Palmyra is the pearl of Syria and all mankind. Historical information.

What kind of epithets Palmyra does not have: “The Bride of the Desert”, “The Eighth Wonder of the World”, “The Queen of the Desert”. The original title of Tadmor (Aramaic), or in Greek “City of Palms” is Palmyra, under this name the city gained worldwide fame.

The first documentary mention of Palmyra dates back to the III-II millennium BC and was discovered by scientists in the archive of King Mari, one of the city-states of the Sumerian civilization (that is, until 1894 BC - the date of the fall of the Sumerian state).

Arc de Triomphe - Palmyra

On the other hand, Flavius ​​Josephus and the Bible (2 Chronicles, ch. 8-4) directly indicate that the city was built by King Solomon (1010 - 928 BC).
I admit that such a discrepancy, as much as 1000 years or more, is due to the fact that by the time Solomon built Tadmor (Palmyra), a certain settlement already existed on this site.
Tadmor is located in an oasis of the Syrian desert on the way between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the Mediterranean Sea, 240 km from Damascus and 140 km from the Euphrates. It is clear that trade caravans could not bypass this city.

Amphitheater - Palmyra

And Palmyra skillfully used its advantageous position for economic and political purposes, being a self-governing independent state. But, of course, every now and then it was captured and fell under the dominion of various conquerors, among whom were the Assyrians, Babylonians, Macedonians, Persians, Mohammedans ...

Palmyra on the map of Syria

It is worth mentioning here that in the ancient world, Syria, in a broad sense, included vast territories, from the Mediterranean Sea and the river. Kydn (Tersus-Chai) to the Euphrates and from the city of Taurus in the north to Arabia and the borders of Egypt in the south.
Rome for a long time tried to conquer Palmyra, but, despite all its power, it did not succeed, as, for example, during the war with the Parthians in 41g.
However, in the end, Palmyra was still conquered by Rome, entered the Roman Empire, and even fought on the side of the Empire with the Persians.

Roman Empire and Palmyra - 268

It is this period (II-III centuries AD) that is considered the period of the greatest prosperity of Palmyra. However (and we often observe this in history), the magnificent flourishing of a state is followed by collapse and decline.
This happened during the reign of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra (267 to 272 AD).
Zenobia had a disagreement with the Roman emperor Gallienus, who did not want to confirm the titles for her son Vaballat given by Rome to the previous king of Palmyra, Odaenathus, who was killed by conspirators in 267. Zenobia was the wife of Odaenathus and was extremely indignant that the titles of Odaenathus' father would not pass to his son.

Palmyra

Then, without hesitation, Zenobia announced the independence of Palmyra from the Roman Empire, gathered a serious army, and captured not only Syria, but also many adjacent territories, including even Egypt and the eastern part of Asia Minor. Moreover, Zenobia's plans extended much further, up to the conquest of Rome itself. Zenobia even ordered a special, elaborately decorated chariot, on which she would have to triumphantly enter the defeated Rome.

Farewell look of Queen Zenobia on Palmyra

At this very time, Rome, this colossal empire, experienced not only the strongest pressure on its borders from external enemies, but also a difficult internal political struggle, accompanied by strife and conspiracies. As a result, the emperor Gallienus was killed by the conspirators. Claudius II, who reigned instead of Gallienus, fought successfully against the invasions of the Goths and Alemanni, winning several major battles. Definitely, in his 2 short years of reign, Claudius was not up to Zenobia and her conquests. As they say, there were plenty of other problems. And in 270, Claudius II dies unexpectedly from the plague.
Aurelian, who became emperor (sometimes called the restorer of the Roman Empire), decided to approach the restoration of the power of Rome on the eastern borders more systematically and decisively, unlike his predecessors.
Aurelian confirmed the seriousness of his intentions by creating more than an impressive expeditionary force (200 thousand soldiers!), Moreover, 2 legions IV of Mars and I of Illyria were created by him specifically for the military campaign against Queen Palmyra.
Having transported this entire armada across the Bosphorus, Aurelian took several cities controlled by Palmyra, and many of them surrendered without a fight. Then Aurelian crossed the Taurus Mountains, and in 2 battles he defeated the army of Palmyra.

