principality of Kyiv, Hungary and the Roman Curia in the fight against the Golden Horde, Lithuania, Mazovia and the Galician prince Daniel Romanovich. The anti-Orda position of Mikhail Vsevolodovich alerted Batu, who in 1243 summoned Mikhail Vsevolodovich's longtime political opponent, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, to the Horde and gave him a label for the Kiev principality and the entire "Russian land". Yaroslav Vsevolodovich did not personally rule in Kyiv, but sent his governor to the city - the boyar Dmitry Yeikovich (1243-46). After the death of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1246), his eldest sons, princes Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky and Andrei Yaroslavich, went to the Mongol Empire. In 1248, the first of them received the right to the Kiev principality, and the second - to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. This political act testified to the legal preservation of the seniority of the Kyiv principality in the system of ancient Russian principalities. However, the refusal of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich to move from Novgorod to Kyiv and his reign in Vladimir (1252) led to a decline in the importance of the Kyiv principality. This was facilitated not only by the political and economic crisis, favorable conditions for the settlement of nomads on the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, but also by the establishment here of a stricter system of Horde control, which had not yet been introduced in North-Eastern Russia, and the frequent presence there, and not in Kiev the principality of Metropolitan Kirill II (III). The Mongolian administration supported the desire of the princes of the “Bolokhov Land” to get out of the control of Prince Daniel Romanovich, traces of the presence of its garrisons are known in the territory of some cities of Pogorynya, brodniks and black hoods, as well as a number of lands along the rivers Ros and Stugna. The unsuccessful plan to capture Kyiv (1254) and the defeat of Prince Daniil Romanovich in the fight against the Mongol noyon Burundai (1257-60) caused a new political crisis in the Kiev principality. In the 1260s, under Temnik Nogai, the bulk of the black hoods were resettled in the Volga region and the North Caucasus. The Mongol authorities resettled the conquered Polovtsy in the liberated regions of the Kyiv principality. On the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, there was a gradual desolation of cities, even those that were not destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In a number of cases, the fortifications of the border towns of the Kyiv Principality were burned and demolished, and they themselves turned into rural-type settlements (for example, Vyshgorod, Chuchin, Ivan in Rzhishchev, Voin at the mouth of the Sula, as well as settlements that were located on the site of the settlements explored by archaeologists near the village of Komarovka on the Dnieper, settlements near the Polovtsian farm on Ros, etc.). Separate categories of residents of the Kyiv principality, primarily artisans, moved to other Russian principalities and lands (to Novgorod, Smolensk, Galicia-Volyn lands, etc.).

Information about the political development of the Kyiv principality in the last third of the 13th century is associated exclusively with the activities of the Russian metropolitans Cyril II (III) and Maxim, who spent a lot of time here, and sometimes also consecrated new bishops in Kyiv. The gradual restoration of the Kyiv principality was interrupted in the 1290s, during a fierce struggle for power in the Golden Horde between the Mongol princes and the influential temnik Nogai, to whom the Kiev principality was directly subordinate. This struggle caused the attacks of the Horde (probably, the troops of Khan Tokhta) on the territory of the Kyiv principality. Horde violence also led to the flight of Metropolitan Maxim, along with the entire clergy of the St. Sophia Cathedral, from Kyiv to Vladimir (1299), after which, as it is said in the Laurentian Chronicle (1377), "and the whole of Kiev fled."

In the 1st quarter of the 14th century, the Kiev principality gradually revived (this is evidenced, in particular, by dated graffiti in the churches of Kyiv, starting from 1317). At the turn of the 1320s-30s, the younger brother of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas, Prince Fyodor, reigned in the Kiev principality, probably, who occupied the Kyiv table with the consent of the Horde. In Kyiv, the Basque institution was preserved. At the same time, the jurisdiction of Prince Fedor extended to part of the Chernigov principality, which indicates a change in the boundaries of the Kyiv principality in the 1st quarter of the 14th century. The reign of Prince Fedor in Kyiv, apparently, ended no later than the 1340s. The Horde took advantage of the weakening position of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) in the mid-1340s and early 1350s. The next prince of Kyiv known from sources was Vladimir Ivanovich (probably died between 1359 and 1363), who came from the senior (Bryansk) line of the Chernigov Olgovichi dynasty and was the great-grandson of the Kyiv and Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich. It is possible that his claims were caused by the previous reign in the Kiev principality of his father, Prince Ivan Romanovich of Putivl, who, like Vladimir himself, died at the hands of the Horde.

Kievan principality within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The beginning of the “great commemoration” in the Horde (1359) weakened the Horde’s control over the Kyiv principality, and the death of Vladimir Ivanovich allowed the newly representative of the Lithuanian Gediminoviches, Prince Vladimir Olgerdovich (not later than 1367-95) to occupy the Kyiv table that had become vacant and entailed the inclusion in the Kyiv principalities of escheated possessions of the senior branch of the Olgovichi in the territory of Chernihiv and Putivl regions. The reign of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Olgerdovich, despite the political dependence of the Kyiv principality on the Golden Horde, was characterized by a noticeable military-economic and cultural upsurge of the cities and lands of the Kyiv principality. In the middle - the 2nd half of the 14th century, they finally entered the zone of interests of the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Vladimir Olgerdovich led a large construction and reconstruction in the cities of the Kyiv principality, mainly in Kyiv. With the help of the military forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Horde was gradually forced out across the Dnieper River, and defensive fortifications along the Sula River were recreated on the southeastern border of the Kyiv Principality. Apparently, already under the Grand Duke Vladimir Olgerdovich, the Pereyaslav principality (on the left bank of the Dnieper) was included in the Kyiv principality. Vladimir Olgerdovich, like other Orthodox specific Lithuanian princes - his contemporaries, began minting silver coins in Kyiv with his name (they were widely used on the territory of the Kyiv principality and the Chernigov principality, in the GDL). In the struggle for control over the Kyiv Metropolis, Vladimir Olgerdovich supported Cyprian, who in 1376-81 and 1382-90 was in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and often lived in Kyiv. In the winter of 1385, the daughter of Vladimir Olgerdovich married the 4th son of the Grand Duke of Tver, Mikhail Alexandrovich, Prince Vasily Mikhailovich. After the accession of Jagiello to the royal throne in Poland under the name of Vladislav II Jagello in 1386, Vladimir Olgerdovich recognized the power and suzerainty of his younger brother (in 1386, 1388 and 1389 he took an oath of allegiance to the king, his wife, Queen Jadwiga and the Polish crown). In 1390 he supported Vladislav II Jagello in the fight against Vytautas; together with the Kyiv army participated in the siege of Grodno. In 1392, after Vytautas came to power in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vladimir Olgerdovich refused to obey him, motivating his decision by the fact that he had already taken an oath of allegiance to Vladislav II Jagiello. Another reason for the conflict was the terms of the 1392 agreement between Vladislav II Jagiello and Vitovt, according to which the Kiev principality was to pass to Prince John-Skirgailo as compensation for the lands of North-Western Belarus and the Troki principality he had lost. In 1393-94, Vladimir Olgerdovich supported the Novgorod-Seversky prince Dmitry-Koribut Olgerdovich and the Podolsk prince Fyodor Koryatovich in the fight against Vitovt. In the spring of 1394, Vitovt and Polotsk prince John-Skirgaylo captured the cities of Zhitomir and Ovruch in the northern part of the Kyiv principality and forced Vladimir Olgerdovich to negotiate. The princes made peace for 2 years, but already in 1395 Vladimir Olgerdovich lost the Kyiv principality, and his place was taken by Prince John-Skirgailo, who immediately had to besiege the cities of Zvenigorod and Cherkassy that did not submit to him. In 1397, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, John-Skirgailo, was poisoned by Thomas (Izufov), the vicegerent of Metropolitan Cyprian in Kyiv. Probably, after that, Vytautas essentially turned the Kiev principality into a governorship, which sharply reduced the status of the Kyiv principality among the ancient Russian principalities subordinate to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At the same time, the inheritances of minor princes were preserved in the Kiev principality, whose role was largely determined by service at the court of Vitovt (for example, the princes of Glinsky). Prince Ivan Borisovich (died in 1399), the son of Podolsk prince Boris Koryatovich, and Ivan Mikhailovich Golshansky (died after 1401), son of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Olgimont, became the first governors of the Kyiv principality. In 1399, after the defeat of the troops of Vitovt and his allies in the Battle of Vorskla, the Kiev Principality was attacked by the troops of the Horde rulers. Having ruined the rural district, Khan Timur-Kutlug and Emir Yedigey were satisfied with 1 thousand rubles from Kyiv and 30 rubles from the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery; in 1416, the Horde again raided the Kiev principality, ruining the rural district of Kyiv and the Kiev Caves Monastery. According to the Belarusian-Lithuanian chronicles of the 1st third of the 16th century, I. M. Golshansky's successors as governors of the Kyiv principality were his sons - Andrei (died no later than 1422) and Mikhail (died in 1433).

In 1440, Casimir Jagiellonchik, who became the new Grand Duke of Lithuania (later the Polish King Casimir IV), went to a partial revival of the appanage system in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in particular, the Principality of Kiev received such a status. The specific Kyiv prince was the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Olgerdovich - Slutsk prince Alexander Olelko Vladimirovich. His reign was interrupted for a short time in 1449, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania Mikhail Sigismundovich, with the support of the Horde Khan Seid-Ahmed, captured the Kiev principality and Seversk land. However, the joint actions of the troops of Casimir IV and the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark led to the defeat of Mikhail Sigismundovich and the return to Kyiv of Prince Alexander Olelko Vladimirovich. In 1455, after his death, the Principality of Kiev was inherited by his eldest son Semyon Alexandrovich.

Some increase in the status of the Kyiv Principality within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania contributed to strengthening the role of the Kyiv boyars within the Kyiv principality, where the Kyiv princes continued the policy of distributing large and small possessions to the princes and boyars who were part of their council, as well as to smaller boyars and servants. For large boyars who were not members of the Rada, the system of annual feeding continued to operate. The boyars took part in the collection and distribution of taxes collected in the Kiev principality, and also sometimes received salaries and lands from the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was considered the ruler of the Kyiv principality. In the 1450-60s, relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crimean Khanate normalized, Khan Hadji-Girey I issued a label to Casimir IV for the possession of the Kyiv principality and other lands of Western and Southern Russia.

After strengthening his positions in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, winning the war with the Teutonic Order, Casimir IV, taking advantage of the death of Prince Semyon Alexandrovich in 1470 and the absence of his brother Mikhail in Kyiv (he reigned in Novgorod in 1470-71), liquidated the Kiev principality and transformed it into a voivodeship , while in 1471 Casimir IV, with a special privilege, secured a certain autonomy of the Kiev region as part of the ON.

Lit .: Lyubavsky M.K. Regional division and local government of the Lithuanian-Russian state at the time of the publication of the first Lithuanian statute. M., 1893; Klepatsky P. G. Essays on the history of the Kyiv land. Od., 1912. T. 1; Nasonov A.N. Mongols and Russia. M.; L., 1940; Rybakov B. A. Craft of Ancient Russia. M., 1948; Dovzhenok V. I. Farming of Ancient Pyci until the middle of the XIII century. Kiev, 1961; Umanskaya A.S. On the importance of birds in the economy of the Old Russian population of the territory of Ukraine // Archeology. 1973. No. 10; Rapov O. M. Princely possessions in Russia in the X - first half of the XIII century. M., 1977; Dovzhenok V. O. Middle Dnieper after the Tatar-Mongol invasion // Ancient Russia and the Slavs. M., 1978; Tolochko P.P. Kyiv and Kyiv land in the era of feudal fragmentation of the XII-XIII centuries. K., 1980; Pashkevich G. O., Petrashenko V. O. Farming and cattle breeding in the Middle Dnieper in the VIII-X centuries. // Archeology. 1982. No. 41; Pashuto V. T., Florya B. N., Khoroshkevich A. L. Old Russian heritage and historical fate of Eastern Slavs. M., 1982; Belyaeva S. A. South Russian lands in the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. K., 1982; Rychka V. M. Formation of the territory of the Kyiv land (IX - the first third of the XII century). K., 1988; Stavisky V. I. To the analysis of news about Russia in the “History of the Mongols” by Plano Carpini in the light of its archeographic tradition // Ancient states in the territory of the USSR: Materials and research. 1986 M., 1988; he is. "History of the Mongols" by Plano Carpini and Russian chronicles // Ibid. 1990 M., 1991; Grushevsky M.S. Essay on the history of the Kyiv land from the death of Yaroslav to the end of the XIV century. K., 1991; Hrushevsky M. S. History of Ukraine-Rus. Kiev, 1992-1993. T. 2-4; Gorsky A. A. Russian lands in the XIII-XIV centuries: Ways of political development. M., 1996; Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania // Ukraine kpiz wiki. Kiev, 1998. Vol. 6; Ivakin G. Yu. The historical development of Southern Russia and the Batu invasion // Russia in the XIII century: Antiquities of the dark time. M., 2003; Pyatnov A.P. The struggle for the Kyiv table in 1148-1151 // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8. History. 2003. No. 1; he is. Kyiv and Kyiv land in 1167-1169 // Ancient Russia: questions of medieval studies. 2003. No. 1; he is. Kyiv and Kyiv land in 1169-1173 // Collection of the Russian Historical Society. M., 2003. T. 7; he is. Kiev principality in 1235-1240 // The first open historical readings "Young Science". M., 2003; Kuzmin A. V. Sources of the XVI-XVII centuries. about the origin of Kyiv and Putivl Prince Vladimir Ivanovich // Eastern Europe in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Problems of Source Studies. M., 2005. Part 2.

A. V. Kuzmin, A. P. Pyatnov.

The principality of Kiev occupied a central place in medieval Russia for a long time. Kyiv was the main and richest city. It was the Kyiv table that was occupied by the Grand Duke, who, in fact, was the head of state. Therefore, fierce internecine wars were waged for the Kiev principality for several centuries.

The development of the Kyiv principality in the 12th-13th centuries

To understand what influenced the development of the Kyiv principality in the 12th-13th centuries, it is necessary to understand its position in Russia at that time:

• Kyiv emerged as a major shopping center due to its favorable location. The city was located on a busy trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The ruler of the principality controlled this route, extracting large revenues. However, with the weakening of Byzantium in the 12th and 13th centuries, the importance of the trade route declined. This made the Kyiv table less important for the rest of the Russian princes;
• Kyiv is located in the steppe zone. Therefore, the city is convenient for nomad raids. Immediately beyond the Dnieper, lands began, along which the Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsy and other steppe peoples roamed. Kyiv was constantly subjected to ruin. In the 13th century, such vulnerability greatly reduced the prestige of the Kievan principality;
• In the 12-13 centuries, there was a strengthening of North-Eastern Russia. This association included several principalities with the cities of Moscow, Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Rostov the Great. They were located in the forest zone and were protected from the raids of nomads. The principalities grew rich from trade; they supplied Novgorod and Pskov with bread. And Kyiv gradually weakened and lost its greatness.

Thus, the main features of the development of the Kyiv principality in the 12-13 centuries were the weakening of the principality itself and the simultaneous strengthening of North-Eastern Russia. It was there that the center of power of Russia shifted. The northern princes had strong squads, large land holdings. But many of them still sought to seize the Kyiv table.

The result of the weakening of the principality

The weakening of the Kyiv principality led to its capture by the Tatar-Mongols. However, Kyiv quickly left their sphere of influence and fell under the control of a strong Polish-Lithuanian state. Until the New Age, Kyiv was part of the Commonwealth.

For the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the Kiev principality was the first among all Russian principalities. He soberly looks at the contemporary world and no longer considers Kyiv the capital of Russia. The Grand Duke of Kyiv does not order other princes, but asks them to enter "into the golden stirrup ... for the Russian land," and sometimes, as it were, asks: "Don't you think to fly here from afar to guard your father's golden throne?", as he turned to Vsevolod Big Nest.

The author of the Lay has great respect for sovereign sovereigns, princes of other lands, and does not at all suggest redrawing the political map of Russia. When he talks about unity, he means only what was quite real then: a military alliance against the "nasty", a single defense system, a single plan for a distant raid into the steppe. But the author of the Lay does not lay claim to the hegemony of Kyiv, since Kyiv had long ago turned from the capital of Russia into the capital of one of the principalities and was almost on an equal footing with such cities as Galich, Chernigov, Vladimir on the Klyazma, Novgorod, Smolensk. Kyiv was distinguished from these cities only by its historical glory and the position of the church center of all Russian lands.

Until the middle of the XII century, the Kiev principality occupied significant areas on the Right Bank of the Dnieper: almost the entire Pripyat basin and the Teterev, Irpin and Ros basins. Only later did Pinsk and Turov separate from Kyiv, and the lands to the west of Goryn and Sluch went to the Volyn land.

A feature of the Kyiv principality was a large number of old boyar estates with fortified castles, concentrated in the old land of glades to the south of Kyiv. To protect these estates from the Polovtsy, as early as the 11th century, along the Ros River (in "Porosye"), significant masses of nomads expelled by the Polovtsians from the steppes were settled: Torks, Pechenegs and Berendeys, united in the 12th century by a common name - Black Hoods. They seemed to anticipate the future border noble cavalry and carried out border service in the vast steppe space between the Dnieper, Stugna and Ros. Cities populated by the Chernoklobutsky nobility (Yuriev, Torchesk, Korsun, Dveren, etc.) arose along the banks of the Ros. Defending Russia from the Polovtsy, the Torks and Berendeys gradually adopted the Russian language, Russian culture, and even the Russian epic epic.

The capital of the semi-autonomous Porosye was either Kanev or Torchesk, a huge city with two fortresses on the northern bank of the Ros.

The Black Hoods played an important role in the political life of Russia in the 12th century and often influenced the choice of this or that prince. There were times when the Black Hoods proudly declared to one of the pretenders to the Kyiv throne: "In us, prince, there is both good and evil," that is, that the achievement of the grand prince's throne depends on them, border cavalry constantly ready for battle, located two days way from the capital.

For half a century that separates "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" from the time of Monomakh, the Kiev principality lived a difficult life.

In 1132, after the death of Mstislav the Great, Russian principalities began to fall away from Kyiv one after another: either Yuri Dolgoruky would ride from Suzdal to seize the Pereyaslav principality, then the neighboring Chernigov Vsevolod Olgovich, together with his Polovtsian friends, "went fighting villages and cities ... and people the secant even came to Kyiv ... ".

Facial image of Grand Duke Mstislav Vladimirovich. Titular. 1672

Novgorod was finally freed from the power of Kyiv. The Rostov-Suzdal land was already acting independently. Smolensk voluntarily accepted the princes. Galich, Polotsk, Turov had their own special princes. The horizons of the Kyiv chronicler narrowed down to the Kiev-Chernigov conflicts, in which, however, the Byzantine prince, the Hungarian troops, the Berendeys, and the Polovtsy took part.

After the death of the unlucky Yaropolk in 1139, the even more unlucky Vyacheslav sat on the Kyiv table, but lasted only eight days - he was expelled by Vsevolod Olgovich, the son of Oleg "Gorislavich".

The Kyiv Chronicle depicts Vsevolod and his brothers as cunning, greedy and crooked people. The Grand Duke constantly led intrigues, quarreled with relatives, granted distant destinies in bearish corners to dangerous rivals in order to remove them from Kyiv.

An attempt to return Novgorod was unsuccessful, since the Novgorodians expelled Svyatoslav Olgovich "for his malice", "for his violence."

Igor and Svyatoslav Olgovichi, brothers of Vsevolod, were dissatisfied with him, and all six years of reigning passed in mutual struggle, violations of the oath, conspiracies and reconciliations. Of the major events, one can note the stubborn struggle between Kyiv and Galich in 1144-1146.

Vsevolod did not enjoy the sympathy of the Kyiv boyars; this was reflected both in the annals and in the characterization that V. N. Tatishchev took from sources unknown to us: “This Grand Duke husband was great in stature and very fat, had little hair on his head, a wide beard, considerable eyes, a long nose. He was wise (cunning. - B. R.) was in councils and courts, for whom he wanted, he could justify or accuse. He had many concubines and was more in fun than in reprisals. Through this, the people of Kiev were greatly burdened by him. And as soon as he died, hardly anyone, except for his beloved women, wept, and they were more glad.

The protagonist of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - Svyatoslav of Kyiv - was the son of this Vsevolod. Vsevolod died in 1146. Subsequent events clearly showed that the main force in the principality of Kiev, as well as in Novgorod, and in other lands at that time, was the boyars.

Vsevolod's successor, his brother Igor, the same ferocious prince whom the people of Kiev so feared, was forced to swear allegiance to them at the veche "with all their will." But the new prince had not yet had time to leave the veche meeting for dinner, when the "kiyans" rushed to smash the yards of the hated tiuns and swordsmen, which was reminiscent of the events of 1113.

