The reasons for the war were in the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and gripped by the national liberation movement of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that the inheritance of Turkey can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict, the Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as on the support of Austria, as a gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas's calculations turned out to be wrong: England herself pushed Turkey to war, thus seeking to weaken Russia's position. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans.
The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to holy places, since all pilgrims used them on an equal footing. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched pretext for unleashing a war.
STAGES
During the Crimean War, two stages are distinguished:
I stage of the war: November 1853 - April 1854 Turkey was Russia's enemy, and hostilities took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. In 1853, Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, and hostilities on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated near Kars.
II stage of the war: April 1854 - February 1856 Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions. Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia.
RESULTS
The results of the war:
On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.
Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.
During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.
Diplomatic training, course of hostilities, results.
Causes of the Crimean War.
Each side that took part in the war had its own claims and reasons for the military conflict.The Russian Empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; increasing influence in the Balkan Peninsula.
Ottoman Empire: wanted to suppress the national liberation movement in the Balkans; the return of the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.
England, France: they hoped to undermine the international authority of Russia, to weaken its position in the Middle East; tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland; strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.
By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, in addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued.
These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.
Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over the control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.
The course of hostilities.
October 20, 1853 - Nicholas I signed the Manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey.The first stage of the war (November 1853 - April 1854) is Russian-Turkish military operations.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. At the same time, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies.
The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
The Russian-Turkish war was fought with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries.
As a result of the Battle of Sinop, the Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was defeated within a few hours.
During a four-hour battle in the Sinop Bay (Turkish naval base), the enemy lost a dozen and a half ships and over 3 thousand people were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. Only the 20-gun high-speed steamer Taif with an English adviser on board was able to escape from the bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet was taken prisoner. The losses of the Nakhimov squadron amounted to 37 people killed and 216 wounded. Some ships came out of the battle with heavy damage, but not one was sunk. The Sinop battle is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the Russian fleet.
This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
After the battle on the river Alma the enemy laid siege to Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. In front of the entrance to the raid - on the peninsulas and capes - there were powerful forts. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk in front of the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea. More than 20,000 sailors went ashore and lined up along with the soldiers. 2 thousand ship guns were also transported here. Eight bastions and many other fortifications were built around the city. Earth, boards, household utensils were used - everything that could delay bullets.
But for the work there were not enough ordinary shovels and picks. Theft flourished in the army. During the war years, this turned into a disaster. In this regard, a well-known episode comes to mind. Nicholas I, outraged by all sorts of abuses and theft found almost everywhere, in a conversation with the heir to the throne (the future Emperor Alexander II) shared his discovery that shocked him: “It seems that in all of Russia only two people do not steal - you and me” .
Defense of Sevastopol.
Defense under the leadership of admirals Kornilov V.A., Nakhimov P.S. and Istomin V.I. lasted 349 days with a 30,000-strong garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombardments, as a result of which part of the city, the Ship Side, was practically destroyed.On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. It was attended by the army and navy. From land, 120 guns fired at the city, from the sea - 1340 guns of ships. During the shelling, over 50 thousand shells were fired at the city. This fiery whirlwind was supposed to destroy the fortifications and crush the will of their defenders to resist. At the same time, the Russians responded with accurate fire from 268 guns. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was badly damaged (8 ships were sent for repairs) and was forced to retreat. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in the bombing of the city. The fortifications of the city were not seriously damaged. The decisive and skillful rebuff of the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which expected to take the city with little bloodshed. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also a moral victory. Their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Nakhimov, who, for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol, was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855.
In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The attempts of the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. to pull back the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle of Inkerman, Yevpatoriya and Chernaya Rechka). The actions of the field army in the Crimea did little to help the heroic defenders of Sevastopol. Around the city, the enemy's ring was gradually shrinking. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The offensive of the enemy ended there. Subsequent military operations in the Crimea, as well as in other parts of the country, were not of decisive importance for the Allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress of Kars. During the Crimean War, the forces of both sides were undermined. But the selfless courage of the Sevastopol people could not compensate for the shortcomings in armament and provision.
On August 27, 1855, French troops stormed the southern part of the city and captured the height that dominated the city - Malakhov Kurgan. Hosted on ref.rf
The loss of Malakhov Kurgan decided the fate of Sevastopol. On this day, the defenders of the city lost about 13 thousand people, or more than a quarter of the entire garrison. On the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern part. The battles for Sevastopol ended. The Allies did not achieve his surrender. The Russian armed forces in Crimea survived and were ready for further fighting. They numbered 115 thousand people. against 150 thousand people. Anglo-French-Sardinians. The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War.
Military operations in the Caucasus.
In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world.
At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. At the same time, she lost the right to patronize the Danubian principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing: Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia passed under the supreme authority of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforms state.
Reasons for the defeat of Russia:
.Economic backwardness of Russia;
.Political isolation of Russia;
.Lack of a steam fleet in Russia;
.Poor supply of the army;
.Lack of railways.
In three years, Russia lost 500 thousand people in killed, wounded and captured. The allies also suffered great damage: about 250 thousand killed, wounded and died of disease. As a result of the war, Russia lost its positions in the Middle East to France and England. Its prestige in the international arena was severely undermined. On March 13, 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to a minimum and the fortifications were destroyed. Similar demands were made to Turkey. In addition, Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, had to return the Kars fortress, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.