Temple of Baal Shamin - Palmyra

Queen Zenobia took refuge in Palmyra, believing that food supplies and other resources would be enough to withstand even a long siege of the fortress from Aurelian's troops. However, soon the position of the besieged Palmyra was not so good. The fact is that some of the allies, on whom Zenobia was counting, abandoned her and went over to the side of the Romans. The outcome of the case seemed a foregone conclusion, the morale of the defenders of Palmyra was falling. Then Zenobia decided on a seemingly incredible and bold step. She decided to turn to the Persians for help, but only she personally could do this. It is clear that being in the besieged Palmyra it was impossible to do this. With a small detachment, Zenobia escapes from Palmyra, but luck turns away from her, and the Romans intercept the delegation.
Upon learning of the capture of Zenobia, the defenders of Palmyra laid down their arms and surrendered to the mercy of the winner.
Emperor Aurelian did not kill Zenobia, but took her to Rome, in order to lead her during his triumphal procession next to his chariot, chained like a defeated enemy. However, this was not an ordinary enemy, and paying tribute to the valor and courage of Zenobia, Aurelian ordered to forge special chains for her - from gold, which in turn also symbolized the extreme importance of Rome's victory over Palmyra.
Moreover, he gave Zenobia an estate near Rome and gave (by force) in marriage to one of his senators. And this is at the very time when in Rome they killed just one or two political opponents, and not just natural enemies. Thus, Zenobia greatly outlived her captor Aurelian, who was killed in 275 as a result of a conspiracy organized by his own clerk.
Less than a year after the capture of Zenobia by Aurelian, the inhabitants of Palmyra again raised an uprising against Roman rule, destroyed the Roman garrison and proclaimed their king a certain Antiochus, a relative of Zenobia.
Having received this news, Aurelian did not tolerate the insolence and disobedience of the inhabitants of Palmyra, and decided this time to act even more cruelly and ferociously. Palmyra was again besieged in 273 and, after a short resistance, fell. Aurelian plundered and devastated the city, destroyed many buildings.
After that, the fame of Palmyra began to fade, and, at best, one could speak of it as a peripheral settlement for a particular civilization.
In the VI century, Palmyra was part of the possession of the Byzantine Empire, and it was at this time that Emperor Justinian I erected several temples in Palmyra.
In 634, Palmyra was captured by the famous Arab commander Khaled ibn al-Walid, after which a fortress was built on the hill.

Arab fortress on a hill - Palmyra

In 1089, a powerful earthquake happened in Palmyra, which almost leveled the city to the ground, and it is a miracle that many ancient buildings still survived.
In 1400, the hordes of the Turkic conqueror Tamerlane passed through Palmyra.
The city, meanwhile, fell into disrepair. Local residents (Bedouins), of course, settled in these places, because here it was possible to get water and there was land for cultivating crops, and the material for building their huts could be taken directly from the destroyed architectural structures.
Europeans rediscovered Palmyra thanks to the Italian traveler Pietro de la Balle.
However, the Italian traveler failed to convince his contemporaries. For the existence of a huge ancient city in the middle of the Syrian desert seemed absolutely incredible. In 1678, a merchant from England, Halifax, re-discovered Palmyra, and 70 years later, in 1751-1753, travelers from England, Wood and Dawkins, conducted a thorough study of the ruins of Palmyra.

In addition, they made sketches of Palmyra, which made a great impression on the European public. We can say that Palmyra has become fashionable. Expeditions for archaeological research of Palmyra began to be equipped regularly.

Sketches by Wood and Dawkins - Palmyra

In 1882, during archaeological excavations in Palmyra, our compatriot, Prince Semyon Semyonovich Abamalek-Lazarev, discovered a marble slab on which the customs tariff of Palmyra of 137 was carved, moreover, in 2 languages ​​at once: Greek and Aramaic. This discovery was later of the greatest importance for the study of the Aramaic language.
In the 20s of the last century, Syria was liberated from the rule of the Ottoman Empire and transferred under the protectorate of France.
French researchers, with the support of the government, began archaeological excavations in the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
In order to proceed directly to large-scale excavations, the French first needed to relocate all the local residents, whose buildings were scattered here and there among the cultural heritage sites of Palmyra. Finally, by 1924, the resettlement of residents in the quarters specially built for this (nearby) was completed, the researchers proceeded directly to the excavations and, by about 1930, Palmyra acquired approximately the same appearance that existed at least until May 2015.
It was in May 2015 that Palmyra was attacked by ISIS *, and this terrible disaster cost the ancient city new misfortunes and great destruction. The battle for Palmyra in May 2015 lasted 10 days, but the government troops did not have enough forces to repel militant attacks, due to the fact that the government had to transfer part of its forces to another sector of the front, where the situation was also critical. Since the militants became aware of this, they took advantage of this, all that the Syrian army managed in May 2015 was to repel the attacks of superior enemy forces in order to enable the majority of the population of Palmyra to be evacuated, and also to take out a certain amount of archaeological values.
After capturing the city, ISIS * militants immediately began to plunder Palmyra, terrorize the civilian population, and commit many war crimes.
Guided only by their understandable ideology, based on misanthropy and disregard for the norms of any civilization, ISIS* militants destroyed several objects of the cultural and historical heritage of Palmyra. Other objects were used as a proscenium for brutal massacres of civilians, which the militants did not hide at all, but posted videos of these massacres on the Internet for clearly propaganda purposes. The guilt of these criminals does not require proof, for they themselves have collected them for themselves.

On March 27, 2016, the Syrian army, in the course of a special operation, which was carefully planned and carried out with the support of the military space forces of the Russian Federation, liberated, after fierce fighting, Palmyra.

It is clear that the full scale of the destruction, and the work necessary to restore cultural and historical heritage sites, has yet to be established, especially since many architectural structures today are tritely mined by ISIS* criminals.