The leaders of the Kyiv boyars, Uleb Tysyatsky and Ivan Voitishich, secretly sent an embassy to Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, in Pereyaslavl with an invitation to reign in Kyiv, and when he approached the walls of the city with his troops, the boyars threw down their banner and, as it was agreed, surrendered to him. Igor was tonsured a monk and exiled to Pereyaslavl. A new stage of the struggle between Monomashich and Olgovichi began.

The clever Kyiv historian of the end of the 12th century, hegumen Moses, who had a whole library of annals of various principalities, compiled a description of these turbulent years (1146-1154) from fragments of the personal chronicles of the warring princes. It turned out to be a very interesting picture: the same event is described from different points of view, the same act was described by one chronicler as a good deed inspired by God, and by others as the machinations of the "all-sly devil".

The chronicler of Svyatoslav Olgovich carefully conducted all the economic affairs of his prince and, with each victory of his enemies, meticulously listed how many horses and mares were stolen by the enemies, how many haystacks were burned, what utensils were taken in the church and how many troughs of wine and honey stood in the prince's cellar.

Of particular interest is the chronicler of the Grand Duke Izyaslav Mstislavich (1146-1154). This is a man who knew military affairs well, participated in campaigns and military councils, and carried out the diplomatic missions of his prince. In all likelihood, this is the boyar, Kievan thousand Peter Borislavich, mentioned many times in the annals. He conducts, as it were, a political account of his prince and tries to put him in the most favorable light, to show him as a good commander, a managerial ruler, a caring overlord. Exalting his prince, he skillfully vilifies all his enemies, showing an outstanding literary talent.

To document his chronicle-report, obviously intended for influential princely-boyar circles, Peter Borislavich widely used the authentic correspondence of his prince with other princes, the people of Kiev, the Hungarian king and his vassals. He also used the minutes of princely congresses and diaries of campaigns. Only in one case does he disagree with the prince and begins to condemn him - when Izyaslav acts against the will of the Kyiv boyars.

The reign of Izyaslav was filled with a struggle with the Olgovichi, with Yuri Dolgoruky, who twice managed to briefly capture Kyiv.

In the process of this struggle, the prisoner of Izyaslav, Prince Igor Olgovich (1147), was killed in Kyiv by the verdict of the veche.

In 1157 Yuri Dolgoruky died in Kyiv. It is believed that the Suzdal prince, unloved in Kyiv, was poisoned.

During these strife in the middle of the XII century, the future heroes of the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" are repeatedly mentioned - Svyatoslav Vsevolodich and his cousin Igor Svyatoslavich. So far, these are third-rate young princes who went into battle in the vanguard detachments, received small cities as inheritance and "kissed the cross with all their will" of the older princes. Somewhat later, they were fixed in large cities: from 1164 Svyatoslav in Chernigov, and Igor in Novgorod-de-Seversky. In 1180, not long before the events described in the Lay, Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Treasure with hryvnia money bars

Due to the fact that Kyiv was often a bone of contention between the princes, the Kiev boyars entered into a “row” with the princes and introduced a curious system of duumvirate, which lasted the entire second half of the 12th century.

Duumvir co-rulers were Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle Vyacheslav Vladimirovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodich and Rurik Rostislavich. The meaning of this original measure was that at the same time representatives of two warring princely branches were invited and thereby partly eliminated strife and established a relative balance. One of the princes, who was considered the eldest, lived in Kyiv, and the other - in Vyshgorod or Belgorod (he disposed of the land). On campaigns, they acted together and diplomatic correspondence was carried out in concert.

The foreign policy of the Kyiv principality was sometimes determined by the interests of one or another prince, but, in addition, there were two constant directions of struggle that required daily readiness. The first and most important is, of course, the Polovtsian steppe, where in the second half of the 12th century feudal khanates were created that united individual tribes. Usually Kyiv coordinated its defensive actions with Pereyaslavl (which was in the possession of the Rostov-Suzdal princes), and thus a more or less unified Ros-Sula line was created. In this regard, the significance of the headquarters of such a general defense passed from Belgorod to Kanev. The southern border outposts of the Kievan land, located in the 10th century on the Stugna and on the Sula, now moved down the Dnieper to Orel and Sneporod-Samara.

The second direction of the struggle was the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Since the time of Yuri Dolgoruky, the northeastern princes, freed by their geographical position from the need to wage a constant war with the Polovtsy, directed their military forces to subjugate Kyiv, using the border Principality of Pereyaslavl for this purpose. The arrogant tone of the Vladimir chroniclers sometimes misled historians, and they sometimes believed that Kyiv at that time was completely stalled. Particular importance was attached to the campaign of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the son of Dolgoruky, against Kyiv in 1169.

The Kyiv chronicler, who witnessed the three-day robbery of the city by the victors, described this event so vividly that he created an idea of ​​some kind of catastrophe. In fact, Kyiv continued to live a full-blooded life as the capital of a rich principality even after 1169. Churches were built here, an all-Russian chronicle was written, the "Word about Igor's Campaign" was created, which is incompatible with the concept of decline.

Kyiv Prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodich (1180-1194) "Word" characterizes as a talented commander.

His cousins, Igor and Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, with their haste awakened the evil that Svyatoslav, their feudal overlord, managed to cope with shortly before:

The formidable great Svyatoslav of Kiev, with a thunderstorm Byashet, ruffled his strong regiments and haraluzhny swords;

Step on the Polovtsian land;
Pritopta hills and yarugas;
Stir up rivers and lakes;
Dry up streams and swamps.
And the filthy Kobyak from the bow of the sea
From the great iron regiments of the Polovtsians,
Like a whirlwind, vytorzhe:
And pvdesya Kobyak in the city of Kyiv,
In the grid of Svyatoslavl.
Tu Nemtsi and Veneditsi, that Gretsi and Morava
Sing the glory of Svyatoslav
Prince Igor's cabin...

The poet meant here the victorious campaign of the united Russian forces against Khan Kobyak in 1183.

Svyatoslav's co-ruler was, as it is said, Rurik Rostislavich, who reigned in the "Russian Land" from 1180 to 1202, and then became for some time the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is entirely on the side of Svyatoslav Vsevolodich and says very little about Rurik. Chronicle, on the contrary, was in the sphere of influence of Rurik. Therefore, the activities of the duumvirs are biased by the sources. We know about the conflicts and disagreements between them, but we also know that Kyiv at the end of the 12th century experienced an era of prosperity and even tried to play the role of an all-Russian cultural center.

This is evidenced by the Kyiv chronicle of 1198 of Abbot Moses, which, together with the Galician chronicle of the 13th century, was included in the so-called Ipatiev Chronicle.

The Kyiv Code gives a broad idea of ​​the different Russian lands in the 12th century, using a number of annals of individual principalities. It opens with The Tale of Bygone Years, which tells about the early history of all of Russia, and ends with a recording of Moses' solemn speech on the construction of a wall at the expense of Prince Rurik, strengthening the banks of the Dnieper. The orator, who prepared his work for collective performance by "one mouth" (cantata?), calls the Grand Duke the king, and his principality magnifies "an autocratic power ... known not only in Russian borders, but also in distant overseas countries, to the end of the universe."

Mosaic image of the prophet. 11th century Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

After the death of Svyatoslav, when Rurik began to reign in Kyiv, his co-ruler in the "Russian land", that is, the southern Kiev region, was briefly his son-in-law Roman Mstislavich Volynsky (great-great-grandson of Monomakh). He received the best lands with the cities of Trepol, Torchesky, Kanev and others, which made up half of the principality.

However, Vsevolod the Big Nest, the prince of the Suzdach land, envied this "goddamn volost", who wanted to be in some form an accomplice in the management of the Kyiv region. A long feud began between Rurik, who supported Vsevolod, and the offended Roman Volynsky. As always, the Olgovichi, Poland, and Galich were quickly drawn into the strife. The case ended with the fact that Roman was supported by many cities, Black Hoods, and finally in 1202 "opened the gates for him."

In the very first year of the great reign, Roman organized a campaign deep into the Polovtsian steppe "and took the Polovtsian vines and brought a lot of souls full of peasants from them (from the Polovtsy. - B.R.), and there was great joy in the lands of Rus" .

Rurik did not remain in debt and on January 2, 1203, in alliance with the Olgovichi and "the entire Polovtsian land" took Kyiv. "And great evil was done in the Russtey of the land, as if there was no evil from baptism over Kiev ...

Taking the hem and burning it; otherwise you took Mount and plundered St. Sophia and the Tithes (church) as metropolis ... plundered and robbed all the monasteries and adorned the icons ... then put everything in full. and nuns, and the young black women, wives and daughters of Kiev were taken to their camps.

Obviously, Rurik did not hope to gain a foothold in Kyiv, if he robbed him like that, and went to his own castle in Ovruch.

In the same year, after a joint campaign against the Polovtsians in Trepol, Roman captured Rurik and tonsured his entire family (including his own wife, Rurik's daughter) as monks. But Roman did not rule long in Kyiv, in 1205 he was killed by the Poles, when he rode too far from his squads while hunting in his western possessions.

The poetic lines of the chronicle are connected with Roman Mstislavich, which, unfortunately, has come down to us only partially. The author calls him the autocrat of all Russia, praises his mind and courage, noting especially his struggle with the Polovtsians: before their land, like an eagle; hrobor bo be, like a tour. Regarding the Polovtsian campaigns of Roman, the chronicler recalls Vladimir Monomakh and his victorious struggle against the Polovtsians. Epics with the name of Roman have also been preserved.

One of the chronicles that has not come down to us, used by V. N. Tatishchev, provides extremely interesting information about Roman Mstislavich. As if after the forcible tonsure of Rurik and his family, Roman announced to all Russian princes that his father-in-law had been dethroned by him for violating the treaty.

This is followed by a presentation of Roman's views on the political structure of Russia in the 13th century: the Kyiv prince must "defend the Russian land from everywhere, and keep good order among the brethren, the princes of Russia, so that one cannot offend another and run over and ruin other people's regions." The novel blames the younger princes who are trying to capture Kyiv, having no strength for defense, and those princes who "bring in the filthy Polovtsy."

Then the draft of the election of the Kyiv prince in the event of the death of his predecessor is presented. Six princes must choose: Suzdal, Chernigov, Galician, Smolensk, Polotsk, Ryazan; "Junior princes are not needed for that election." These six principalities should be inherited by the eldest son, but not divided into parts, "so that the Russian land does not diminish in strength." Roman proposed to convene a princely congress to approve this order.

It is difficult to say how reliable this information is, but in the conditions of 1203 such an order, if it could be put into practice, would be a positive phenomenon. However, it is worth recalling the good wishes on the eve of the Lubech Congress of 1097, his good decisions and the tragic events that followed him.

V. N. Tatishchev retained the characteristics of Roman and his rival Rurik:

"This Roman Mstislavich, the grandson of the Izyaslavs, was although not very large, but broad and overbearingly strong; his face was red, his eyes were black, his nose was large with a hump, his hair was black and short; he was very angry; his tongue was slanted, when he was angry, he did not could pronounce words for a long time; had a lot of fun with nobles, but he was never drunk. He loved many wives, but owned none of them. The warrior was brave and cunning in organizing regiments ... He spent his whole life in wars, received many victories, and once. - B. R.) was defeated. "

Rurik Rostislavich is characterized differently. It is said that he was in the great reign for 37 years, but during this time he was expelled six times and "suffered a lot, having no rest from anywhere. After all, he himself had a lot of drink and wives, he was diligent about the government of the state and his security. His judges and in the cities, the rulers caused a lot of burdens for the people; for this, he had very little love among the people and had respect from the princes.

Obviously, these characteristics, full of medieval juiciness, were compiled by some Galician-Volynian or Kievan chronicler who sympathized with Roman.

It is interesting to note that Roman is the last of the Russian princes sung by epics; book and folk assessments coincided, which happened very rarely: the people very carefully selected heroes for their epic fund.

Roman Mstislavich and the "wise-loving" Rurik Rostislavich are the last bright figures in the list of Kievan princes of the 12th-13th centuries. Next come the weak rulers, who left no memory of themselves either in the annals or in folk songs.

The strife around Kyiv continued even in those years when a new unprecedented danger loomed over Russia - the Tatar-Mongol invasion. During the time from the battle on the Kalka in 1223 to the arrival of Batu near Kyiv in 1240, many princes were replaced, there were many battles over Kyiv. In 1238, Prince Michael of Kyiv, fearing the Tatars, fled to Hungary, and in the terrible year of Batu's arrival, he collected feudal dues donated to him in the principality of Daniel of Galicia: wheat, honey, "beef" and sheep.

"Mother of Russian cities" - Kyiv lived a bright life for a number of centuries, but in the last three decades of its pre-Mongolian history, the negative features of feudal fragmentation, which actually led to the dismemberment of the Kyiv principality into a number of destinies, were too strong.

The singer of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" could not stop the historical process with his inspired stanzas.

Chernigov and Seversk principalities

Chernigov and Seversk principalities, like Kiev and Pereyaslav, were parts of the ancient "Russian land", that original core of Russia, which was formed back in the 6th-7th centuries, but retained its name for a long time.

Seversk land with Novgorod on the Desna, Putivl, Rylsky, Kursk on the Seym and Donets (near modern Kharkov) did not immediately separate from Chernigov land; this happened only in the 1140-1150s, but their connection was felt in the future. Both principalities were in the hands of the Olgoviches. Perhaps, Svyatoslav Vsevolodich of Kyiv was therefore considered in the Tale of Igor's Campaign as overlords of both the Chernigov and Seversk princes, because he was the grandson of Oleg Svyatoslavich, that is, a direct Olgovich and the eldest of them. Before coming to Kyiv, he was the Grand Duke of Chernigov and, having become the Prince of Kyiv, he often traveled to Chernigov, then to Lyubech, then to distant Karachev.

The Chernigov principality owned the lands of the Radimichi and Vyatichi; the northeastern border of the principality reached almost to Moscow. In dynastic and ecclesiastical terms, even distant Ryazan was drawn to Chernigov.

Especially important were the southern connections of Chernigov with the Polovtsian steppe and the seaside Tmutarakan. The Chernigov-Seversky lands were open to the steppes over a large area; border defensive lines were built here, defeated nomads settled here, ousted from good pastures by new owners - the Polovtsy.

The border principality of Kursk, which withstood many Polovtsian raids, became something like the later Cossack regions, where constant danger brought up courageous and experienced warriors of the "kmets". Bui Tour Vsevolod says to Igor:

And my ty Kuryani - bring the swept away:
Under the trumpets, cherish, under the helmets,
End copy of feeding;
Lead them the way, we know the yarugi,
Luci is tense with them, open the tuli,
Sharpen your sabers;
Jump yourself, like a gray wolf in the field,
Look for honor (honor) for yourself, and glory for the prince.

The princes of Chernigov, starting with "the brave Mstislav, even the slaughter of Rededya in front of the regiments of the Kassogs" and until the beginning of the 12th century, belonged to Tmutarakan (modern Taman) - an ancient city near the Kerch Strait, a large international port in which Greeks, Russians, Khazars, Armenians, Jews, Adyghes.

Medieval geographers, calculating the lengths of the Black Sea routes, often took Tmutarakan as one of the main reference points.

By the middle of the 12th century, Tmutarakan's ties with Chernigov broke off, and this seaport passed into the hands of the Polovtsy, which explains Igor's desire

Look for the city of Darkness,

And it is a pleasure to drink the sliver of the Don, that is, to renew the old ways to the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Crimea and Byzantium. If Kyiv owned the Dnieper route "from the Greeks to the Varangians", then Chernigov had its own roads to the blue sea; only these roads were too firmly closed by the nomad camps of several Polovtsian tribes.

If the Kyiv princes widely used Cherny Klobuks as a barrier against the Polovtsians, then the Chernigov Olgovichi also had "their nasty ones."

In the "golden word" Svyatoslav reproaches his brother Yaroslav of Chernigov that he evaded the general campaign against the Polovtsy and took up only the defense of his land:

And I no longer see the power of the strong and rich
And many of my brother Yaroslav
With Chernigov past,
From the can and from the Tatras,
From shelbira, and from topchaks,
And from the roar, and from the olbera;
Tii bo demon shield, with shoemakers
With a click the regiments win,
Ringing in great-grandfather glory.

It is possible that here some Turkic-speaking squads are meant, a very long time ago, since the time of their "great-grandfathers", who ended up in the Chernihiv region; perhaps these are Turko-Bulgarians or some tribes brought by Mstislav from the Caucasus at the beginning of the 11th century.

The Chernihiv principality, in essence, separated from Kievan Rus in the second half of the 11th century, and only temporarily under Monomakh was in vassal submission to the Kievan prince. Unexpected evidence that the Chernigov princes considered themselves equal in the 12th century as Kyiv princes was provided by excavations in the capital of the Golden Horde, in Saray, where a huge silver zazravnaya chara was found with the inscription: "And here is the chara of Grand Duke Volodimer Davydovich ..." Vladimir was a Chernigov prince in 1140-1151 in co-rule with his younger brother Izyaslav (died in 1161).

The geographical location, the family ties of the princes and the long tradition of friendship with the nomads made the Chernigov principality a kind of wedge that cut into the rest of the Russian lands; inside the wedge, the Polovtsy invited by the Olgovichs often hosted. For this they did not like Oleg Svyatoslavich himself, his sons Vsevolod and Svyatoslav; for this, the third son, Igor Olgovich, was killed in Kyiv. Oleg's grandson, the hero of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - Igor Svyatoslavich - at one time was connected by friendship with none other than Konchak.

Igor was born in 1150 (during the famous campaign he was only 35 years old) and in 1178 he became Prince of Novgorod-Seversky. In 1180, among other Olgovichi, together with the Polovtsians, he went far into the depths of the Smolensk principality and gave battle to Davyd Rostislavich near Drutsk. Then Igor, together with Konchak and Ko-byak, moved to Kyiv, and they won the great reign for Svyatoslav Vsevolodich. Igor, who led the Polovtsian troops, guarded the Dnieper, but Rurik Rostislavich, expelled by them from Kyiv, defeated the Polovtsy. "Igor, having seen Polovtsy, was defeated, and tacos with Konchak jumped into the boat, running to Gorodets to Chernigov."

And three years later, Igor is already fighting against the Polovtsians, against the same Konchak who attacked Russia. In this campaign, Igor quarreled with Vladimir Pereyaslavsky because of which of them to go "ahead". It was not about military glory, but about the fact that the vanguard units captured a lot of booty. Angry, Vladimir turned the regiments and robbed Igor's Seversky principality.

In 1183, Igor had the idea of ​​separate campaigns against the Polovtsians. Kyiv, Pereyaslav, Volyn and Galician troops defeated Kobyak and many other khans on the Orel River, near the Dnieper rapids. The Olgovichi refused to participate in this campaign, but Igor, having learned that the main forces of the Polovtsian land were defeated far from his principality, together with his brother Vsevolod, undertook a campaign against the Polovtsian camps along the Merla River, not far from the city of Donets. The trip was successful.

The year 1185 was full of major events. In early spring, the "cursed and damned" Konchak moved to Russia. The princes of Chernigov maintained a friendly neutrality, sending their own boyar to Konchak.

Igor Svyatoslavich Seversky did not participate in this campaign, but the chronicler tried to shield him, reporting that the messenger from Kyiv arrived late and that the squad in the boyar duma dissuaded the prince.

In April, Svyatoslav won another victory over the Polovtsy: their baggage, many prisoners and horses were taken.

Igor, having learned about this, seemed to have said to his vassals: "Well, aren't we princes, or what? Let's go on a campaign and get glory for ourselves too!" The trip started on April 23rd. On May 1, 1185, when the troops approached the Russian borders, there was a solar eclipse, widely used in the Tale of Igor's Campaign as a poetic image:

The sun blocks the way for him with darkness;
Night moaning to him with a thunderstorm, wake the bird;
The whistle of the animals is up.

White-stone carved capitals (Borisoglebsky Cathedral of the 12th century)

Igor neglected the warning "signs" of nature and moved to the steppe to the south from the Seversky Donets towards the Sea of ​​Azov. On Friday, May 10, the troops met with the first Polovtsian nomad camp, the male population of which "everyone from young to old" covered the wagons, but was defeated.

Early in advance (Friday. - B.R.)
Potoptasha filthy Polovtsian regiments,
And drying up with arrows across the field,
Polovtsian girls run faster,
And with them gold, and pavoloks, and precious oxamites.