The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common occurrence in the international politics of the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended with the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of the role of Russia in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories at the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Causes of the aggravation of the Eastern questionUnder the eastern question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the main one for the future war, are as follows:
An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of the countries of Western Europe (Britain, France, and Austria) not to let Russia into the Balkans, and also to close its access to the straits. For the sake of this, the countries were ready to support Turkey in a potential war with Russia. The reason for the war and its beginningThese troubled moments brewed throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the control of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation of the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a pretext for attacking Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be handed over to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Turkey refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danubian principalities dependent on it. Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and that Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work, European countries called the Ottoman Empire to action, promising her financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called Eastern. The course of the war and the main stagesThe Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. Here are the steps:
 As for specific battles, the following key battles can be distinguished: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but those listed above are the main ones. Let's consider them in more detail. Battle of Sinop (November 1853)The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in the Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and gave hope for an early victory in the war. Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853
Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)In early April 1854, the Ottoman Empire launched a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which swiftly headed for Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev. On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of the Crimea. However, the city withstood several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver accurate strikes against the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The allies were forced to retreat towards the Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula. Fights on the Danube (1853-1856)It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After the success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry into the war of England and France complicated the offensive of Russia. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted and the Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, on this front, Austria also entered the war against Russia, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.  In July 1854, near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria), a huge landing of the British and French armies landed (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, ousting Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the leadership of the army first strike at the Black Sea fleet in the Crimea. Fights in the Caucasus (1853-1856)An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuruk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia. Another important battle in this region took place in June-November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the fortress of Karsu, so that the allies would send part of the troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little effect on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the "peace" signed later, the fortress of Kars returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace talks showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later. Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, Franco-British troops captured the last point of the city's defense - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived 11 months of siege, however, as a result, it was surrendered to the allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat became a key one and served as an impetus for the end of the war. From the end of 1855, intensified negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost. Other battles in the Crimea (1854-1856)In addition to the siege of Sevastopol on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, several more battles took place, which were aimed at "unblocking" Sevastopol:
All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol. "Distant" battlesThe main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:
Results and historical significance of the warIn February 1855, Nicholas 1 died. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented by Alexei Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, on March 6, 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.
The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:
As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, the Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand soldiers. Austrian casualties are unknown, possibly because Austria was not officially at war with Russia. In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, compared with the states of Europe, especially in terms of the economy (the completion of the industrial revolution, the construction of railways, the use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, a desire for revenge was brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it. Crimean War 1853-1856 this is one of the Russian pages of the foreign policy of the Eastern Question. The Russian Empire entered into a military confrontation with several opponents at once: the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia. The fighting took place on the Danube, the Baltic, the Black and White Seas.The most tense situation was in the Crimea, hence the name of the war - Crimean. Each state that took part in the Crimean War pursued its own goals. For example, Russia wanted to strengthen its influence on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Ottoman Empire wanted to suppress resistance in the Balkans. By the beginning of the Crimean War, he began to admit the possibility of joining the Balkan lands to the territory of the Russian Empire. Causes of the Crimean War
In October 1853, Russia entered Moldavia and Wallachia, these territories were subject to Russia according to the Treaty of Adrianople. The Emperor of Russia was asked to withdraw the troops, but was refused. Further, Great Britain, France and Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began the Crimean War. The Crimean War corresponded to the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to get the Black Sea straits into Russian possession, which Catherine the Great dreamed of. This was contrary to the plans of the Great European Powers, which intended to oppose Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war. The main causes of the Crimean WarThe history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly long and controversial, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all converged on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, while Turkey opposed this and was going to use military operations to suppress the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include the strengthening of Russia, so they expected to weaken it, at best, separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating loss of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.
Rice. 1. Map of the fighting of the Crimean War. During the accession to the throne of Emperor Napoleon III, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after the Patriotic War and the Foreign Campaign, the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. The Russian Emperor addressed Napoleon in a congratulatory letter as "my friend" and not "my brother", as etiquette required. It was a personal slap in the face of one emperor to another.
Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I. Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table. The immediate reason for the fighting was the question of control in Bethlehem of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The Turkish sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, which offended Nicholas I, which led to the outbreak of hostilities through the entry of Russian troops into the territory of Moldova. TOP 5 articleswho read along with this
Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War. Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean WarRussia took an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as printed in the Western press - Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat. The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it. Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He pursued a flamboyant imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors. Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, theft took place among the highest ranks. A vivid example of this is A.S. Menshikov, who was nicknamed the "traitor". An important reason is the military-technical backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. So, when sailing ships were still in service in Russia, the French and English fleets already made full use of the steam fleet, which showed its best side during the calm. Allied soldiers used rifled guns that fired more accurately and farther than Russian smoothbore guns. The situation was similar in artillery. The classic reason was the low level of infrastructure development. Railways did not yet lead to the Crimea, and the spring thaws killed the road system, which reduced the provision of the army. The result of the war was the Treaty of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy on the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danube principalities and returned South Bessarabia to Turkey. What have we learned?Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the ways of future development and pointed out weaknesses in the economy, military affairs, and the social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes. Topic quizReport EvaluationAverage rating: 3.9. Total ratings received: 188. |
Russia motivated its intervention by the fact that it wants to help the peoples professing Orthodoxy to free themselves from the oppression of the Ottoman Empire. Such a desire naturally did not suit England and Austria. The British also wanted to push Russia off the Black Sea coast. France also intervened in the Crimean War, its emperor Napoleon III hatched plans for revenge for the war of 1812.