The next day, Konchak arrived here with the combined Polovtsian forces and surrounded "Olgo's Good Nest". A terrible three-day slaughter on the banks of the Kayala ended in the complete annihilation of the Russian forces: Igor and part of the princes and boyars were taken prisoner (they wanted to get a huge ransom for them), 15 people slipped out of the encirclement, and all the rest perished in "the unknown field, among the Polovtsian land" .

Tu bloody wine is not enough;
That feast to the end of the courage of the Russians
The matchmakers are drunk, and they themselves have gone to the land of Russia.

After the victory, the Polovtsian regiments moved to Russia in three directions: to the depopulated principalities of Igor and Vsevolod's Bui Tur, to Pereyaslavl and to Kyiv itself, where Konchak was attracted by the memories of Khan Bonyak, who pounded with his saber at the Golden Gates of Kyiv.

At the time of Igor's campaign, Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv peacefully circled his old Chernigov domain, and only when the Grand Duke sailed in boats to Chernigov did a member of the unfortunate "Igor's regiment", who escaped from the encirclement, get here - Belovolod Prosovich. He spoke about the tragedy on the banks of the Kaya-la and that the defeat of Igor "opened the gates to the Russian land."

One must think that after the news received in Chernigov, the Grand Duke did not continue sailing along the winding Desna, but, remembering the swift ride of Monomakh, rushed to Kyiv on horseback at a speed "from matins to vespers."

The defense strategy was as follows: the son of Svyatoslav Oleg with the voivode Tudor was immediately sent to repel the Polovtsy from the banks of the Seim (in the principality of the captive Igor), in Pereyaslavl Dolgoruky's grandson Vladimir Glebovich had already fought with them, and the main forces began to "guard the Russian land" on the Dnieper near Kanev , guarding Ros and the strategically important Zarubinsky ford, which connected with the Pereyaslavl left bank.

The whole summer of 1185 was spent on such a confrontation with the Polovtsy; the chronicle also reports on the arrival of troops from Smolensk, and on the exchange of messengers with Pereyaslavl and Trepol, and on the internal maneuvers of the Polovtsy, who were groping for weaknesses in the six hundred-kilometer-long Russian defense, organized hastily, in the most difficult conditions.

The need for new forces, for the participation of distant principalities, was great all summer. But, perhaps, the need was even more felt for the unity of all Russian forces, even those that had already come under the banner of the Kyiv prince.

Pyatnitskaya church in Chernihiv. Restored by P. R. Baranovsky. An example of a new rising building. The turn of the XII - XIII centuries.

The princes were reluctant to oppose the Polovtsians. Yaroslav of Chernigov gathered troops, but did not move to unite with Svyatoslav, for which he deserved condemnation in the "golden word". Davyd Rostislavich Smolensky led his regiments to the Kiev region, but stood in the rear of the Kyiv regiments, near Trepol, at the mouth of the Stugna, and refused to go further.

And at this time Konchak laid siege to Pereyaslavl; Prince Vladimir barely escaped from the battle, wounded by three spears. "Behold the floor with me, but help me!" - he sent to Svyatoslav to say.

Svyatoslav and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich could not immediately move their forces, as Davyd Smolensky was preparing to return home. The Smolensk regiments held a veche and declared that they had agreed to march only as far as Kyiv, that there was no battle now, and that they could not participate in the further campaign: "We are already exhausted."

While this unworthy bargaining with Davyd was going on, Konchak attacked the Rims on the Sula and the Polovtsy cut down or captured all its inhabitants.

Svyatoslav and Rurik, who went to the aid of Perey-slavl and Rimov, were delayed because of Davyd's "koromol". The death of the Rimov chronicle directly connects with the fact that the Russian forces "was late, waiting for Davyd Smolny".

When the united regiments of Svyatoslav and Rurik crossed the Dnieper to drive Konchak away, Davyd left Trepol and turned back his Smolensk troops.

The author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign writes about this with great bitterness. He remembered the ancient princes, regretted that the old Vladimir (Svyatoslavich) could not be left here forever, on the Kyiv mountains, said about how Russia was groaning, because "now there are banners of Rurik, and next to him - his brother Davyd, but according to their bunchuks flutter differently, but their spears sing differently.

It is no coincidence that the poet remembered the old Vladimir - after all, it was here, on the banks of the Stugna, where the betrayal of the Smolensk prince took place, two centuries ago Vladimir Svyatoslavich set up a chain of his heroic outposts. The author's thought once again persistently returns to this river: when describing Igor's escape, recalling the death of Monomakhov's brother in 1093 in the waters of Stugna, he contrasts it with the Donets, "cherishing the prince on the waves":

Prince Igor. Hawthorns and children. Costume design. N.K. Roerich

Not so, speech, Stugna River;
Having a thin stream, devour other people's streams and plows,
Rostren to the mouth,
I'm taking away Prince Rostislav shut up ...

One can think that the author of the Lay, being with his prince Svyatoslav, spent this terrible summer of 1185 in the camp of the Russian troops between Kanev and Trepol, between Ros and Stugna, witnessed the arrival of messengers from the besieged cities, and the dispatch of messengers for new ones " help", and the cowardly treachery of Davyd near Trepol on Stugna.

Wasn't it during these months of "confrontation", when it was necessary to find special inspired words to unite the Russian forces, to attract the princes of distant lands to the defense, and a wonderful "golden word" was formed? Indeed, in this section of the "Words about Igor's Campaign", ending with the words about the betrayal of Da-Vyd, there is not a single fact that would go beyond the chronological framework of those few months when Svyatoslav and Rurik held the defense on the Dnieper from the Vitichevsky ford to Zarubinsky, from Trepol to Kanev. Was it not from the impregnable heights of Kanev, full of pagan antiquity, that the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign was looking at Russia and the steppe at that time?

He deeply regretted the death of the Russians and could not resist bitter reproaches against Igor. Igor is not the hero of the Lay, but only an excuse for writing a patriotic appeal, the significance of which is not exhausted by the events of 1185.

In the spring of 1186, Igor had already escaped from captivity: for 11 days he wandered through secluded river thickets and finally returned to his homeland.

In 1199, after the death of Yaroslav, Igor Svyatoslavich became the Grand Duke of Chernigov and managed in recent years to start his own chronicle, which ended up in the Kyiv collection. Here Igor is represented by a very noble prince, constantly thinking about the good of the Russian land. Igor died in 1202. His sons, who ended up in the Galician land, pursued a tough anti-boyar policy, killed about 500 noble boyars, and were eventually hanged in Galicia in 1208.

The further history of the Chernigov-Seversk land is not of particular interest. The multiplied Olgovichi still willingly took part in strife and gradually divided the land into several small lands. In 1234, Chernigov withstood a heavy siege by the troops of Daniil of Galicia: "There is a fierce battle near Chernigov; he put a ram on it, he shot a stone and a half.

In 1239, Chernigov, along with the entire Left Bank, was taken by the Tatar army.

Galicia-Volyn lands

In the most solemn form, the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" appeals to the Galician prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, defining with his inherent genius in a few lines the important role of the rich and flourishing Galician principality:

Galichka Osmomysl Yaroslav!
Sit high on your gold-plated table,
Supported the Ugorsky Mountains (Carpathians. - B.R.)
With their iron shelves
Stepping on the queen's path
Having closed the gates of the Danube,
Sword burdens through the clouds,
Courts as far as the Danube.
Your thunderstorms flow through the lands:
Opening the gates to Kyiv;
You shoot from the gold of the saltani table for the lands.
Shoot, sir, Konchak, filthy koshchei,
For the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the buoy of Svyatoslavlich!

The reader or listener of the poem vividly imagined a powerful Western Russian state, relying on the Carpathians and the Danube on one side and stretching out its imperious hand in the other direction, to Kyiv and to the Polovtsian "sultans". The lines correctly reflected the rapid rise of the Galician principality, which grew up on the site of the destinies of the minor princes of the 11th - early 12th centuries who had fled here and were exiled here.

Less pompously, but also respectfully, the author of the Lay greets the princes of Volyn and especially the famous Roman Mstislavich, who "soars high above the earth like a falcon." He and his vassals have "iron paporzi (breastplates. - B.R.) under Latin helmets", and his regiments dressed in armor defeat both Polovtsy and Lithuanians. Mentioned here are the minor princes of the small Lutsk principality - Ingvar and Vsevolod Yaroslavichi. The poet calls on all the Volyn princes, great-great-grandchildren of Monomakh: "Block the field (to the steppe inhabitants - B.R.) with your sharp arrows for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor."

In the history of the Galicia-Volyn lands, we see the movement of the historical center: in ancient times, the Duleb union of tribes, located at the junction of the East and West Slavic tribes of the Carpathians and Volhynia, was in the first place. In the 6th century, this union of tribes was defeated by the Avars, the old tribal center - Volyn - died out, and Vladimir Volynsky became the center of these lands, bearing the name of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who paid great attention to the Western Russian lands.

Fertile soil, mild climate, relative safety from nomads made the fertile land of Volhynia one of the richest in Russia. Here feudal relations are developing very intensively and a strong boyar stratum is being formed. Here arise such cities as Przemysl, Lutsk, Terebovl, Cherven, Holm, Berestye, Drogichin. For a long time we find nothing in the chronicles about Galich. But in the XII century, Galich quickly turned from a small specific town of minor princes into the capital of a significant principality that arose on the lands of such Slavic tribes as the White Croats, Tivertsy and Ulichs. At the turn of the XII-XIII centuries, Roman Mstislavich Volynsky united the Galician land and Volyn into one large state that survived the Tatar-Mongol invasion and lasted until the XIV century. Such is the scheme of the history of Western Russia.

Western Russian princes tried to pursue an independent policy towards Kyiv as early as the 11th century, for example, Vasilko Rostislavich Terebovskiy, blinded after the Lyubech Congress, his brother Volodar, Prince Przemysl, and their enemy Davyd Igorevich Volynsky, and then Dorogobuzhsky.

The last representative of the petty outcast princes was Ivan Rostislavich Berladnik, the grandson of Volodar, whose biography is full of various adventures. In 1144, he reigned in the small Zvenigorod (to the north of Galich), and the Galicians, taking advantage of the fact that their prince Vladimir Volodarevich was away hunting, invited Ivan and "brought him to Galich." When Vladimir besieged Galich, the whole city defended Ivan, but in the end he had to flee to the Danube, and Vladimir, entering the city, "many people were cut off." On the Danube, Ivan Rostislavich in the Berlady region received the nickname Berladnik.

In 1156, we see Berladnik in the Vyatka forests, where he serves the unfortunate ally of Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich, for 12 hryvnias of gold and 200 hryvnias of silver. Then he moved to another camp, and immediately Yuri Dolgoruky became interested in his fate, who managed to capture him and imprison him in Suzdal, and at the other end of Russia, in Galich, Yaroslav Osmomysl, who remembered Berladnik's enmity with his father. He sends a whole army to Yuri to deliver Berladnik to Galich and execute him. But on the way, unexpectedly, the squads of the Chernigov prince Izyaslav Davydovich recaptured Berladnik from the Suzdal troops, and he escaped cruel reprisal.

In 1158, he left the hospitable Izyaslav, who had already become the Grand Duke of Kyiv, since the diplomatic conflict because of him took on a European scale: the ambassadors of Galich, Chernigov, Hungary and Poland arrived in Izyaslav in Kyiv, demanding the extradition of Ivan Berladnik. He again returned to the Danube, and from there, at the head of a six thousandth army, he went to the Galician principality. Smerds openly went over to his side, but the allied Polovtsy left him, since he did not allow them to rob Russian cities. Izyaslav and Olgovichi supported Berladnik and started a campaign against Galich, but Yaroslav's Galician troops were ahead of them, ended up near Kyiv and soon captured the capital. Yaroslav "opened the gates to Kyiv", and Izyaslav and Berladnik fled to Vyr and Vshchizh.

Three years later, in 1161, Ivan Berladnik ended up in Byzantium and died in Thessaloniki; the hatred of the princes overtook him here: "Inii tako say - as if from poison be his death." The prince, for whom the townspeople of Galich fought to the death for a whole month, the prince who did not allow Polovtsian robberies, the prince to whom "smerds jump over the fence", of course, an interesting figure for the XII century, but too one-sidedly described by hostile chronicles.

The Volyn principality from 1118 onwards was retained by the offspring of Monomakh and his son Mstislav. From here, Izyaslav Mstislavich with lightning marches, making 100 kilometers a day, suddenly broke into the feasting Belgorod and Kyiv, he left here for his Vladimir Volynsky, losing battles when the "kyans" and Black Hoods told him: "You are our prince, if you will be strong, but now is not your time, go away!" The grandchildren of Izyaslav Mstislavich divided the land into five destinies, and by the time of the Lay of Igor's Campaign, their unification had not yet taken place.

From the middle of the XII century, next to the Volyn principality, the principality of Galicia grew up, immediately entering into rivalry with its neighbor and even with Kyiv. The first Galician prince, Vladimir Volodarevich (1141-1153), as we have just seen, had to overcome the resistance not only of the specific princes, like Ivan Berladnik, but also of the townspeople and the local boyars, who had strongly strengthened here during the existence of small destinies.

The entire subsequent history of the Galicia-Volyn lands is a struggle between the centripetal and centrifugal principles. The first was personified by the princes of Vladimir Volynsky and Galich, and the second - by the specific princes and the rich boyars, accustomed to independence.

The heyday of the Galician principality is associated with Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187), the son of Vladimir Volodarevich, the cousin of Ivan Berladnik, sung in the Lay.

We get acquainted with him in the annals under the following circumstances: the Kyiv prince Izyaslav Mstislavich, who fought a lot with Vladimir Volodarevich and, with the help of the Hungarian king, defeated him in 1152, sent his boyar Pyotr Borislavich to Galich in early 1153 (who, apparently, was the author princely chronicle). The ambassador reminded Prince Vladimir of some of his promises, sealed with the rite of kissing the cross. Mocking the ambassador, the Galician prince asked: "What, did I kiss this little cross?" - and in the end he drove out the Kyiv boyar and his retinue: "They said you had your fill, but now - get out!"

Decorative tiles XII-XIII centuries. Galich

The ambassador left letters of cross-kissing to the prince and rode out of the city on unfed horses. A new war has been declared. Again, the royal regiments from the west had to ride to Galich, Kyiv from the east, and Volyn from the north, again the Galician prince had to send messengers to the other end of Russia for help to Yuri Dolgoruky, his matchmaker and longtime ally. But the messenger galloped along the Kyiv road and brought Pyotr Borislavich back from the path. In Galich, servants in black robes descended from the palace to meet the ambassador; on the "gold-forged table" sat a young prince in a black robe and black hood, and a knight's guard stood at the coffin of the old prince Vladimir Volodarevich.

Yaroslav hurried to make amends for his father’s careless arrogance and expressed complete obedience to the Grand Duke: “Accept me, like your son Mstislav. With such a figurative recognition of feudal dependence, Yaroslav released the ambassador, "but there are other thoughts in his heart," the chronicle adds. And already in the same year the war took place.

Prince Yaroslav did not participate in the battle, the boyars told him: "You are young ... and go, prince, to the city." Probably, the boyars simply did not really trust the prince, who shortly before this swore allegiance to Kyiv. Yaroslav Osmomysl was not so young at that time - three years before the battle he married the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga.

The boyars continued to actively intervene in princely affairs. In 1159, when the conflict over Ivan Berladnik had not yet been completed, the Galicians stubbornly continued to show sympathy for the Danube daring man and turned to his patron, the Kievan prince Izyaslav Davydovich, with a proposal to march on their hometown: retreat from Yaroslav!"

A new conflict between Yaroslav and the boyars arose in 1173. Princess Olga and her son Vladimir fled from her husband, along with prominent Galician boyars, to Poland. Vladimir Yaroslavich begged from his father's rival the city of Cherven, strategically convenient both for ties with Poland and for attacking his father. This is the same Vladimir Galitsky, a hawker and hawker, whose image is so colorfully reproduced in Borodin's opera "Prince Igor". Igor Svyatoslavich was married to his sister Evfrosinya, daughter of Yaroslav Osmomysl (Yaroslavna). The break with his father was caused by the fact that Yaroslav had a mistress Nastasya and her son Oleg Yaroslav gave preference to his legitimate son Vladimir.

Olga Yurievna and Vladimir were away for eight months, but finally received a letter from the Galician boyars with a request to return to Galich and a promise to take her husband into custody. The promise was more than fulfilled - Yaroslav Osmomysl was arrested, his friends, the allied Polovtsy, were chopped up, and his mistress Nastasya was burned at the stake. "The Galicians, on the other hand, laid fire, burning her, and her son was imprisoned in a slash, leading the prince to the cross, as if he really had a princess. And taco settled down." The seemingly family conflict was temporarily settled in this peculiar medieval way.

The next year, Vladimir fled to Volyn, but Yaroslav Osmomysl, having hired Poles for 3,000 hryvnias, burned two Volyn cities and demanded the extradition of his rebellious son; the same fled to Porosye and was going to hide in Suzdal. Having traveled to many cities in search of asylum, Vladimir Galitsky finally ended up with his sister in Putivl, where he lived for several years, until Igor reconciled him with his father.

In the autumn of 1187, Yaroslav Osmomysl died, leaving not Vladimir, but Oleg "Nastasich" as his heir. Immediately, "there was a great rebellion in the Galician land." The boyars expelled Oleg and gave the throne to Vladimir, but this prince did not satisfy them either. "Prince Volodimer in the Galich land. And be kind to drink a lot and do not like to think with your husbands." Everything was decided by this - if the prince neglects the boyar thought, if he leaves the will of the “sane”, then he is already bad and all sorts of discrediting details are entered into the annals about him: that he drinks a lot, and that he “sings at the priest wife and appoint (to yourself) a wife," and that he is in the city, "having fallen in love with his wife or whose daughter, he will use violence."

Roman. Mstislavich Volynsky, knowing about the dissatisfaction of the Galician boyars with Vladimir, suggested that they expel Vladimir and accept him, Roman. The boyars repeated what they had done under the father of their prince - they threatened Vladimir's mistress with death: "We don't want to bow to the priest, but we want to kill her!" Vladimir Galitsky, taking gold, silver, "popadya" and her two sons, fled to Hungary.

Roman Mstislavich briefly reigned in Galich, he was expelled by the Hungarian king, who, taking advantage of the preponderance of forces, planted in Galich not Vladimir, who sought his help, but his son Andrei. Vladimir was imprisoned in the tower of the Hungarian castle.

The Galicians secretly continued to look for a prince of their own free will: either Roman reported that "the Galicians would take me to their reign", then the boyar embassy invited Berladnik's son Rostislav Ivanovich.

Relying on the Galician boyars, Rostislav in 1188 with a small army appeared under the walls of Galich. "Men of Galicia do not shout everything in one thought," and Berladnichich's detachment was surrounded by the Hungarians and part of the Galicians; the prince himself was knocked off his horse.

When the seriously wounded prince was carried by the Hungarians to Galich, the townspeople "revolted, though they were taken away from the eel (Hungarians. - B. R.) and taken to reign. Ufa, seeing that, and applying a mortal potion to the wounds."

In 1189, Vladimir of Galicia escaped from prison. He cut the tent that was on the top of his tower, twisted the ropes and climbed down them; two supporters helped him get to Germany. Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa agreed (subject to an annual payment of 2 thousand hryvnias to him) to help the exile in obtaining Galich. With the support of Germany and Poland, Vladimir again reigned in his "fatherland and grandfather."

In 1199, after the death of Vladimir, Roman Mstislavich became the prince of Galicia, Volyn and Galich united in one hand and formed a large and powerful principality, equal to large European kingdoms. When Roman captured Kyiv as well, then in his hands was a huge compact piece of Russian lands, equal to the "Holy Roman Empire" of Frederick Barbarossa. Forced to swear allegiance to the Galician boyars upon accession to the throne, Roman subsequently acted abruptly, causing dissatisfaction with the boyars.

From chronicle allusions, we can conclude that Roman was very concerned about the enrichment of his princely domain and settled captives on his land. Byzantine emperor Alexei III Angel, expelled from Constantinople in 1204 by the crusader knights, who found richer booty in Christian Byzantium than the distant "Holy Sepulcher" somewhere in Palestine, sought shelter from Roman.

The short reign of the victorious Roman in Galich, Kyiv and Vladimir-Volynsky, when he was called the "autocrat of all Russia", strengthened the position of the Western Russian lands and prepared for their further flourishing.

In addition to the colorful and dramatic external history of the principalities and princes outlined above, this era is extremely interesting for us in those aggravated relations between the princes and the boyars, which were so clearly identified already in the time of Yaroslav Osmomysl. If we discard the element of personal gain and self-interest, which undoubtedly determined many of the actions of the princes, then it should be recognized that the policy pursued by them of concentrating land, weakening appanages and strengthening the central princely power was objectively progressive, since it coincided with the interests of the people. In carrying out this policy, the princes relied on broad sections of the townspeople and on the reserves of petty feudal lords (youths, children, merciful ones), who were completely dependent on the prince, grown by them.

The anti-princely actions of the boyars led to the struggle of the boyar parties among themselves, to the intensification of strife, to the defenselessness of the state in the face of external danger. Given the interweaving of princely interests and the relative balance of power among the major principalities, the issue of succession to the throne acquired a special character.

Many princely marriages were concluded then with a political calculation between children of five to eight years of age. When a young prince grew up and the marriage was carried out, he received not the relatives that he could choose for himself, based on his own interests, but the one that met the interests of his parents decades ago. The boyars had to use these contradictions, and for the princes there was only one way out - to transfer the throne to a rootless illegitimate son. This is probably the reason for the tenacity with which both Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Yaroslav Osmomysl, and his son Vladimir held on to their mistresses and illegitimate sons. Yaroslav's father-in-law was the powerful and daring Yuri Dolgoruky, who sought to interfere in other people's affairs. Vladimir's father-in-law is the "great and formidable" Svyatoslav Vsevolodich of Kyiv. While Vladimir, with his mistress and children, was sitting in a tower in Hungary, his father-in-law decided to get Galich, his son-in-law's fatherland, for himself (1189). Such actions could easily be dressed up in the form of protecting the legal rights of his daughter and grandchildren, for whom the Galician boyars were already standing up. When the boyars of Galich burned Nastasya, expelled Oleg "Nastasich" or rebelled against the Vladimir world hit, it was not so much about the morality of the princes, but about not allowing the prince to be "autocracy" in those conditions so that the boyars would not lose their allies inside princely family and powerful support from the crowned relatives of the princess.

A similar struggle of princely and royal power with the feudal lords, who sought to withdraw into their estates, was carried out at that time in Western Europe, and in the Georgian kingdom, and in the east, and in a number of Russian principalities.

It is not necessary to think that all the boyars without exception opposed the prince. Significant and influential boyar circles actively contributed to the strong and effective princely power.

In Galicia-Volyn Rus, this struggle between different feudal elements reached its zenith during the reign of Roman's son, no less famous than his father, Daniil of Galicia (born around 1201 - died around 1264). Daniel was orphaned four years old, and all his childhood and adolescence passed in the conditions of strife and fierce feudal struggle. The boyars of Vladimir Volynsky wanted after the death of Roman to leave his widow-princess with children to reign, and the Galician boyars invited the sons of Igor Svyatoslavich of Chernigov. The princess had to flee; Uncle Miroslav carried Daniil out of the city through an underground passage. The fugitives found shelter in Poland.

The Galicia-Volyn principality broke up into a number of destinies, which allowed Hungary to conquer it. The Igorevich princes, who had no support in these lands, tried to hold on through repressions - they killed about 500 noble boyars, but in this way they only strengthened the supporters of the exiled dowager princess. In 1211, the boyars solemnly installed the boy Daniel to reign in the cathedral church of Galich. The Igorevich boyars were hanged, "for the sake of revenge."

Very quickly, the Galician boyars wanted to get rid of the princess, who had strong intercessors in Poland.

The court chronicler of Daniel of Galicia, who wrote much later, recalls the following episode: the Galicians drove the princess out of the city; Daniel accompanied her with tears, not wanting to part. Some tiun grabbed the reins of Daniil's horse, and Daniil grabbed his sword and began to cut with it until his mother took the weapon away from him. It is possible that the chronicler deliberately told this episode as an epigraph to the description of Daniel's further actions directed against the boyars. In Galich, the boyar Vladislav reigned, which caused indignation in the feudal elite: "It is not absurd for a boyar to reign in Galicia." After that, the Galician land was again subjected to foreign intervention.

Trade routes of pan-European importance, passing through the Galicia-Volyn principality.

Only in 1221, with the support of his father-in-law Mstislav the Udaly, did Daniel become a prince in Vladimir, and only in 1234 did he finally establish himself in Galich.

The Galician land magnates behaved like princes: “The boyars of Galicia Danila call themselves a prince, and they themselves hold the whole land ...” Such was the boyar Dobroslav, who even controlled the princely domain, such was Sudislav, whose castle was a fortress filled with supplies and weapons and ready for fight against the prince.

The boyars either invited Daniel or plotted against him. So, in 1230, "sedition was in the godless Galich boyars." The boyars decided to set fire to the palace during a meeting of the boyar duma and kill the prince. Daniil's brother Vasilko managed to thwart the plot. Then one of the boyars invited the princes to dinner at Vyshensky Castle; tysyatsky, a friend of Daniel, managed to warn, "there is a feast of evil ... as if I would kill you." 28 boyars were captured, but Daniel was afraid to execute them. Some time later, when Daniil "is having fun at the feast, one of those godless boyars poured a cup on his face. And then I endured him."

It was necessary to find a new, more reliable support. And Daniel convened a "veche" of youths, service soldiers, junior members of the squad, who were the prototype of the later nobility. The youths supported their prince: "We are faithful to God and to you, our lord!" - and Sotsky Mikula gave Daniil advice that determined the future policy of the prince: "Lord! Do not crush the bees - do not eat honey!"

Following the battle on the Kalka (before which Daniel went to watch the "unprecedented rati", and after which, wounded, "turn your horse to bep]), feudal strife and fragmentation continued to corrode the rich Russian lands, and the centripetal forces personified here by Daniel were not enough strengthened, could not yet withstand both the internal and external enemy.The boyar opposition, constantly relying on Poland, then on Hungary, did not turn the Galicia-Volyn land into a boyar republic, but significantly weakened the principality. No wonder the chronicler, moving on to this pre-Tatar period of life one of the most developed and cultured Russian principalities, wrote woefully: "Let's start by saying countless armies and great labors and frequent wars and many seditions and frequent uprisings and many rebellions ..."

The cities of the Galicia-Volyn land - Galich, Vladimir, Przemysl, Lutsk, Lviv, Danilov, Berestye (Brest) and others - were rich, populous and beautiful. Through the labor of local craftsmen and architects, they were surrounded by strong walls and built up with graceful buildings. Here, as in Vladimir-Suz-Dal Rus, they loved stone sculpture; known "sly" Avdey, skillfully cut stone. We know about the wise scribe Timothy, who denounced the cruelty of the conquerors with his allegorical parables, we know about the proud singer Mitus. In our hands is the Galician Chronicle of the 13th century, exceptional in its completeness and brilliance, which is a historical biography of Prince Daniel.

The most important trade routes of all-European significance passed through the Galicia-Volyn lands, leading to Krakow, Prague, Regensburg and Gdansk. Drogichin on the Bug was a kind of all-Russian customs - tens of thousands of trade seals of the 11th-13th centuries with signs of many Russian princes were preserved there. The well-known medieval world map of the Arab geographer Idrisi, compiled in Palermo around 1154, shows cities such as Galich, Belgorod Dneprovsky, Lutsk and Przemysl. Access to the Danube and the Black Sea connected with the Byzantine world. Not without reason, at various times, emperors who failed in the empire sought refuge in Galich and received cities here "as a consolation" (Andronicus, Alexei III).

Archaeological excavations in the Galician-Volyn cities give us a good idea about the life of ordinary citizens, and about the high level of the entire culture of this southwestern corner of the Russian lands. The affairs of Galicia-Volyn Rus were keenly interested not only in neighboring lands, but also in Germany, Rome, France, and Byzantium.

In modern historiography, the title "Kyiv princes" is used to designate a number of rulers of the Kyiv principality and the Old Russian state. The classical period of their reign began in 912 with the reign of Igor Rurikovich, who was the first to bear the title of "Grand Duke of Kyiv", and lasted until about the middle of the 12th century, when the collapse of the Old Russian state began. Let's take a brief look at the most prominent rulers during this period.

Oleg the Prophet (882-912)

Igor Rurikovich (912-945) - the first ruler of Kyiv, called the "Grand Duke of Kyiv." During his reign, he conducted a number of military campaigns, both against neighboring tribes (Pechenegs and Drevlyans), and against the Byzantine kingdom. The Pechenegs and the Drevlyans recognized the supremacy of Igor, but the Byzantines, militarily better equipped, put up stubborn resistance. In 944, Igor was forced to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium. At the same time, the terms of the agreement were beneficial for Igor, since Byzantium paid a significant tribute. A year later, he decided to attack the Drevlyans again, despite the fact that they had already recognized his authority and paid tribute to him. Igor's warriors, in turn, got the opportunity to cash in on the robberies of the local population. The Drevlyans ambushed in 945 and, having captured Igor, executed him.

Olga (945-964)- The widow of Prince Rurik, who was killed in 945 by the Drevlyane tribe. She headed the state until her son, Svyatoslav Igorevich, became an adult. It is not known exactly when she transferred power to her son. Olga was the first of the rulers of Russia to accept Christianity, while the whole country, the army and even her son were still pagans. Important facts of her reign were the subjugation of the Drevlyans who killed her husband Igor Rurikovich. Olga established the exact amount of taxes that the lands subject to Kyiv had to pay, systematized the frequency of their payment and the timing. An administrative reform was carried out, dividing the lands subordinate to Kyiv into clearly defined units, each of which was headed by a princely official "tiun". Under Olga, the first stone buildings appeared in Kyiv, Olga's tower and the city palace.

Svyatoslav (964-972)- the son of Igor Rurik and Princess Olga. A characteristic feature of the reign was that Olga actually ruled most of his time, first because of the minority of Svyatoslav, and then because of his constant military campaigns and absence in Kyiv. Assumed power around 950. He did not follow the example of his mother, and did not accept Christianity, which was then unpopular among the secular and military nobility. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich was marked by a series of continuous conquest campaigns that he carried out against neighboring tribes and state formations. The Khazars, Vyatichi, the Bulgarian kingdom (968-969) and Byzantium (970-971) were attacked. The war with Byzantium brought heavy losses to both sides, and ended, in fact, in a draw. Returning from this campaign, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs and was killed.

Yaropolk (972-978)

Vladimir the Saint (978-1015)- Kyiv prince, best known for the baptism of Russia. He was a prince of Novgorod from 970 to 978, when he seized the throne of Kyiv. During his reign, he continuously conducted campaigns against neighboring tribes and states. He conquered and annexed to his state the tribes of the Vyatichi, Yatvyag, Radimichi and Pechenegs. He carried out a number of state reforms aimed at strengthening the power of the prince. In particular, he began minting a single state coin, replacing the previously used Arab and Byzantine money. With the help of invited Bulgarian and Byzantine teachers, he began to spread literacy in Russia, forcibly sending children to study. He founded the cities of Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. The main achievement is the baptism of Russia, carried out in 988. The introduction of Christianity as the state religion also contributed to the centralization of the Old Russian state. The resistance of various pagan cults, then widespread in Russia, weakened the power of the Kyiv throne and was brutally suppressed. Prince Vladimir died in 1015 during another military campaign against the Pechenegs.

SvyatopolkCursed (1015-1016)

Yaroslav the Wise (1016-1054) is the son of Vladimir. He feuded with his father and seized power in Kyiv in 1016, driving his brother Svyatopolk away. The reign of Yaroslav is represented in history by traditional raids on neighboring states and internecine wars with numerous relatives who claimed the throne. For this reason, Yaroslav was forced to temporarily leave the throne of Kyiv. He built the churches of Hagia Sophia in Novgorod and Kyiv. It is to her that the main temple in Constantinople is dedicated, therefore the fact of such a construction spoke of the equality of the Russian church with the Byzantine one. As part of the confrontation with the Byzantine Church, he independently appointed the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion in 1051. Yaroslav also founded the first Russian monasteries: the Kiev Caves Monastery in Kyiv and the Yuryev Monastery in Novgorod. For the first time he codified feudal law by issuing a code of laws "Russian Truth" and a church charter. He did a great job of translating Greek and Byzantine books into Old Russian and Church Slavonic, constantly spending large sums on the correspondence of new books. He founded a large school in Novgorod, in which the children of elders and priests learned to read and write. He strengthened diplomatic and military ties with the Varangians, thus securing the northern borders of the state. He died in Vyshgorod in February 1054.

SvyatopolkCursed (1018-1019)- secondary interim rule

Izyaslav (1054-1068)- son of Yaroslav the Wise. According to his father's will, he sat on the throne of Kyiv in 1054. Throughout almost the entire reign, he was at enmity with his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, who sought to seize the prestigious Kyiv throne. In 1068, the troops of Izyaslav were defeated by the Polovtsians in a battle on the Alta River. This led to the Kyiv uprising in 1068. At the veche meeting, the remnants of the defeated militia demanded that they be given weapons in order to continue the fight against the Polovtsy, but Izyaslav refused to do this, which forced the people of Kiev to revolt. Izyaslav was forced to flee to the Polish king, his nephew. With the military help of the Poles, Izyaslav regained the throne for the period 1069-1073, was again overthrown, and ruled for the last time from 1077 to 1078.

Vseslav Charodey (1068-1069)

Svyatoslav (1073-1076)

Vsevolod (1076-1077)

Svyatopolk (1093-1113)- the son of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, before taking the throne of Kyiv, he periodically headed the Novgorod and Turov principalities. The beginning of the Kyiv principality of Svyatopolk was marked by the invasion of the Polovtsy, who inflicted a serious defeat on the troops of Svyatopolk in the battle near the Stugna River. This was followed by several more battles, the outcome of which is not known for certain, but in the end, peace was concluded with the Polovtsy, and Svyatopolk took the daughter of Khan Tugorkan as his wife. The subsequent reign of Svyatopolk was overshadowed by the continuous struggle between Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich, in which Svyatopolk usually supported Monomakh. Svyatopolk also repelled the constant raids of the Polovtsians led by the khans Tugorkan and Bonyak. He died suddenly in the spring of 1113, possibly by poisoning.

Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) was a prince of Chernigov when his father died. He had the right to the Kyiv throne, but gave it to his cousin Svyatopolk, because he did not want war at that time. In 1113, the people of Kiev raised an uprising, and, having thrown Svyatopolk, they invited Vladimir to the kingdom. For this reason, he was forced to accept the so-called "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh", which alleviates the situation of the city's lower classes. The law did not affect the foundations of the feudal system, but regulated the conditions of enslavement and limited the profits of usurers. Under Monomakh, Russia reached the peak of its power. The Minsk principality was conquered, and the Polovtsy were forced to migrate east of the Russian borders. With the help of an impostor who pretended to be the son of the previously killed Byzantine emperor, Monomakh organized an adventure aimed at placing him on the Byzantine throne. Several Danubian cities were conquered, but success could not be further developed. The campaign ended in 1123 with the signing of peace. Monomakh organized the publication of improved editions of The Tale of Bygone Years, which have survived in this form to this day. Monomakh also created several works on his own: the autobiographical Ways and Fishes, the code of laws “the charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich” and “Instructions of Vladimir Monomakh”.

Mstislav the Great (1125-1132)- the son of Monomakh, formerly the prince of Belgorod. He ascended the throne of Kyiv in 1125 without resistance from the other brothers. Among the most outstanding deeds of Mstislav, one can name a campaign against the Polovtsians in 1127 and the sacking of the cities of Izyaslav, Strezhev and Lagozhsk. After a similar campaign in 1129, the Principality of Polotsk was finally annexed to the possessions of Mstislav. In order to collect tribute, several campaigns were made in the Baltic states, against the Chud tribe, but they ended in failure. In April 1132, Mstislav died suddenly, but managed to transfer the throne to Yaropolk, his brother.

Yaropolk (1132-1139)- Being the son of Monomakh, he inherited the throne when his brother Mstislav died. At the time of coming to power, he was 49 years old. In fact, he controlled only Kyiv and its environs. By his natural inclinations he was a good warrior, but he did not possess diplomatic and political abilities. Immediately after the assumption of the throne, the traditional civil strife began, connected with the succession to the throne in the Principality of Pereyaslavl. Yuri and Andrei Vladimirovich expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich from Pereyaslavl, who was imprisoned there by Yaropolk. Also, the situation in the country was complicated by the frequent raids of the Polovtsy, who, together with the allied Chernigov, plundered the outskirts of Kyiv. The indecisive policy of Yaropolk led to a military defeat in the battle on the Supoy River with the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich. The cities of Kursk and Posemye were also lost during the reign of Yaropolk. This development of events further weakened his authority, which was used by the Novgorodians, who announced their separation in 1136. The result of the reign of Yaropolk was the actual collapse of the Old Russian state. Formally, only the Principality of Rostov-Suzdal retained submission to Kyiv.

Vyacheslav (1139, 1150, 1151-1154)

Arising in the second half of the 10th c. and became in the 11th century. In the second quarter of the 12th c. to its actual collapse. Conditional holders sought, on the one hand, to turn their conditional holdings into unconditional ones and achieve economic and political independence from the center, and on the other hand, by subordinating the local nobility, to establish full control over their possessions. In all regions (with the exception of the Novgorod land, where, in fact, the republican regime was established and the princely power acquired a military-service character), the princes from the house of Rurikovich managed to become sovereign sovereigns with the highest legislative, executive and judicial functions. They relied on the administrative apparatus, whose members constituted a special service class: for their service they received either part of the income from the exploitation of the subject territory (feeding), or land for holding. The main vassals of the prince (boyars), together with the tops of the local clergy, formed under him an advisory and advisory body - the boyar duma. The prince was considered the supreme owner of all lands in the principality: some of them belonged to him on the basis of personal ownership (domain), and he disposed of the rest as the ruler of the territory; they were divided into dominal possessions of the church and conditional holdings of the boyars and their vassals (boyar servants).

The socio-political structure of Russia in the era of fragmentation was based on a complex system of suzerainty and vassalage (the feudal ladder). The feudal hierarchy was headed by the Grand Duke (until the middle of the 12th century he was the ruler of the Kievan table, later the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn princes acquired this status). Below were the rulers of large principalities (Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Vladimir-Volyn, Galicia, Muromo-Ryazan, Smolensk), even lower - the owners of the destinies within each of these principalities. At the lowest level there was an untitled serving nobility (boyars and their vassals).

From the middle of the 11th century the process of disintegration of large principalities began, which first of all affected the most developed agricultural regions (Kyiv and Chernihiv regions). In the 12th - first half of the 13th century. this trend has become universal. Particularly intense fragmentation was in the Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk and Muromo-Ryazan principalities. To a lesser extent, it affected the Smolensk land, and in the Galicia-Volyn and Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir) principalities, periods of disintegration alternated with periods of temporary unification of appanages under the rule of the "senior" ruler. Only Novgorod land throughout its history continued to maintain political integrity.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, all-Russian and regional princely congresses acquired great importance, at which domestic and foreign policy issues were resolved (inter-princely feuds, the fight against external enemies). However, they did not become a permanent, regular political institution and could not slow down the process of dissipation.

By the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Russia was divided into many small principalities and was unable to combine forces to repel external aggression. Devastated by the hordes of Batu, she lost a significant part of her western and southwestern lands, which became in the second half of the 13th-14th centuries. easy prey for Lithuania (Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, Vladimir-Volyn, Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Smolensk principalities) and Poland (Galician). Only North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir, Muromo-Ryazan and Novgorod lands) managed to maintain its independence. In the 14th - early 16th century. it was "gathered" by the princes of Moscow, who restored the unified Russian state.

Kievan principality.

It was located in the interfluve of the Dnieper, Sluch, Ros and Pripyat (modern Kyiv and Zhytomyr regions of Ukraine and the south of the Gomel region of Belarus). It bordered in the north with Turov-Pinsk, in the east - with Chernigov and Pereyaslav, in the west with the Vladimir-Volyn principality, and in the south it ran into the Polovtsian steppes. The population was made up of Slavic tribes of Polyans and Drevlyans.

Fertile soils and mild climate favored intensive farming; The inhabitants were also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Here the specialization of crafts took place early; “woodworking”, pottery and leatherworking acquired special importance. The presence of iron deposits in the Drevlyansk land (included in the Kyiv region at the turn of the 9th–10th centuries) favored the development of blacksmithing; many types of metals (copper, lead, tin, silver, gold) were brought from neighboring countries. The famous trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through the Kiev region (from the Baltic Sea to Byzantium); through the Pripyat, it was connected with the basin of the Vistula and the Neman, through the Desna - with the upper reaches of the Oka, through the Seim - with the Don basin and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. An influential trade and handicraft layer formed early in Kyiv and nearby cities.

From the end of the 9th to the end of the 10th c. Kyiv land was the central region of the Old Russian state. Under St. Vladimir, with the allocation of a number of semi-independent destinies, it became the core of the grand ducal domain; at the same time Kyiv turned into the church center of Russia (as the residence of the metropolitan); an episcopal see was also established in nearby Belgorod. After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132, the actual disintegration of the Old Russian state took place, and the Kievan land was constituted as a separate principality.

Despite the fact that the Kyiv prince ceased to be the supreme owner of all Russian lands, he remained the head of the feudal hierarchy and continued to be considered "senior" among other princes. This made the Kiev principality the object of a fierce struggle between the various branches of the Rurik dynasty. The powerful Kievan boyars and the trade and craft population also took an active part in this struggle, although the role of the people's assembly (veche) by the beginning of the 12th century. decreased significantly.

Until 1139, the Kyiv table was in the hands of the Monomashichs - Mstislav the Great was succeeded by his brothers Yaropolk (1132–1139) and Vyacheslav (1139). In 1139 it was taken from them by the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich. However, the reign of the Chernigov Olgoviches was short-lived: after the death of Vsevolod in 1146, the local boyars, dissatisfied with the transfer of power to his brother Igor, called Izyaslav Mstislavich, a representative of the older branch of the Monomashichs (Mstislavichs), to the Kyiv throne. On August 13, 1146, having defeated the troops of Igor and Svyatoslav Olgovich near the Olga grave, Izyaslav captured the ancient capital; Igor, taken prisoner by him, was killed in 1147. In 1149, the Suzdal branch of the Monomashichs, represented by Yuri Dolgoruky, entered the struggle for Kyiv. After the death of Izyaslav (November 1154) and his co-ruler Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (December 1154), Yuri established himself on the Kiev table and held it until his death in 1157. The strife within the Monomashich house helped the Olgoviches take revenge: in May 1157, Izyaslav Davydovich Chernigovskii seized princely power (1157 –1159). But his unsuccessful attempt to seize Galich cost him the grand-ducal table, which returned to the Mstislavichs - the Smolensk prince Rostislav (1159-1167), and then to his nephew Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

From the middle of the 12th century the political significance of the Kyiv land is falling. Its disintegration into destinies begins: in the 1150s–1170s, the Belgorod, Vyshgorod, Trepol, Kanev, Torche, Kotelniche and Dorogobuzh principalities stand out. Kyiv ceases to play the role of the only center of the Russian lands; in the northeast and southwest, two new centers of political attraction and influence are emerging, claiming the status of great principalities - Vladimir on the Klyazma and Galich. The princes of Vladimir and Galicia-Volyn no longer seek to occupy the Kyiv table; periodically subjugating Kyiv, they put their proteges there.

In 1169–1174 Vladimir Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky dictated his will to Kyiv: in 1169 he expelled Mstislav Izyaslavich from there and gave the reign to his brother Gleb (1169–1171). When, after the death of Gleb (January 1171) and Vladimir Mstislavich (May 1171), who replaced him, the Kyiv table without his consent was taken by his other brother Mikhalko, Andrei forced him to give way to Roman Rostislavich, a representative of the Smolensk branch of the Mstislavichs (Rostislavichs); in 1172 Andrey expelled Roman as well and planted another of his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest in Kyiv; in 1173 he forced Rurik Rostislavich, who had seized the Kievan table, to flee to Belgorod.

After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1174, Kyiv fell under the control of the Smolensk Rostislavichs in the person of Roman Rostislavich (1174–1176). But in 1176, having failed in the campaign against the Polovtsy, Roman was forced to give up power, which was used by the Olgovichi. At the call of the townspeople, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Chernigov (1176-1194, with a break in 1181) took the Kyiv table. However, he did not succeed in ousting the Rostislavichs from the Kievan land; in the early 1180s, he recognized their rights to Porosie and the Drevlyane land; Olgovichi strengthened in the Kyiv district. Having reached agreement with the Rostislavichs, Svyatoslav concentrated his efforts on the fight against the Polovtsy, having managed to seriously weaken their onslaught on Russian lands.

After his death in 1194, the Rostislavichi returned to the Kievan table in the person of Rurik Rostislavich, but already at the beginning of the 13th century. Kyiv fell into the sphere of influence of the powerful Galician-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, who in 1202 expelled Rurik and installed his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich of Dorogobuzh in his place. In 1203, Rurik, in alliance with the Polovtsy and Chernigov Olgovichi, captured Kyiv and, with the diplomatic support of the Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, held the Kievan reign for several months. However, in 1204, during a joint campaign of the South Russian rulers against the Polovtsy, he was arrested by Roman and tonsured a monk, and his son Rostislav was thrown into prison; Ingvar returned to the Kyiv table. But soon, at the request of Vsevolod, Roman released Rostislav and made him a prince of Kyiv.

After the death of Roman in October 1205, Rurik left the monastery and at the beginning of 1206 occupied Kyiv. In the same year, Prince Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny of Chernigov entered the fight against him. Their four-year rivalry ended in 1210 with a compromise agreement: Rurik recognized Kyiv for Vsevolod and received Chernigov as compensation.

After the death of Vsevolod, the Rostislavichs reasserted themselves on the Kievan table: Mstislav Romanovich the Old (1212/1214–1223 with a break in 1219) and his cousin Vladimir Rurikovich (1223–1235). In 1235, Vladimir, having suffered a defeat from the Polovtsy near Torchesky, was taken prisoner by them, and power in Kyiv was seized first by Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and then Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. However, in 1236, Vladimir, having redeemed himself from captivity, without much difficulty regained the grand prince's throne and remained on it until his death in 1239.

In 1239–1240, Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigov and Rostislav Mstislavich Smolensky were in Kyiv, and on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, he was under the control of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich, who appointed governor Dmitry there. In the autumn of 1240, Batu moved to South Russia and in early December took and defeated Kyiv, despite the desperate nine-day resistance of the inhabitants and a small squad of Dmitry; he subjected the principality to terrible devastation, after which it could no longer recover. Returning to the capital in 1241, Mikhail Vsevolodich was summoned to the Horde in 1246 and killed there. From the 1240s, Kyiv became formally dependent on the great princes of Vladimir (Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich). In the second half of the 13th c. a significant part of the population emigrated to the northern Russian regions. In 1299, the metropolitan see was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir. In the first half of the 14th century the weakened Kiev principality became the object of Lithuanian aggression and in 1362, under Olgerd, it became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Principality of Polotsk.

It was located in the middle reaches of the Dvina and Polota and in the upper reaches of the Svisloch and Berezina (the territory of the modern Vitebsk, Minsk and Mogilev regions of Belarus and southeastern Lithuania). In the south it bordered on Turov-Pinsk, in the east - on the Smolensk principality, in the north - on the Pskov-Novgorod land, in the west and north-west - on the Finno-Ugric tribes (Livs, Latgales). It was inhabited by the Polochans (the name comes from the Polota River) - a branch of the East Slavic tribe of the Krivichi, partially mixed with the Baltic tribes.

As an independent territorial entity, the Polotsk land existed even before the emergence of the Old Russian state. In the 870s, the Novgorod prince Rurik imposed tribute on the Polotsk people, and then they submitted to the Kyiv prince Oleg. Under the Kiev prince Yaropolk Svyatoslavich (972–980), the Polotsk land was a principality dependent on him, ruled by the Norman Rogvolod. In 980, Vladimir Svyatoslavich captured her, killed Rogvolod and his two sons, and took his daughter Rogneda as his wife; since that time, the Polotsk land finally became part of the Old Russian state. Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir transferred part of it to the joint holding of Rogneda and their eldest son Izyaslav. In 988/989 he made Izyaslav the prince of Polotsk; Izyaslav became the ancestor of the local princely dynasty (Polotsk Izyaslavichi). In 992, the Polotsk diocese was established.

Although the principality was poor in fertile lands, it had rich hunting and fishing lands and was located at the crossroads of important trade routes along the Dvina, Neman and Berezina; impenetrable forests and water barriers protected it from outside attacks. This attracted numerous settlers here; cities grew rapidly, turning into trade and craft centers (Polotsk, Izyaslavl, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). Economic prosperity contributed to the concentration of significant resources in the hands of the Izyaslavichs, on which they relied in their struggle to achieve independence from the authorities of Kyiv.

Izyaslav's heir Bryachislav (1001–1044), taking advantage of the princely civil strife in Russia, pursued an independent policy and tried to expand his possessions. In 1021, with his retinue and a detachment of Scandinavian mercenaries, he captured and plundered Veliky Novgorod, but then was defeated by the ruler of the Novgorod land, Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise on the Sudoma River; nevertheless, in order to ensure the loyalty of Bryachislav, Yaroslav ceded to him Usvyatskaya and Vitebsk volosts.

The Principality of Polotsk achieved special power under the son of Bryachislav Vseslav (1044–1101), who launched expansion to the north and northwest. Livs and Latgalians became his tributaries. In the 1060s he made several campaigns against Pskov and Novgorod the Great. In 1067 Vseslav ravaged Novgorod, but was unable to keep the Novgorod land. In the same year, Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich struck back at his strengthened vassal: he invaded the Principality of Polotsk, captured Minsk, defeated Vseslav's squad on the river. Nemiga, by cunning, took him prisoner along with his two sons and sent him to prison in Kyiv; the principality became part of the vast possessions of Izyaslav. After the overthrow of Izyaslav by the rebellious Kievans on September 14, 1068, Vseslav regained Polotsk and even occupied the Kyiv grand prince's table for a short time; in the course of a fierce struggle with Izyaslav and his sons Mstislav, Svyatopolk and Yaropolk in 1069–1072, he managed to retain the Polotsk principality. In 1078, he resumed aggression against neighboring regions: he captured the Smolensk principality and devastated the northern part of Chernigov land. However, already in the winter of 1078-1079, Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich carried out a punitive expedition to the Principality of Polotsk and burned Lukoml, Logozhsk, Drutsk and the suburbs of Polotsk; In 1084 Prince Vladimir Monomakh of Chernigov took Minsk and severely destroyed the Polotsk land. Vseslav's resources were exhausted, and he no longer tried to expand the boundaries of his possessions.

With the death of Vseslav in 1101, the decline of the Principality of Polotsk begins. It breaks up into divisions; Minsk, Izyaslav and Vitebsk principalities stand out from it. The sons of Vseslav waste their strength in civil strife. After the predatory campaign of Gleb Vseslavich in the Turov-Pinsk land in 1116 and his unsuccessful attempt to capture Novgorod and the Smolensk principality in 1119, the aggression of the Izyaslavichs against neighboring regions practically ceased. The weakening of the principality opens the way for the intervention of Kyiv: in 1119 Vladimir Monomakh easily defeats Gleb Vseslavich, seizes his inheritance, and imprisons himself in prison; in 1127 Mstislav the Great devastated the southwestern regions of the Polotsk land; in 1129, taking advantage of the refusal of the Izyaslavichs to take part in the joint campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsy, he occupies the principality and at the Kiev Congress seeks the condemnation of five Polotsk rulers (Svyatoslav, Davyd and Rostislav Vseslavich, Rogvolod and Ivan Borisovich) and their expulsion to Byzantium. Mstislav transfers the land of Polotsk to his son Izyaslav, and appoints his governors in the cities.

Although in 1132 the Izyaslavichs, in the person of Vasilko Svyatoslavich (1132–1144), managed to return the ancestral principality, they were no longer able to revive its former power. In the middle of the 12th c. a fierce struggle for the Polotsk princely table breaks out between Rogvolod Borisovich (1144–1151, 1159–1162) and Rostislav Glebovich (1151–1159). At the turn of the 1150s-1160s, Rogvolod Borisovich made the last attempt to unite the principality, which, however, collapsed due to the opposition of other Izyaslavichs and the intervention of neighboring princes (Yuri Dolgorukov and others). In the second half of the 7th c. the crushing process deepens; the Drutsk, Gorodensky, Logozhsky and Strizhevsky principalities arise; the most important regions (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Izyaslavl) end up in the hands of the Vasilkoviches (descendants of Vasilko Svyatoslavich); the influence of the Minsk branch of the Izyaslavichs (Glebovichi), on the contrary, is falling. Polotsk land becomes the object of expansion of the Smolensk princes; in 1164 Davyd Rostislavich Smolensky for some time even takes possession of the Vitebsk volost; in the second half of the 1210s, his sons Mstislav and Boris established themselves in Vitebsk and Polotsk.

At the beginning of the 13th c. the aggression of the German knights begins in the lower reaches of the Western Dvina; by 1212 the Sword-bearers conquered the lands of the Livs and southwestern Latgale, tributaries of Polotsk. Since the 1230s, the Polotsk rulers also had to repel the onslaught of the newly formed Lithuanian state; mutual strife prevented them from joining forces, and by 1252 the Lithuanian princes had captured Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Drutsk. In the second half of the 13th c. for the Polotsk lands, a fierce struggle unfolds between Lithuania, the Teutonic Order and the Smolensk princes, the winner of which is the Lithuanians. The Lithuanian prince Viten (1293–1316) takes Polotsk from the German knights in 1307, and his successor Gedemin (1316–1341) subdues the Minsk and Vitebsk principalities. Finally, the Polotsk land became part of the Lithuanian state in 1385.

Chernihiv principality.

It was located east of the Dnieper between the Desna valley and the middle reaches of the Oka (the territory of the modern Kursk, Orel, Tula, Kaluga, Bryansk, the western part of the Lipetsk and southern parts of the Moscow regions of Russia, the northern part of the Chernihiv and Sumy regions of Ukraine and the eastern part of the Gomel region of Belarus ). In the south it bordered on Pereyaslavsky, in the east - on Muromo-Ryazansky, in the north - on Smolensk, in the west - on Kyiv and Turov-Pinsk principalities. It was inhabited by East Slavic tribes of Polyans, Severyans, Radimichi and Vyatichi. It is believed that it received its name either from a certain Prince Cherny, or from the Black Guy (forest).

With a mild climate, fertile soils, numerous rivers rich in fish, and in the north with forests full of game, Chernihiv land was one of the most attractive areas for settlement in Ancient Russia. Through it (along the rivers Desna and Sozh) passed the main trade route from Kyiv to northeastern Russia. Towns with a significant artisan population arose early here. In the 11th-12th centuries. The Chernihiv principality was one of the richest and politically significant regions of Russia.

By the 9th c. the northerners, who formerly lived on the left bank of the Dnieper, having subjugated the Radimichi, Vyatichi and part of the glades, extended their power to the upper reaches of the Don. As a result, a semi-state entity emerged that paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. At the beginning of the 10th c. it recognized dependence on the Kyiv prince Oleg. In the second half of the 10th c. Chernihiv land became part of the grand ducal domain. Under St. Vladimir, the diocese of Chernihiv was established. In 1024, it fell under the rule of Mstislav the Brave, brother of Yaroslav the Wise, and became a principality virtually independent of Kyiv. After his death in 1036, it was again included in the grand ducal domain. According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Chernigov principality, together with the Muromo-Ryazan land, passed to his son Svyatoslav (1054–1073), who became the ancestor of the local princely dynasty of the Svyatoslavichs; they, however, managed to establish themselves in Chernigov only towards the end of the 11th century. In 1073, the Svyatoslavichs lost the principality, which ended up in the hands of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, and from 1078 - his son Vladimir Monomakh (until 1094). The attempts of the most active of the Svyatoslavichs, Oleg "Gorislavich", to regain control over the principality in 1078 (with the help of his cousin Boris Vyacheslavich) and in 1094-1096 (with the help of the Polovtsy) ended in failure. Nevertheless, by decision of the Lyubech princely congress of 1097, Chernigov and Muromo-Ryazan lands were recognized as the patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs; the son of Svyatoslav Davyd (1097-1123) became the prince of Chernigov. After Davyd's death, the throne was occupied by his brother Yaroslav of Ryazan, who in 1127 was expelled by his nephew Vsevolod, the son of Oleg "Gorislavich". Yaroslav retained the Muromo-Ryazan land, which from that time turned into an independent principality. Chernihiv land was divided among themselves by the sons of Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich (Davydovichi and Olgovichi), who entered into a fierce struggle for allotments and the Chernigov table. In 1127-1139 it was occupied by the Olgovichi, in 1139 they were replaced by the Davydovichi - Vladimir (1139-1151) and his brother Izyaslav (1151-1157), but in 1157 he finally passed to the Olgovichi: Svyatoslav Olgovich (1157-1164) and his nephews Svyatoslav (1164-1177) and Yaroslav (1177-1198) Vsevolodichi. At the same time, the Chernigov princes tried to subjugate Kyiv: Vsevolod Olgovich (1139-1146), Igor Olgovich (1146) and Izyaslav Davydovich (1154 and 1157-1159) owned the Kyiv grand prince's table. They also fought with varying success for Veliky Novgorod, the Turov-Pinsk principality, and even for distant Galich. In internal strife and in wars with neighbors, the Svyatoslavichs often resorted to the help of the Polovtsy.

In the second half of the 12th century, despite the extinction of the Davydovich family, the process of fragmentation of the Chernigov land intensified. It includes Novgorod-Seversk, Putivl, Kursk, Starodub and Vshchizh principalities; the principality of Chernigov proper was limited to the lower reaches of the Desna, from time to time also including the Vshchizh and Starobud volosts. The dependence of the vassal princes on the Chernigov ruler becomes nominal; some of them (for example, Svyatoslav Vladimirovich Vshchizhsky in the early 1160s) show a desire for complete independence. The fierce feuds of the Olgoviches do not prevent them from actively fighting for Kyiv with the Smolensk Rostislavichs: in 1176–1194 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich rules there, in 1206–1212/1214, intermittently, his son Vsevolod Chermny. They are trying to gain a foothold in Novgorod the Great (1180–1181, 1197); in 1205 they manage to take possession of the Galician land, where, however, in 1211 a catastrophe befell them - the three princes of the Olgovichi (Roman, Svyatoslav and Rostislav Igorevich) were captured and hanged by the verdict of the Galician boyars. In 1210, they even lose the Chernigov table, which for two years passes to the Smolensk Rostislavichs (Rurik Rostislavich).

In the first third of the 13th c. The Chernigov Principality breaks up into many small destinies, only formally subordinate to Chernigov; Kozelskoe, Lopasninskoe, Rylskoe, Snovskoe, then Trubchevskoe, Glukhovo-Novosilskoe, Karachevo and Tarusa principalities stand out. Despite this, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodich of Chernigov (1223-1241) does not stop his active policy towards neighboring regions, trying to establish control over Novgorod the Great (1225, 1228-1230) and Kyiv (1235, 1238); in 1235 he took possession of the Galician principality, and later the Przemysl volost.

The waste of significant human and material resources in civil strife and in wars with neighbors, the fragmentation of forces and the lack of unity among the princes contributed to the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the autumn of 1239, Batu took Chernigov and subjected the principality to such a terrible defeat that it actually ceased to exist. In 1241, the son and heir of Mikhail Vsevolodich, Rostislav, left his fiefdom and went to fight in the Galician land, and then fled to Hungary. Obviously, the last Chernigov prince was his uncle Andrei (mid-1240s - early 1260s). After 1261, the Principality of Chernigov became part of the Principality of Bryansk, founded in 1246 by Roman, another son of Mikhail Vsevolodich; the Bishop of Chernigov also moved to Bryansk. In the middle of the 14th century The Principality of Bryansk and Chernihiv lands were conquered by the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

Muromo-Ryazan principality.

It occupied the southeastern outskirts of Russia - the basin of the Oka and its tributaries Proni, Osetra and Tsna, the upper reaches of the Don and Voronezh (modern Ryazan, Lipetsk, northeast of Tambov and south of Vladimir regions). It bordered on the west with Chernigov, on the north with the Rostov-Suzdal principality; in the east, its neighbors were the Mordovian tribes, and in the south, the Cumans. The population of the principality was mixed: both Slavs (Krivichi, Vyatichi) and Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordva, Muroma, Meshchera) lived here.

Fertile (chernozem and podzolized) soils prevailed in the south and in the central regions of the principality, which contributed to the development of agriculture. Its northern part was densely covered with forests rich in game and swamps; The locals were mainly engaged in hunting. In the 11th-12th centuries. a number of urban centers arose on the territory of the principality: Murom, Ryazan (from the word "cassock" - a marshy swampy place overgrown with shrubs), Pereyaslavl, Kolomna, Rostislavl, Pronsk, Zaraysk. However, in terms of economic development, it lagged behind most other regions of Russia.

Murom land was annexed to the Old Russian state in the third quarter of the 10th century. under the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. In 988-989 St. Vladimir included it in the Rostov inheritance of his son Yaroslav the Wise. In 1010, Vladimir allocated it as an independent principality to his other son Gleb. After the tragic death of Gleb in 1015, it returned to the Grand Duke's domain, and in 1023-1036 it was part of the Chernigov inheritance of Mstislav the Brave.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Murom land, as part of the Chernigov principality, passed in 1054 to his son Svyatoslav, and in 1073 he transferred it to his brother Vsevolod. In 1078, having become the great prince of Kyiv, Vsevolod gave Murom to Svyatoslav's sons Roman and Davyd. In 1095 Davyd ceded it to Izyaslav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, receiving Smolensk in return. In 1096, David's brother Oleg "Gorislavich" expelled Izyaslav, but then he himself was expelled by Izyaslav's elder brother Mstislav the Great. However, by decision of the Lyubech Congress, Murom land, as a vassal possession of Chernigov, was recognized as the patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs: it was given to Oleg "Gorislavich", and for his brother Yaroslav, a special Ryazan volost was allocated from it.

In 1123, Yaroslav, who occupied the Chernigov throne, handed over Murom and Ryazan to his nephew Vsevolod Davydovich. But after being expelled from Chernigov in 1127, Yaroslav returned to the Murom table; from that time, the Muromo-Ryazan land became an independent principality, in which the descendants of Yaroslav (the younger Murom branch of the Svyatoslavichs) established themselves. They had to constantly repel the raids of the Polovtsy and other nomads, which diverted their forces from participating in the all-Russian princely strife, but by no means from internal strife associated with the process of crushing that had begun (already in the 1140s, the Yelets principality stood out on its southwestern outskirts). From the mid-1140s, the Muromo-Ryazan land became an object of expansion from the Rostov-Suzdal rulers - Yuri Dolgoruky and his son Andrei Bogolyubsky. In 1146, Andrei Bogolyubsky intervened in the conflict between Prince Rostislav Yaroslavich and his nephews Davyd and Igor Svyatoslavich and helped them capture Ryazan. Rostislav kept Moore behind him; only a few years later he was able to regain the Ryazan table. In the early 1160s, his great-nephew Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Murom, who became the founder of a special branch of the Murom princes, and from that time the Murom principality separated from Ryazan. Soon (by 1164) it fell into vassal dependence on the Vadimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky; under the subsequent rulers - Vladimir Yuryevich (1176-1205), Davyd Yuryevich (1205-1228) and Yury Davydovich (1228-1237), the Principality of Murom gradually lost its significance.

The Ryazan princes (Rostislav and his son Gleb), however, actively resisted the Vladimir-Suzdal aggression. Moreover, after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1174, Gleb tried to establish control over the entire North-Eastern Russia. In alliance with the sons of Pereyaslav prince Rostislav Yuryevich Mstislav and Yaropolk, he began a struggle with the sons of Yuri Dolgoruky Mikhalko and Vsevolod the Big Nest for the Vladimir-Suzdal principality; in 1176 he captured and burned Moscow, but in 1177 he was defeated on the Koloksha River, was captured by Vsevolod and died in 1178 in prison.

Gleb's son and heir Roman (1178-1207) took the vassal oath to Vsevolod the Big Nest. In the 1180s, he made two attempts to dispossess his younger brothers and unite the principality, but the intervention of Vsevolod prevented the implementation of his plans. The progressive fragmentation of the Ryazan land (in 1185–1186 the Principalities of Pronsk and Kolomna separated) led to increased rivalry within the princely house. In 1207, Roman's nephews Gleb and Oleg Vladimirovich accused him of plotting against Vsevolod the Big Nest; Roman was summoned to Vladimir and thrown into prison. Vsevolod tried to take advantage of these strife: in 1209 he captured Ryazan, put his son Yaroslav on the Ryazan table, and appointed Vladimir-Suzdal posadniks to the rest of the cities; however, in the same year, the Ryazanians expelled Yaroslav and his proteges.

In the 1210s, the struggle for allotments intensified even more. In 1217, Gleb and Konstantin Vladimirovich organized in the village of Isady (6 km from Ryazan) the murder of six of their brothers - one brother and five cousins. But Roman's nephew Ingvar Igorevich defeated Gleb and Konstantin, forced them to flee to the Polovtsian steppes and occupied the Ryazan table. During his twenty-year reign (1217-1237), the process of fragmentation became irreversible.

In 1237 the Ryazan and Murom principalities were defeated by the hordes of Batu. Prince Yuri Ingvarevich of Ryazan, Prince Yuri Davydovich of Murom and most of the local princes perished. In the second half of the 13th c. Murom land fell into complete desolation; Murom bishopric at the beginning of the 14th century. was moved to Ryazan; only in the middle of the 14th century. Murom ruler Yuri Yaroslavich revived his principality for a while. The forces of the Ryazan principality, which was subjected to constant Tatar-Mongol raids, were undermined by the internecine struggle between the Ryazan and Pronsk branches of the ruling house. From the beginning of the 14th century it began to experience pressure from the Moscow principality that had arisen on its northwestern borders. In 1301 Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich captured Kolomna and captured Ryazan Prince Konstantin Romanovich. In the second half of the 14th century Oleg Ivanovich (1350–1402) was able to temporarily consolidate the forces of the principality, expand its borders and strengthen the central government; in 1353 he took Lopasnya from Ivan II of Moscow. However, in the 1370s–1380s, during the struggle of Dmitry Donskoy with the Tatars, he failed to play the role of a “third force” and create his own center for the unification of the northeastern Russian lands. .

Turov-Pinsk principality.

It was located in the basin of the Pripyat River (the south of the modern Minsk, the east of the Brest and the west of the Gomel regions of Belarus). It bordered in the north with Polotsk, in the south with Kyiv, and in the east with the Chernigov principality, reaching almost to the Dnieper; the border with its western neighbor - the Vladimir-Volyn principality - was not stable: the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the Goryn valley passed either to the Turov or Volyn princes. The Turov land was inhabited by the Slavic tribe of the Dregovichi.

Most of the territory was covered with impenetrable forests and swamps; Hunting and fishing were the main occupations of the inhabitants. Only certain areas were suitable for agriculture; there, first of all, urban centers arose - Turov, Pinsk, Mozyr, Sluchesk, Klechesk, which, however, in terms of economic importance and population could not compete with the leading cities of other regions of Russia. The limited resources of the principality did not allow its owners to participate on an equal footing in the all-Russian civil strife.

In the 970s, the land of the Dregovichi was a semi-independent principality, which was in vassal dependence on Kyiv; its ruler was a certain Tur, from which the name of the region came. In 988-989 St. Vladimir singled out the “drevlyansk land and Pinsk” as an inheritance for his nephew Svyatopolk the Accursed. At the beginning of the 11th century, after the revelation of Svyatopolk's conspiracy against Vladimir, the Principality of Turov was included in the Grand Duchy domain. In the middle of the 11th c. Yaroslav the Wise passed it on to his third son Izyaslav, the ancestor of the local princely dynasty (Turov's Izyaslavichi). When Yaroslav died in 1054 and Izyaslav occupied the grand prince's table, Turovshchina became part of his vast possessions (1054–1068, 1069–1073, 1077–1078). After his death in 1078, the new Kyiv prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich gave the Turov land to his nephew Davyd Igorevich, who held it until 1081. In 1088 it was in the hands of Svyatopolk, the son of Izyaslav, who in 1093 sat on the grand prince's table. By decision of the Lubech Congress of 1097, Turovshchina was assigned to him and his offspring, but soon after his death in 1113, it passed to the new Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh. Under the division that followed the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the Principality of Turov passed to his son Vyacheslav. From 1132 it became the object of rivalry between Vyacheslav and his nephew Izyaslav, son of Mstislav the Great. In 1142-1143 it was owned for a short time by the Chernihiv Olgovichi (Great Prince of Kyiv Vsevolod Olgovich and his son Svyatoslav). In 1146-1147 Izyaslav Mstislavich finally expelled Vyacheslav from Turov and gave him to his son Yaroslav.

In the middle of the 12th c. the Suzdal branch of the Vsevolodichis intervened in the struggle for the Turov Principality: in 1155, Yuri Dolgoruky, becoming the great Kyiv prince, put his son Andrei Bogolyubsky on the Turov table, in 1155 - his other son Boris; however, they failed to hold on to it. In the second half of the 1150s, the principality returned to the Turov Izyaslavichs: by 1158, Yuri Yaroslavich, the grandson of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, managed to unite the entire Turov land under his rule. Under his sons Svyatopolk (until 1190) and Gleb (until 1195), it broke up into several destinies. By the beginning of the 13th century. the principalities of Turov, Pinsk, Slutsk and Dubrovitsky took shape. During the 13th century the crushing process progressed inexorably; Turov lost its role as the center of the principality; Pinsk began to acquire more and more importance. Weak petty rulers could not organize any serious resistance to external aggression. In the second quarter of the 14th c. The Turov-Pinsk land turned out to be an easy prey for the Lithuanian prince Gedemin (1316–1347).

Smolensk principality.

It was located in the Upper Dnieper basin (modern Smolensk, southeast of the Tver regions of Russia and the east of the Mogilev region of Belarus). It bordered Polotsk in the west, Chernigov in the south, Rostov-Suzdal principality in the east, and Pskov-Novgorod in the north earth. It was inhabited by the Slavic tribe of Krivichi.

The Smolensk principality had an extremely advantageous geographical position. The upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina converged on its territory, and it lay at the intersection of two major trade routes - from Kyiv to Polotsk and the Baltic states (along the Dnieper, then dragged to the Kasplya River, a tributary of the Western Dvina) and to Novgorod and the Upper Volga region ( through Rzhev and Lake Seliger). Here, cities arose early, which became important trade and craft centers (Vyazma, Orsha).

In 882, Prince Oleg of Kyiv subjugated the Smolensk Krivichi and planted his governors in their land, which became his possession. At the end of the 10th c. St. Vladimir singled her out as an inheritance to his son Stanislav, but after some time she returned to the grand ducal domain. In 1054, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the Smolensk region passed to his son Vyacheslav. In 1057, the great Kyiv prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich handed it over to his brother Igor, and after his death in 1060 he shared it with his other two brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. In 1078, by agreement between Izyaslav and Vsevolod, the Smolensk land was given to Vsevolod's son Vladimir Monomakh; soon Vladimir moved to reign in Chernigov, and the Smolensk region was in the hands of Vsevolod. After his death in 1093, Vladimir Monomakh planted his eldest son Mstislav in Smolensk, and in 1095 his other son Izyaslav. Although in 1095 Smolensk land was for a short time in the hands of the Olgoviches (Davyd Olgovich), the Lyubech congress of 1097 recognized it as the patrimony of the Monomashichs, and the sons of Vladimir Monomakh Yaropolk, Svyatoslav, Gleb and Vyacheslav ruled in it.

After the death of Vladimir in 1125, the new Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great allocated the Smolensk land as an inheritance to his son Rostislav (1125–1159), the ancestor of the local princely dynasty of the Rostislavichs; henceforth it became an independent principality. In 1136, Rostislav achieved the creation of an episcopal see in Smolensk, in 1140 he repelled an attempt by the Chernigov Olgoviches (the great Kyiv prince Vsevolod) to seize the principality, and in the 1150s he entered the struggle for Kyiv. In 1154 he had to cede the Kyiv table to the Olgoviches (Izyaslav Davydovich of Chernigov), but in 1159 he established himself on it (he owned it until his death in 1167). He gave the Smolensk table to his son Roman (1159-1180 with interruptions), who was succeeded by his brother Davyd (1180-1197), son Mstislav Stary (1197-1206, 1207-1212/1214), nephews Vladimir Rurikovich (1215-1223 with a break in 1219) and Mstislav Davydovich (1223–1230).

In the second half of the 12th - early 13th century. Rostislavichi actively tried to bring under their control the most prestigious and richest regions of Russia. The sons of Rostislav (Roman, Davyd, Rurik and Mstislav the Brave) waged a fierce struggle for the Kyiv land with the older branch of the Monomashichs (Izyaslavichs), with the Olgoviches and with the Suzdal Yuryevichs (especially with Andrei Bogolyubsky in the late 1160s - early 1170s); they were able to gain a foothold in the most important regions of the Kiev region - in Posemye, Ovruch, Vyshgorod, Torcheskaya, Trepolsky and Belgorod volosts. In the period from 1171 to 1210, Roman and Rurik sat eight times at the Grand Duke's table. In the north, Novgorod land became the object of expansion of the Rostislavichs: Davyd (1154–1155), Svyatoslav (1158–1167) and Mstislav Rostislavich (1179–1180), Mstislav Davydovich (1184–1187) and Mstislav Mstislavich Udatny (1210–1215 and 1216–1218); in the late 1170s and in the 1210s, the Rostislavichs held Pskov; sometimes they even managed to create appanages independent of Novgorod (in the late 1160s and early 1170s in Torzhok and Velikiye Luki). In 1164-1166 the Rostislavichs owned Vitebsk (Davyd Rostislavich), in 1206 - Pereyaslavl Russian (Rurik Rostislavich and his son Vladimir), and in 1210-1212 - even Chernigov (Rurik Rostislavich). Their success was facilitated by both the strategically advantageous position of the Smolensk region and the relatively slow (compared to neighboring principalities) process of its fragmentation, although some destinies (Toropetsky, Vasilevsky-Krasnensky) were periodically separated from it.

In the 1210s–1220s, the political and economic importance of the Smolensk Principality increased even more. The merchants of Smolensk became important partners of the Hansa, as their trade agreement of 1229 (Smolenskaya Torgovaya Pravda) shows. Continuing the struggle for Novgorod (in 1218–1221 the sons of Mstislav the Old Svyatoslav and Vsevolod reigned in Novgorod) and Kyiv lands (in 1213–1223, with a break in 1219, Mstislav the Old sat in Kyiv, and in 1119, 1123–1235 and 1236–1238 – Vladimir Rurikovich), Rostislavichi also intensified their onslaught to the west and southwest. In 1219 Mstislav the Old captured Galich, which then passed to his cousin Mstislav Udatny (until 1227). In the second half of the 1210s, the sons of Davyd Rostislavich, Boris and Davyd, subjugated Polotsk and Vitebsk; the sons of Boris Vasilko and Vyachko vigorously fought the Teutonic Order and the Lithuanians for the Dvina.

However, from the end of the 1220s, the weakening of the Smolensk principality began. The process of its fragmentation into destinies intensified, the rivalry of the Rostislavichs for the Smolensk table intensified; in 1232, the son of Mstislav the Old, Svyatoslav, took Smolensk by storm and subjected it to a terrible defeat. The influence of the local boyars increased, which began to interfere in princely strife; in 1239 the boyars put Vsevolod, the brother of Svyatoslav, who pleased them, on the Smolensk table. The decline of the principality predetermined failures in foreign policy. Already by the mid-1220s, the Rostislavichs had lost the Podvinye; in 1227 Mstislav Udatnoy ceded the Galician land to the Hungarian prince Andrew. Although in 1238 and 1242 the Rostislavichs managed to repulse the attack of the Tatar-Mongol detachments on Smolensk, they could not repulse the Lithuanians, who in the late 1240s captured Vitebsk, Polotsk and even Smolensk itself. Alexander Nevsky drove them out of the Smolensk region, but the Polotsk and Vitebsk lands were completely lost.

In the second half of the 13th c. the line of Davyd Rostislavich was established on the Smolensk table: it was successively occupied by the sons of his grandson Rostislav Gleb, Mikhail and Theodore. Under them, the collapse of the Smolensk land became irreversible; Vyazemskoye and a number of other destinies emerged from it. The princes of Smolensk had to recognize vassal dependence on the great prince of Vladimir and the Tatar khan (1274). In the 14th century under Alexander Glebovich (1297–1313), his son Ivan (1313–1358) and grandson Svyatoslav (1358–1386), the principality completely lost its former political and economic power; Smolensk rulers unsuccessfully tried to stop the Lithuanian expansion in the west. After the defeat and death of Svyatoslav Ivanovich in 1386 in a battle with the Lithuanians on the Vekhra River near Mstislavl, the Smolensk land became dependent on the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, who began to appoint and dismiss the Smolensk princes at his own discretion, and in 1395 established his direct rule. In 1401, the Smolensk people rebelled and, with the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg, expelled the Lithuanians; Smolensk table was occupied by the son of Svyatoslav Yuri. However, in 1404 Vitovt took the city, liquidated the principality of Smolensk and included its lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Pereyaslav principality.

It was located in the forest-steppe part of the Dnieper left bank and occupied the interfluve of the Desna, Seim, Vorskla and Northern Donets (modern Poltava, east of Kyiv, south of Chernihiv and Sumy, west of Kharkov regions of Ukraine). It bordered on the west with Kyiv, in the north with the Chernigov principality; in the east and south, its neighbors were nomadic tribes (Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsy). The southeastern border was not stable - it either moved forward into the steppe, or retreated back; the constant threat of attacks made it necessary to create a line of border fortifications and settle along the borders of those nomads who were moving to a settled life and recognized the power of the Pereyaslav rulers. The population of the principality was mixed: both the Slavs (Polyans, northerners) and the descendants of the Alans and Sarmatians lived here.

The mild temperate continental climate and podzolized chernozem soils created favorable conditions for intensive agriculture and cattle breeding. However, the neighborhood with warlike nomadic tribes, which periodically devastated the principality, had a negative impact on its economic development.

By the end of the 9th c. on this territory a semi-state formation arose with a center in the city of Pereyaslavl. At the beginning of the 10th c. it fell into vassal dependence on the Kyiv prince Oleg. According to a number of scientists, the old city of Pereyaslavl was burned by nomads, and in 992 Vladimir the Holy, during a campaign against the Pechenegs, founded a new Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl Russian) at the place where the Russian daring Jan Usmoshvets defeated the Pecheneg hero in a duel. Under him and in the first years of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Pereyaslavshchina was part of the grand ducal domain, and in 1024-1036 it became part of the vast possessions of Yaroslav's brother Mstislav the Brave on the left bank of the Dnieper. After the death of Mstislav in 1036, the Kyiv prince again took possession of it. In 1054, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Pereyaslav land passed to his son Vsevolod; from that time on, it separated from the Kyiv principality and became an independent principality. In 1073, Vsevolod handed it over to his brother, the great Kievan prince Svyatoslav, who, possibly, planted his son Gleb in Pereyaslavl. In 1077, after the death of Svyatoslav, Pereyaslavshchina again fell into the hands of Vsevolod; an attempt by Roman, the son of Svyatoslav, to capture it in 1079 with the help of the Polovtsians ended in failure: Vsevolod entered into a secret agreement with the Polovtsian Khan, and he ordered Roman to be killed. After some time, Vsevolod transferred the principality to his son Rostislav, after whose death in 1093 his brother Vladimir Monomakh began to reign there (with the consent of the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich). By decision of the Lyubech congress of 1097, the Pereyaslav land was assigned to the Monomashichi. Since that time, she remained their fiefdom; as a rule, the great princes of Kyiv from the Monomashich family allocated it to their sons or younger brothers; for some of them, the Pereyaslav reign became a stepping stone to the Kyiv table (Vladimir Monomakh himself in 1113, Yaropolk Vladimirovich in 1132, Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1146, Gleb Yurievich in 1169). True, the Chernigov Olgovichi tried several times to put it under their control; but they managed to capture only the Bryansk Estate in the northern part of the principality.

Vladimir Monomakh, having made a number of successful campaigns against the Polovtsy, secured the southeastern border of Pereyaslavshchina for a while. In 1113 he transferred the principality to his son Svyatoslav, after his death in 1114 - to another son Yaropolk, and in 1118 - to another son Gleb. According to the will of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, Pereyaslav land again went to Yaropolk. When Yaropolk left to reign in Kyiv in 1132, the Pereyaslav table became a bone of contention within the Monomashich family - between the Rostov prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky and his nephews Vsevolod and Izyaslav Mstislavich. Yuri Dolgoruky captured Pereyaslavl, but reigned there for only eight days: he was expelled by the Grand Duke Yaropolk, who gave the Pereyaslav table to Izyaslav Mstislavich, and in the next, 1133, to his brother Vyacheslav Vladimirovich. In 1135, after Vyacheslav left to reign in Turov, Pereyaslavl was again captured by Yuri Dolgoruky, who installed his brother Andrei the Good there. In the same year, the Olgovichi, in alliance with the Polovtsy, invaded the principality, but the Monomashichs joined forces and helped Andrei repel the attack. After the death of Andrei in 1142, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich returned to Pereyaslavl, who, however, soon had to transfer the reign to Izyaslav Mstislavich. When in 1146 Izyaslav occupied the Kyiv throne, he planted his son Mstislav in Pereyaslavl.

In 1149, Yuri Dolgoruky resumed the struggle with Izyaslav and his sons for dominion in the southern Russian lands. For five years, the Principality of Pereyaslav turned out to be either in the hands of Mstislav Izyaslavich (1150–1151, 1151–1154), or in the hands of the sons of Yuri Rostislav (1149–1150, 1151) and Gleb (1151). In 1154, the Yuryevichs established themselves in the principality for a long time: Gleb Yuryevich (1155–1169), his son Vladimir (1169–1174), brother of Gleb Mikhalko (1174–1175), again Vladimir (1175–1187), grandson of Yuri Dolgorukov Yaroslav Krasny (until 1199 ) and the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest Konstantin (1199–1201) and Yaroslav (1201–1206). In 1206, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vsevolod Chermny from the Chernigov Olgovichi planted his son Mikhail in Pereyaslavl, who, however, was expelled in the same year by the new Grand Duke Rurik Rostislavich. From that time on, the principality was held either by the Smolensk Rostislavichs or the Yuryevichs. In the spring of 1239, the Tatar-Mongol hordes invaded Pereyaslav land; they burned Pereyaslavl and subjected the principality to a terrible defeat, after which it could no longer be revived; the Tatars included him in the "Wild Field". In the third quarter of the 14th c. Pereyaslavshchina became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Vladimir-Volyn principality.

It was located in the west of Russia and occupied a vast territory from the upper reaches of the Southern Bug in the south to the upper reaches of the Nareva (a tributary of the Vistula) in the north, from the valley of the Western Bug in the west to the Sluch River (a tributary of the Pripyat) in the east (modern Volynskaya, Khmelnitskaya, Vinnitskaya, north of Ternopil, north-east of Lvov, most of the Rivne region of Ukraine, west of Brest and south-west of Grodno region of Belarus, east of Lublin and south-east of Bialystok voivodeship of Poland). It bordered in the east with Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk and Kyiv, in the west with the Principality of Galicia, in the northwest with Poland, in the southeast with the Polovtsian steppes. It was inhabited by the Slavic tribe Dulebs, who were later called Buzhans or Volynians.

Southern Volyn was a mountainous area formed by the eastern spurs of the Carpathians, the northern one was lowland and wooded woodland. A variety of natural and climatic conditions contributed to economic diversity; The inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, and cattle breeding, and hunting, and fishing. The economic development of the principality was favored by its unusually favorable geographical position: the main trade routes from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Russia to Central Europe passed through it; at their intersection, the main urban centers arose - Vladimir-Volynsky, Dorogichin, Lutsk, Berestye, Shumsk.

At the beginning of the 10th c. Volyn, together with the territory adjacent to it from the south-west (the future Galician land), became dependent on the Kyiv prince Oleg. In 981, St. Vladimir annexed to it the Peremyshl and Cherven volosts, which he had taken from the Poles, pushing the Russian border from the Western Bug to the San River; in Vladimir-Volynsky, he established an episcopal see, and made the Volyn land itself a semi-independent principality, transferring it to his sons - Pozvizd, Vsevolod, Boris. During the internecine war in Russia in 1015-1019, the Polish king Boleslav I the Brave returned Przemysl and Cherven, but in the early 1030s they were recaptured by Yaroslav the Wise, who also annexed Belz to Volhynia.

In the early 1050s, Yaroslav placed his son Svyatoslav on the Vladimir-Volyn table. According to Yaroslav's will in 1054, he passed to his other son Igor, who held him until 1057. According to some sources, in 1060 Vladimir-Volynsky was transferred to Igor's nephew Rostislav Vladimirovich; he, however, did not last long. In 1073, Volhynia returned to Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, who had taken the Grand Duke's throne, and gave it to his son Oleg "Gorislavich" as an inheritance, but after the death of Svyatoslav at the end of 1076, the new Kyiv prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich took this region from him.

When Izyaslav died in 1078 and the great reign passed to his brother Vsevolod, he planted Yaropolk, the son of Izyaslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky. However, after some time, Vsevolod separated the Przemysl and Terebovl volosts from Volyn, transferring them to the sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich (the future Galician principality). The attempt of the Rostislavichs in 1084-1086 to take away the Vladimir-Volyn table from Yaropolk was unsuccessful; after the murder of Yaropolk in 1086, Grand Duke Vsevolod made his nephew Davyd Igorevich Volhynia ruler. The Lyubech congress of 1097 secured Volyn for him, but as a result of the war with the Rostislavichs, and then with the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1097–1098), Davyd lost it. By decision of the Uvetichi Congress of 1100, Vladimir-Volynsky went to Svyatopolk's son Yaroslav; Davyd got Buzhsk, Ostrog, Czartorysk and Duben (later Dorogobuzh).

In 1117, Yaroslav rebelled against the new Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh, for which he was expelled from Volhynia. Vladimir passed it on to his son Roman (1117–1119), and after his death to his other son Andrei the Good (1119–1135); in 1123, Yaroslav tried to regain his inheritance with the help of the Poles and Hungarians, but died during the siege of Vladimir-Volynsky. In 1135, Prince Yaropolk of Kyiv installed his nephew Izyaslav, son of Mstislav the Great, in place of Andrei.

When in 1139 the Olgoviches of Chernigov took possession of the Kyiv table, they decided to oust the Monomashichs from Volhynia. In 1142, Grand Duke Vsevolod Olgovich managed to plant his son Svyatoslav in Vladimir-Volynsky instead of Izyaslav. However, in 1146, after the death of Vsevolod, Izyaslav seized the great reign in Kyiv and removed Svyatoslav from Vladimir, allocating Buzhsk and six more Volyn cities as his lot. Since that time, Volyn finally passed into the hands of the Mstislavichs, the eldest branch of the Monomashichs, who ruled it until 1337. Izyaslav Mstislav (1156–1170). Under them, the process of fragmentation of the Volyn land began: in the 1140s–1160s, the Buzh, Lutsk and Peresopnytsia principalities stood out.

In 1170, the Vladimir-Volyn table was taken by the son of Mstislav Izyaslavich Roman (1170-1205 with a break in 1188). His reign was marked by the economic and political strengthening of the principality. Unlike the Galician princes, the Volyn rulers had an extensive princely domain and were able to concentrate significant material resources in their hands. Having strengthened his power within the principality, Roman in the second half of the 1180s began to pursue an active foreign policy. In 1188 he intervened in civil strife in the neighboring principality of Galicia and tried to seize the Galician table, but failed. In 1195 he came into conflict with the Smolensk Rostislavichs and ruined their possessions. In 1199 he managed to subjugate the Galician land and create a single Galicia-Volyn principality. At the beginning of the XIII century. Roman extended his influence to Kyiv: in 1202 he expelled Rurik Rostislavich from the Kyiv table and placed his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich on him; in 1204 he arrested and tonsured a monk, Rurik, who was newly established in Kyiv, and restored Ingvar there. Several times he invaded Lithuania and Poland. By the end of his reign, Roman had become the de facto hegemon of Western and Southern Russia and styled himself "King of Russia"; nevertheless, he failed to put an end to feudal fragmentation - under him, old and even new appanages continued to exist in Volhynia (Drogichinsky, Belzsky, Chervensko-Kholmsky).

After the death of Roman in 1205 in a campaign against the Poles, there was a temporary weakening of princely power. His successor Daniel already in 1206 lost the Galician land, and then was forced to flee from Volhynia. The Vladimir-Volyn table turned out to be the object of rivalry between his cousin Ingvar Yaroslavich and cousin Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who constantly turned to the Poles and the Hungarians for support. Only in 1212 Daniil Romanovich was able to establish himself in the Vladimir-Volyn principality; he managed to achieve the liquidation of a number of destinies. After a long struggle with the Hungarians, Poles and Chernigov Olgoviches, in 1238 he subjugated the Galician land and restored the united Galicia-Volyn principality. In the same year, while remaining its supreme ruler, Daniel handed over Volhynia to his younger brother Vasilko (1238–1269). In 1240 Volhynia was ravaged by the Tatar-Mongol hordes; Vladimir-Volynsky taken and plundered. In 1259 the Tatar commander Burundai invaded Volyn and forced Vasilko to demolish the fortifications of Vladimir-Volynsky, Danilov, Kremenets and Lutsk; however, after an unsuccessful siege of the Hill, he had to retreat. In the same year, Vasilko repulsed the attack of the Lithuanians.

Vasilko was succeeded by his son Vladimir (1269–1288). During his reign, Volyn was subjected to periodic Tatar raids (especially devastating in 1285). Vladimir restored many devastated cities (Berestye, etc.), built a number of new ones (Kamenets on Losnya), erected temples, patronized trade, and attracted foreign artisans. At the same time, he waged constant wars with the Lithuanians and Yotvingians and intervened in the feuds of the Polish princes. This active foreign policy was continued by Mstislav (1289–1301), the youngest son of Daniil Romanovich, who succeeded him.

After death ca. 1301 childless Mstislav Galician Prince Yuri Lvovich again united the Volyn and Galician lands. In 1315 he failed in the war with the Lithuanian prince Gedemin, who took Berestye, Drogichin and laid siege to Vladimir-Volynsky. In 1316, Yuri died (perhaps he died under the walls of besieged Vladimir), and the principality was divided again: most of Volyn was received by his eldest son, the Galician prince Andrei (1316–1324), and the Lutsk inheritance was given to his youngest son Lev. The last independent Galician-Volyn ruler was Andrey's son Yuri (1324-1337), after whose death the struggle for the Volyn lands between Lithuania and Poland began. By the end of the 14th century Volyn became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Galician principality.

It was located on the southwestern outskirts of Russia to the east of the Carpathians in the upper reaches of the Dniester and Prut (modern Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil and Lvov regions of Ukraine and the Rzeszow province of Poland). It bordered in the east with the Volyn principality, in the north with Poland, in the west with Hungary, and in the south it ran into the Polovtsian steppes. The population was mixed - Slavic tribes occupied the Dniester valley (Tivertsy and streets) and the upper reaches of the Bug (Dulebs, or Buzhans); Croats (herbs, carps, hrovats) lived in the Przemysl region.

Fertile soils, mild climate, numerous rivers and vast forests created favorable conditions for intensive agriculture and cattle breeding. The most important trade routes passed through the territory of the principality - the river from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (through the Vistula, the Western Bug and the Dniester) and the land route from Russia to Central and South-Eastern Europe; periodically extending its power to the Dniester-Danube lowland, the principality also controlled the Danube communications between Europe and the East. Here, large shopping centers arose early: Galich, Przemysl, Terebovl, Zvenigorod.

In the 10th-11th centuries. this region was part of the Vladimir-Volyn land. In the late 1070s - early 1080s, the great Kyiv prince Vsevolod, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, separated the Przemysl and Terebovl volosts from it and gave it to his great-nephews: the first Rurik and Volodar Rostislavich, and the second - to their brother Vasilko. In 1084–1086, the Rostislavichs unsuccessfully tried to establish control over Volhynia. After the death of Rurik in 1092, Volodar became the sole owner of Przemysl. The Lubech congress of 1097 assigned him the Przemysl, and Vasilko the Terebovl volost. In the same year, the Rostislavichs, with the support of Vladimir Monomakh and the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs, repelled an attempt by the Grand Prince of Kyiv Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and the Volyn Prince Davyd Igorevich to seize their possessions. In 1124 Volodar and Vasilko died, and their inheritances were divided among themselves by their sons: Przemysl went to Rostislav Volodarevich, Zvenigorod to Vladimirko Volodarevich; Rostislav Vasilkovich received the Terebovl region, allocating a special Galician volost from it for his brother Ivan. After the death of Rostislav, Ivan annexed Terebovl to his possessions, leaving a small Berladsky inheritance to his son Ivan Rostislavich (Berladnik).

In 1141, Ivan Vasilkovich died, and the Terebovl-Galician volost was captured by his cousin Vladimirko Volodarevich Zvenigorodsky, who made Galich the capital of his possessions (now the Galician principality). In 1144, Ivan Berladnik tried to take Galich from him, but failed and lost his Berladsky inheritance. In 1143, after the death of Rostislav Volodarevich, Vladimirko included Przemysl in his principality; thus, he united under his rule all the Carpathian lands. In 1149-1154 Vladimirko supported Yuri Dolgoruky in his struggle with Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kyiv table; he repulsed the attack of Izyaslav's ally the Hungarian king Geyza and in 1152 captured Izyaslav's Upper Pogorynye (the cities of Buzhsk, Shumsk, Tihoml, Vyshegoshev and Gnojnitsa). As a result, he became the ruler of a vast territory from the upper reaches of the San and Goryn to the middle reaches of the Dniester and the lower reaches of the Danube. Under him, the Galician principality became the leading political force in Southwestern Russia and entered a period of economic prosperity; his ties with Poland and Hungary were strengthened; it began to experience a strong cultural influence of Catholic Europe.

In 1153 Vladimirko was succeeded by his son Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153–1187), under whom the Principality of Galicia reached the peak of its political and economic power. He patronized trade, invited foreign artisans, built new cities; under him, the population of the principality increased significantly. Yaroslav's foreign policy was also successful. In 1157, he repelled an attack on Galich by Ivan Berladnik, who settled in the Danube and robbed Galician merchants. When in 1159 the Kyiv prince Izyaslav Davydovich tried to put Berladnik on the Galician table by force of arms, Yaroslav, in alliance with Mstislav Izyaslavich Volynsky, defeated him, expelled him from Kyiv and transferred the Kievan reign to Rostislav Mstislavich Smolensky (1159–1167); in 1174 he made his vassal Yaroslav Izyaslavich Lutsky prince of Kyiv. Galich's international prestige increased enormously. Author Words about Igor's regiment described Yaroslav as one of the most powerful Russian princes: “Galician Osmomysl Yaroslav! / You sit high on your gold-forged throne, / propped up the Hungarian mountains with your iron regiments, / blocking the way for the king, shutting the gates of the Danube, / sword of gravity through the clouds, / rowing courts to the Danube. / Your thunderstorms flow across the lands, / you open the gates of Kyiv, / you shoot from the father’s golden throne of the saltans behind the lands.

During the reign of Yaroslav, however, the local boyars intensified. Like his father, he, in an effort to avoid fragmentation, handed over cities and volosts to the holding not of his relatives, but of the boyars. The most influential of them ("great boyars") became the owners of huge estates, fortified castles and numerous vassals. The boyar landownership surpassed the princely in size. The strength of the Galician boyars increased so much that in 1170 they even intervened in the internal conflict in the princely family: they burned Yaroslav's concubine Nastasya at the stake and forced him to take an oath to return his legitimate wife Olga, the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky, who had been rejected by him.

Yaroslav bequeathed the principality to Oleg, his son by Nastasya; he allocated the Przemysl volost to his legitimate son Vladimir. But after his death in 1187, the boyars overthrew Oleg and elevated Vladimir to the Galician table. Vladimir's attempt to get rid of the boyar guardianship and rule autocratically already in the next 1188 ended with his flight to Hungary. Oleg returned to the Galician table, but soon he was poisoned by the boyars, and Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich occupied Galich. In the same year, Vladimir expelled Roman with the help of the Hungarian king Bela, but he gave the reign not to him, but to his son Andrei. In 1189 Vladimir fled from Hungary to the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, promising him to become his vassal and tributary. By order of Frederick, the Polish king Casimir II the Just sent his army to the Galician land, at the approach of which the boyars of Galich overthrew Andrei and opened the gates to Vladimir. With the support of the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, Vsevolod the Big Nest, Vladimir was able to subjugate the boyars and hold on to power until his death in 1199.

With the death of Vladimir, the family of the Galician Rostislavichs ceased, and the Galician land became part of the vast possessions of Roman Mstislavich Volynsky, a representative of the older branch of the Monomashichs. The new prince pursued a policy of terror in relation to the local boyars and achieved its significant weakening. However, shortly after the death of Roman in 1205, his power collapsed. Already in 1206, his heir Daniel was forced to leave the Galician land and go to Volhynia. A long period of unrest began (1206-1238). The Galician table passed either to Daniel (1211, 1230–1232, 1233), then to the Chernigov Olgoviches (1206–1207, 1209–1211, 1235–1238), then to the Smolensk Rostislavichs (1206, 1219–1227), then to the Hungarian princes (1207-1209, 1214-1219, 1227-1230); in 1212-1213 the power in Galich was even usurped by the boyar - Volodislav Kormilichich (a unique case in ancient Russian history). Only in 1238 Daniel managed to establish himself in Galicia and restore the united Galicia-Volyn state. In the same year, while remaining its supreme ruler, he allocated Volhynia to his brother Vasilko.

In the 1240s, the foreign policy situation of the principality became more complicated. In 1242 it was devastated by the hordes of Batu. In 1245, Daniil and Vasilko had to recognize themselves as tributaries of the Tatar Khan. In the same year, the Chernigov Olgoviches (Rostislav Mikhailovich), having entered into an alliance with the Hungarians, invaded the Galician land; only with great effort, the brothers managed to repel the invasion, having won a victory on the river. San.

In the 1250s, Daniel launched an active diplomatic activity to create an anti-Tatar coalition. He concluded a military-political alliance with the Hungarian king Bela IV and began negotiations with Pope Innocent IV on a church union, a crusade of European powers against the Tatars and recognition of his royal title. In 1254 the papal legate crowned Daniel with a royal crown. However, the inability of the Vatican to organize a crusade removed the issue of union from the agenda. In 1257, Daniel agreed on joint actions against the Tatars with the Lithuanian prince Mindovg, but the Tatars managed to provoke a conflict between the allies.

After Daniel's death in 1264, the Galician land was divided between his sons Leo, who received Galich, Przemysl and Drogichin, and Shvarn, to whom Kholm, Cherven and Belz passed. In 1269, Shvarn died, and the entire Galician principality passed into the hands of Leo, who in 1272 transferred his residence to the newly built Lvov. Leo intervened in internal political strife in Lithuania and fought (though unsuccessfully) with the Polish prince Leshko Cherny for the Lublin volost.

After the death of Leo in 1301, his son Yuri reunited the Galician and Volhynian lands and took the title "King of Russia, Prince of Lodimeria (i.e. Volhynia)". He entered into an alliance with the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and tried to achieve the establishment of an independent church metropolis in Galicia. After the death of Yuri in 1316, Galicia and most of Volhynia were given to his eldest son Andrei, who was succeeded in 1324 by his son Yuri. With the death of Yuri in 1337, the senior branch of the descendants of Daniil Romanovich died out, and a fierce struggle began between Lithuanian, Hungarian and Polish pretenders to the Galician-Volyn table. In 1349-1352, the Polish king Casimir III captured the Galician land. In 1387, under Vladislav II (Jagiello), it finally became part of the Commonwealth.

Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir-Suzdal) Principality.

It was located on the northeastern outskirts of Russia in the basin of the Upper Volga and its tributaries Klyazma, Unzha, Sheksna (modern Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, most of Moscow, Vladimir and Vologda, southeast of Tver, west of Nizhny Novgorod and Kostroma regions); in the 12th–14th centuries the principality was constantly expanding in the eastern and northeastern directions. In the west, it bordered on Smolensk, in the south - on Chernigov and Muromo-Ryazan principalities, in the northwest - on Novgorod, and in the east - on Vyatka land and Finno-Ugric tribes (Merya, Mari, etc.). The population of the principality was mixed: it consisted of both Finno-Ugric autochthons (mainly Merya) and Slavic colonists (mainly Krivichi).

Most of the territory was occupied by forests and swamps; fur trade played an important role in the economy. Numerous rivers abounded with valuable species of fish. Despite the rather harsh climate, the presence of podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils created favorable conditions for agriculture (rye, barley, oats, garden crops). Natural barriers (forests, swamps, rivers) reliably protected the principality from external enemies.

In 1 thousand AD. the upper Volga basin was inhabited by the Finno-Ugric tribe Merya. In the 8th–9th centuries an influx of Slavic colonists began here, who moved both from the west (from the Novgorod land) and from the south (from the Dnieper region); in the 9th century Rostov was founded by them, and in the 10th century. - Suzdal. At the beginning of the 10th c. Rostov land became dependent on the Kyiv prince Oleg, and under his closest successors it became part of the grand ducal domain. In 988/989 St. Vladimir singled it out as an inheritance for his son Yaroslav the Wise, and in 1010 he transferred it to his other son Boris. After the assassination of Boris in 1015 by Svyatopolk the Accursed, direct control of the Kyiv princes was restored here.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, Rostov land passed to Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who in 1068 sent his son Vladimir Monomakh to reign there; under him, Vladimir was founded on the Klyazma River. Thanks to the activities of the Rostov Bishop St. Leonty, Christianity began to actively penetrate into this area; St. Abraham organized the first monastery here (Bogoyavlensky). In 1093 and 1095 Vladimir's son Mstislav the Great sat in Rostov. In 1095, Vladimir singled out the Rostov land as an independent principality for his other son Yuri Dolgoruky (1095–1157). The Lyubech congress of 1097 assigned it to the Monomashichs. Yuri moved the princely residence from Rostov to Suzdal. He contributed to the final approval of Christianity, widely attracted settlers from other Russian principalities, founded new cities (Moscow, Dmitrov, Yuryev-Polsky, Uglich, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Kostroma). During his reign, the Rostov-Suzdal land experienced an economic and political flourishing; the boyars and the trade and craft layer intensified. Significant resources allowed Yuri to intervene in the princely civil strife and spread his influence to neighboring territories. In 1132 and 1135, he tried (albeit unsuccessfully) to bring Pereyaslavl Russian under control, in 1147 he made a trip to Novgorod the Great and took Torzhok, in 1149 he began the fight for Kyiv with Izyaslav Mstislavovich. In 1155, he managed to establish himself on the Kievan grand-ducal table and secure the Pereyaslav region for his sons.

After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky in 1157, the Rostov-Suzdal land broke up into several destinies. However, already in 1161 Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) restored its unity, depriving his three brothers (Mstislav, Vasilko and Vsevolod) and two nephews (Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavichs) of their possessions. In an effort to get rid of the guardianship of the influential Rostov and Suzdal boyars, he moved the capital to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, where there was a numerous trade and craft settlement, and, relying on the support of the townspeople and the squad, began to pursue an absolutist policy. Andrei renounced his claims to the Kyiv table and accepted the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. In 1169-1170, he subjugated Kyiv and Novgorod the Great, transferring them respectively to his brother Gleb and his ally Rurik Rostislavich. By the early 1170s, the Polotsk, Turov, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Murom and Smolensk principalities recognized dependence on the Vladimir table. However, his campaign in 1173 against Kyiv, which fell into the hands of the Smolensk Rostislavichs, failed. In 1174 he was killed by boyars-conspirators in the village. Bogolyubovo near Vladimir.

After the death of Andrei, the local boyars invited his nephew Mstislav Rostislavich to the Rostov table; Suzdal, Vladimir and Yuryev-Polsky received Mstislav's brother Yaropolk. But in 1175 they were expelled by the brothers of Andrei Mikhalko and Vsevolod the Big Nest; Mikhalko became the ruler of Vladimir-Suzdal, and Vsevolod became the ruler of Rostov. In 1176 Mikhalko died, and Vsevolod remained the sole ruler of all these lands, behind which the name of the great Vladimir principality was firmly established. In 1177, he finally eliminated the threat from Mstislav and Yaropolk, inflicting a decisive defeat on the Koloksha River; they themselves were taken prisoner and blinded.

Vsevolod (1175-1212) continued the foreign policy of his father and brother, becoming the chief arbiter among the Russian princes and dictating his will to Kyiv, Novgorod the Great, Smolensk and Ryazan. However, already during his lifetime, the process of crushing the Vladimir-Suzdal land began: in 1208 he gave Rostov and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky as inheritance to his sons Konstantin and Yaroslav. After the death of Vsevolod in 1212, a war broke out between Konstantin and his brothers Yuri and Yaroslav in 1214, ending in April 1216 with Constantine's victory in the Battle of the Lipitsa River. But, although Constantine became the great Prince of Vladimir, the unity of the principality was not restored: in 1216-1217 he gave Yuri Gorodets-Rodilov and Suzdal, Yaroslav - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, and his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vladimir - Yuryev-Polsky and Starodub . After Constantine's death in 1218, Yuriy (1218–1238), who had taken the Grand Duke's throne, endowed his sons Vasilko (Rostov, Kostroma, Galich) and Vsevolod (Yaroslavl, Uglich) with lands. As a result, the Vladimir-Suzdal land broke up into ten specific principalities - Rostov, Suzdal, Pereyaslav, Yuriev, Starodub, Gorodet, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kostroma, Galicia; the Grand Prince of Vladimir retained only formal supremacy over them.

In February-March 1238, North-Eastern Russia fell victim to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Vladimir-Suzdal regiments were defeated on the river. City, Prince Yuri fell on the battlefield, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal and other cities were subjected to a terrible defeat. After the departure of the Tatars, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich occupied the grand-ducal table, who transferred to his brothers Svyatoslav and Ivan Suzdal and Starodub, to his eldest son Alexander (Nevsky) Pereyaslav, and to his nephew Boris Vasilkovich the Rostov principality, from which the Belozersky inheritance (Gleb Vasilkovich) separated. In 1243, Yaroslav received from Batu a label for the great reign of Vladimir (d. 1246). Under his successors, brother Svyatoslav (1246–1247), sons Andrei (1247–1252), Alexander (1252–1263), Yaroslav (1263–1271/1272), Vasily (1272–1276/1277) and grandsons Dmitry (1277–1293) ) and Andrei Alexandrovich (1293–1304), the crushing process was on the rise. In 1247, the Tver (Yaroslav Yaroslavich) principalities were finally formed, and in 1283, the Moscow (Daniil Alexandrovich) principalities. Although in 1299 the metropolitan, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, moved to Vladimir from Kyiv, its importance as the capital gradually declined; from the end of the 13th century the grand dukes stop using Vladimir as a permanent residence.

In the first third of the 14th century Moscow and Tver begin to play a leading role in North-Eastern Russia, which enter into rivalry for the Vladimir Grand Duke's table: in 1304/1305–1317 it was occupied by Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, in 1317–1322 by Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, in 1322–1326 by Dmitry Mikhailovich Tverskoy, in 1326-1327 - Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, in 1327-1340 - Ivan Danilovich (Kalita) of Moscow (in 1327-1331 together with Alexander Vasilyevich Suzdalsky). After Ivan Kalita, it becomes the monopoly of the Moscow princes (with the exception of 1359-1362). At the same time, their main rivals - the Tver and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes - in the middle of the 14th century. also take the title of great. The struggle for control over North-Eastern Russia during the 14th–15th centuries. ends with the victory of the Moscow princes, who include the disintegrated parts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land into the Moscow state: Pereyaslavl-Zalesskoe (1302), Mozhaiskoe (1303), Uglichskoe (1329), Vladimirskoe, Starodubskoe, Galicia, Kostroma and Dmitrovskoe (1362–1364), Belozersky (1389), Nizhny Novgorod (1393), Suzdal (1451), Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474) and Tver (1485) principalities.

Novgorod land.

It occupied a vast territory (almost 200 thousand square kilometers) between the Baltic Sea and the lower reaches of the Ob. Its western border was the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipsi, in the north it included Lakes Ladoga and Onega and reached the White Sea, in the east it captured the Pechora basin, and in the south it neighbored the principalities of Polotsk, Smolensk and Rostov-Suzdal (modern Novgorod, Pskov, Leningrad, Arkhangelsk, most of the Tver and Vologda regions, Karelian and Komi autonomous republics). It was inhabited by Slavic (Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric tribes (Vod, Izhora, Korela, Chud, All, Perm, Pechora, Lapps).

The unfavorable natural conditions of the North hindered the development of agriculture; grain was one of the main imports. At the same time, huge forests and numerous rivers favored fishing, hunting, and fur trade; The extraction of salt and iron ore was of great importance. Since ancient times, the Novgorod land has been famous for its various crafts and the high quality of handicrafts. Its advantageous location at the crossroads from the Baltic Sea to the Black and Caspian ensured her the role of an intermediary in the trade of the Baltic and Scandinavia with the Black Sea and the Volga region. Craftsmen and merchants, united in territorial and professional corporations, represented one of the most economically and politically influential strata of Novgorod society. Its highest stratum, large landowners (boyars), also actively participated in international trade.

Novgorod land was divided into administrative districts - pyatins, directly adjacent to Novgorod (Votskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya, Bezhetskaya), and remote volosts: one stretched from Torzhok and Volok to the Suzdal border and the upper reaches of the Onega, the other included Zavolochye (onega interfluve and Mezen), and the third - the land to the east of the Mezen (Pechora, Perm and Yugra regions).

Novgorod land was the cradle of the Old Russian state. It was here that in the 860s-870s a strong political formation arose, uniting the Slavs of the Ilmen, Polotsk Krivichi, Meryu, all and partly Chud. In 882 Prince Oleg of Novgorod subjugated the Polans and the Smolensk Krivichi and moved the capital to Kyiv. Since that time, Novgorod land has become the second most important region of the Rurik dynasty. From 882 to 988/989 it was ruled by governors sent from Kyiv (with the exception of 972–977, when it was the inheritance of St. Vladimir).

At the end of the 10th-11th centuries. Novgorod land, as the most important part of the grand princely domain, was usually transferred by the Kyiv princes to the eldest sons. In 988/989 St. Vladimir installed his eldest son Vysheslav in Novgorod, and after his death in 1010, his other son Yaroslav the Wise, who, having taken the throne in 1019, in turn passed it on to his eldest son Ilya. After Elijah's death c. 1020 Novgorod land was captured by the Polotsk ruler Bryachislav Izyaslavich, but was expelled by the troops of Yaroslav. In 1034 Yaroslav handed over Novgorod to his second son Vladimir, who held it until his death in 1052.

In 1054, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Novgorod fell into the hands of his third son, the new Grand Duke Izyaslav, who ruled it through his governors, and then planted his youngest son Mstislav in it. In 1067 Novgorod was captured by Vseslav Bryachislavich of Polotsk, but in the same year he was expelled by Izyaslav. After the overthrow of Izyaslav from the Kyiv table in 1068, the Novgorodians did not submit to Vseslav of Polotsk, who reigned in Kyiv, and turned for help to Izyaslav's brother, Prince Svyatoslav of Chernigov, who sent his eldest son Gleb to them. Gleb defeated the troops of Vseslav in October 1069, but soon, obviously, he was forced to transfer Novgorod to Izyaslav, who returned to the grand prince's table. When in 1073 Izyaslav was again overthrown, Novgorod passed to Svyatoslav of Chernigov, who received the great reign, who planted his other son Davyd in it. After the death of Svyatoslav in December 1076, Gleb again took the throne of Novgorod. However, in July 1077, when Izyaslav regained the Kievan reign, he had to cede it to Svyatopolk, the son of Izyaslav, who returned the Kievan reign. Izyaslav's brother Vsevolod, who became Grand Duke in 1078, retained Novgorod for Svyatopolk and only in 1088 replaced him with his grandson Mstislav the Great, son of Vladimir Monomakh. After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, Davyd Svyatoslavich again sat in Novgorod, but in 1095 he came into conflict with the townspeople and left the reign. At the request of the Novgorodians, Vladimir Monomakh, who then owned Chernigov, returned Mstislav (1095–1117) to them.

In the second half of the 11th c. in Novgorod, the economic power and, accordingly, the political influence of the boyars and the trade and craft layer increased significantly. Large boyar land ownership became dominant. The Novgorod boyars were hereditary landowners and were not a service class; possession of land did not depend on the service of the prince. At the same time, the constant change of representatives of different princely families on the Novgorod table prevented the formation of any significant princely domain. In the face of the growing local elite, the prince's position gradually weakened.

In 1102, the Novgorod elites (boyars and merchants) refused to accept the reign of the son of the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, wishing to keep Mstislav, and the Novgorod land ceased to be part of the Grand Duke's possessions. In 1117 Mstislav handed over the Novgorod table to his son Vsevolod (1117–1136).

In 1136 the Novgorodians revolted against Vsevolod. Accusing him of bad management and neglect of the interests of Novgorod, they imprisoned him with his family, and after a month and a half they expelled him from the city. From that time on, a de facto republican system was established in Novgorod, although the princely power was not abolished. The supreme governing body was the people's assembly (veche), which included all the free citizens. The veche had broad powers - it invited and dismissed the prince, elected and controlled the entire administration, resolved issues of war and peace, was the highest court, introduced taxes and duties. The prince from a sovereign ruler turned into the highest official. He was the supreme commander in chief, could convene a council and issue laws if they did not contradict customs; embassies were sent and received on his behalf. However, when elected, the prince entered into contractual relations with Novgorod and gave an obligation to govern “in the old way”, appoint only Novgorodians as governors in the volosts and not impose tribute on them, wage war and make peace only with the consent of the veche. He did not have the right to remove other officials without trial. His actions were controlled by an elected posadnik, without whose approval he could not make judicial decisions and make appointments.

The local bishop (lord) played a special role in the political life of Novgorod. From the middle of the 12th century the right to elect him passed from the Metropolitan of Kyiv to the veche; the metropolitan only sanctioned the election. The Novgorod lord was considered not only the main clergyman, but also the first dignitary of the state after the prince. He was the largest landowner, had his own boyars and military regiments with a banner and governors, certainly participated in peace negotiations and inviting princes, and was a mediator in internal political conflicts.

Despite the significant narrowing of princely prerogatives, the rich Novgorod land remained attractive to the most powerful princely dynasties. First of all, the senior (Mstislavichi) and junior (Suzdal Yuryevich) branches of the Monomashichs competed for the Novgorod table; Chernigov Olgovichi tried to intervene in this struggle, but they achieved only episodic successes (1138–1139, 1139–1141, 1180–1181, 1197, 1225–1226, 1229–1230). In the 12th century the preponderance was on the side of the Mstislavich clan and its three main branches (Izyaslavichi, Rostislavichi and Vladimirovichi); they occupied the Novgorod table in 1117-1136, 1142-1155, 1158-1160, 1161-1171, 1179-1180, 1182-1197, 1197-1199; some of them (especially the Rostislavichs) managed to create independent, but short-lived principalities (Novotorzhskoe and Velikolukskoe) in the Novgorod land. However, already in the second half of the 12th century. the positions of the Yurievichs began to strengthen, who enjoyed the support of the influential party of the Novgorod boyars and, in addition, periodically put pressure on Novgorod, blocking the supply of grain from North-Eastern Russia. In 1147, Yuri Dolgoruky made a trip to the Novgorod land and captured Torzhok, in 1155 the Novgorodians had to invite his son Mstislav to reign (until 1157). In 1160, Andrei Bogolyubsky imposed on the Novgorodians his nephew Mstislav Rostislavich (until 1161); in 1171 he forced them to return Rurik Rostislavich, who had been expelled by them, to the Novgorod table, and in 1172 to transfer him to his son Yuri (until 1175). In 1176 Vsevolod the Big Nest managed to plant his nephew Yaroslav Mstislavich in Novgorod (until 1178).

In the 13th century Yuryevichi (Vsevolod's Big Nest line) achieved complete predominance. In the 1200s, the Novgorod throne was occupied by the sons of Vsevolod Svyatoslav (1200–1205, 1208–1210) and Konstantin (1205–1208). True, in 1210 the Novgorodians were able to get rid of the control of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes with the help of the Toropetsk ruler Mstislav Udatny from the Smolensk Rostislavich family; The Rostislavichs held Novgorod until 1221 (with a break in 1215–1216). However, then they were finally ousted from the Novgorod land by the Yurievichs.

The success of the Yurievichs was facilitated by the deterioration of the foreign policy situation of Novgorod. In the face of the increased threat to its western possessions from Sweden, Denmark and the Livonian Order, the Novgorodians needed an alliance with the most powerful Russian principality at that time - Vladimir. Thanks to this alliance, Novgorod managed to defend its borders. Summoned to the Novgorod table in 1236, Alexander Yaroslavich, the nephew of Prince Yuri Vsevolodich of Vladimir, defeated the Swedes at the mouth of the Neva in 1240, and then stopped the aggression of the German knights.

The temporary strengthening of princely power under Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) was replaced in the late 13th - early 14th century. its complete degradation, which was facilitated by the weakening of external danger and the progressive disintegration of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. At the same time, the role of the veche also declined. In Novgorod, an oligarchic system was actually established. The boyars turned into a closed ruling caste that shared power with the archbishop. The rise of the Moscow principality under Ivan Kalita (1325–1340) and its formation as the center of the unification of the Russian lands aroused fear among the Novgorod leaders and led to their attempts to use the powerful Lithuanian principality that had arisen on the southwestern borders as a counterweight: in 1333 he was first invited to the Novgorod table the Lithuanian prince Narimunt Gedeminovich (although he only lasted a year on it); in the 1440s, the Grand Duke of Lithuania was given the right to collect irregular tribute from some Novgorod volosts.

Although 14-15 centuries. became a period of rapid economic prosperity of Novgorod, largely due to its close ties with the Hanseatic Trade Union, the Novgorod leaders did not use it to strengthen their military-political potential and preferred to pay off the aggressive Moscow and Lithuanian princes. At the end of the 14th century Moscow launched an offensive against Novgorod. Vasily I captured the Novgorod cities of Bezhetsky Verkh, Volok Lamsky and Vologda with adjacent regions; in 1401 and 1417 he tried, though unsuccessfully, to seize Zavolochye. In the second quarter of the 15th c. Moscow's offensive was suspended due to the internecine war of 1425–1453 between Grand Duke Vasily II and his uncle Yuri and his sons; in this war, the Novgorod boyars supported the opponents of Vasily II. Having established himself on the throne, Vasily II imposed tribute on Novgorod, and in 1456 went to war with him. Having suffered a defeat at Russa, the Novgorodians were forced to conclude a humiliating Yazhelbitsky peace with Moscow: they paid a significant indemnity and pledged not to enter into an alliance with the enemies of the Moscow prince; the legislative prerogatives of the veche were abolished and the possibilities of conducting an independent foreign policy were seriously limited. As a result, Novgorod became dependent on Moscow. In 1460, Pskov was under the control of the Moscow prince.

In the late 1460s, the pro-Lithuanian party led by the Boretskys triumphed in Novgorod. She achieved the conclusion of an alliance treaty with the great Lithuanian prince Casimir IV and an invitation to the Novgorod table of his protege Mikhail Olelkovich (1470). In response, Moscow Prince Ivan III sent a large army against the Novgorodians, which defeated them on the river. Shelon; Novgorod had to annul the treaty with Lithuania, pay a huge indemnity and cede part of Zavolochye. In 1472 Ivan III annexed the Perm Territory; in 1475 he arrived in Novgorod and massacred the anti-Moscow boyars, and in 1478 liquidated the independence of the Novgorod land and included it in the Muscovite state. In 1570 Ivan IV the Terrible finally destroyed Novgorod's liberties.

Ivan Krivushin

GREAT Kyiv PRINCES

(from the death of Yaroslav the Wise to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Before the name of the prince - the year of his accession to the throne, the number in brackets indicates at what time the prince occupied the throne, if this happened again.)

1054 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (1)

1068 Vseslav Bryachislavich

1069 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (2)

1073 Svyatoslav Yaroslavich

1077 Vsevolod Yaroslavich (1)

1077 Izyaslav Yaroslavich (3)

1078 Vsevolod Yaroslavich (2)

1093 Svyatopolk Izyaslavich

1113 Vladimir Vsevolodich (Monomakh)

1125 Mstislav Vladimirovich (Great)

1132 Yaropolk Vladimirovich

1139 Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (1)

1139 Vsevolod Olgovich

1146 Igor Olgovich

1146 Izyaslav Mstislavich (1)

1149 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (1)

1149 Izyaslav Mstislavich (2)

1151 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (2)

1151 Izyaslav Mstislavich (3) and Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (2)

1154 Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (2) and Rostislav Mstislavich (1)

1154 Rostislav Mstislavich (1)

1154 Izyaslav Davydovich (1)

1155 Yuri Vladimirovich (Dolgoruky) (3)

1157 Izyaslav Davydovich (2)

1159 Rostislav Mstislavich (2)

1167 Mstislav Izyaslavich

1169 Gleb Yurievich

1171 Vladimir Mstislavich

1171 Mikhalko Yurievich

1171 Roman Rostislavich (1)

1172 Vsevolod Yurievich (Big Nest) and Yaropolk Rostislavich

1173 Rurik Rostislavich (1)

1174 Roman Rostislavich (2)

1176 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich (1)

1181 Rurik Rostislavich (2)

1181 Svyatoslav Vsevolodich (2)

1194 Rurik Rostislavich (3)

1202 Ingvar Yaroslavich (1)

1203 Rurik Rostislavich (4)

1204 Ingvar Yaroslavich (2)

1204 Rostislav Rurikovich

1206 Rurik Rostislavich (5)

1206 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (1)

1206 Rurik Rostislavich (6)

1207 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (2)

1207 Rurik Rostislavich (7)

1210 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (3)

1211 Ingvar Yaroslavich (3)

1211 Vsevolod Svyatoslavich (4)

1212/1214 Mstislav Romanovich (Old) (1)

1219 Vladimir Rurikovich (1)

1219 Mstislav Romanovich (Old) (2), possibly with his son Vsevolod

1223 Vladimir Rurikovich (2)

1235 Mikhail Vsevolodich (1)

1235 Yaroslav Vsevolodich

1236 Vladimir Rurikovich (3)

1239 Mikhail Vsevolodich (1)

1240 Rostislav Mstislavich

1240 Daniel Romanovich

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