I have no doubt that after the examination of Palmyra becomes at least minimally safe, it will immediately begin. And Palmyra will inevitably be restored, because this is necessary not only for Syria, but for all the United Nations.

ISIS* is a terrorist organization banned in the Russian Federation by a decision of the Court.

Palmyra - "emerald in the setting of the desert"

Among the yellow sands of the Syrian desert, the traveler is greeted by the majestic ruins of the ancient city. According to the Bible, Palmyra was created by the genies on the orders of King Solomon.

The ancient city of Palmyra is located in Syria. The grandiose buildings of Palmyra shake the minds of contemporaries and can easily compete with the buildings of European antiquity. Ancient Palmyra in Syria was so magnificent that it became a household name for many existing cities (for Russia, the northern palmyra is St. Petersburg, the southern palmyra is Odessa).

Thanks to its favorable location at the crossroads of caravan routes linking East and West, Palmyra quickly turned from a small oasis in the desert into a prosperous city. Here they sold slaves from Egypt, silk fabrics from China, spices from India and Arabia, pearls and carpets from Persia, jewelry from Phenicia, as well as Syrian goods - wine, wheat and purple-dyed wool.

The significance of Palmyra as a trading center is evidenced by an ancient customs document found by Russian industrialist and amateur archaeologist S. S. Abamelek-Lazarev in 1882. The so-called “Palmyra Tariff” is a limestone slab weighing 15 tons, on which prices for basic goods, their taxation rates for import and export, the procedure for using water sources in the city, and much more are recorded in Aramaic and Greek. Since 1901, the plate has been kept in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg.

Sasha Mitrahovich 17.11.2015 21:43

Mentions of the city of Palmyra begin from the 19th century BC. Then the city was called Tadmor, and one of the villages near the ruins of the legendary city is also called today.

Favorable geographical position allowed ancient Palmyra to be built by the 1st century AD. become a major commercial and cultural center. And the growth of wealth attracted the eyes of ill-wishers. So in 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian laid siege to Palmyra in Syria. None of the local defenders could resist the Roman legionnaires, and the city had to surrender.

After the sack, a Roman garrison was placed in the city. Construction continued in the III-IV centuries, but it was defensive in nature. The new camp of Diocletian was surrounded by walls, which, by the way, already occupied a smaller territory than the city itself. The population of Palmyra fell sharply. After the arrival of the Byzantines, a border checkpoint was equipped here, and already under the Arabs, the city completely fell into disrepair and was buried under a layer of sand. Later, merchants, travelers and even researchers periodically appeared here, but full-fledged excavations began only in the 1920s.

Sasha Mitrahovich 11.12.2015 09:17

Under the Roman emperor Trajan, Palmyra was destroyed, but Hadrian (117 - 138 AD) rebuilt it again and renamed it Adrianople, retaining the status of a "free city". Here was the Roman army with civilian Palmyra archers, and the camel cavalry, created under Trajan, constituted the main military force of the inhabitants of Palmyra. Archers were generously rewarded for their service with land allotments and slaves.

Sasha Mitrahovich 11.12.2015 09:18

Being on the border of the possessions of the Romans and Parthians at war with each other, the Palmyrenes deftly traded with both of them: the Roman patricians needed silk, spices and incense transported through Palmyra, and the Parthians needed Roman goods.

The city served not only as a center of Mediterranean transit trade with India and China, but also as a kind of "buffer" in the struggle between Rome and the Parthian state, preventing the further spread of its power to the East.

In 212, Palmyra, officially declared a Roman colony, received the status of "juris italici", exempting the Palmyrans from taxes on luxury items such as ivory, spices, perfumes, and silk. In those days, a new name was assigned to the city, which it bears to this day - "Tadmor", which means "to be wonderful, beautiful."

In their colony, the Romans built theaters, temples, baths, palaces. For the abundance of palm alleys, Palmyra was called "an emerald in the setting of the desert."

Sasha Mitrahovich 11.12.2015 09:19

The highest prosperity and decline of the city is associated with the name of Queen Zenobia. Historians compare her with such energetic and powerful women as Nefertiti, Cleopatra, the Queen of Sheba, the ruler of Babylon Semiramis.

Beautiful, intelligent and highly educated, Zenobia became the wife of King Odenath II of Palmyra, who received the post of commander-in-chief in the East from the Roman emperors for military merits. He won a number of victories over the Persians, and is believed by historians to have been killed by his cousin with the knowledge of Zenobia, who craved power.

After his death, Zenobia, left with her young son, took the reins of government into her own hands. She took possession of Asia Minor and Egypt and, having decided to put an end to the vassal position of Palmyra, proclaimed the city independent. Describing the character of the queen, historians unanimously recognize her courage: "Of two men, Zenobia is the best man."

The Islamist ISIS movement continues to wreak havoc in the Middle East. The magnificent ruins of the priceless historical heritage of Ancient Rome in Syria and the Levant are under the threat of extinction.

After destroying the treasures of the last surviving Babylonian cities of Nineveh, Hatra and Nimrud, ISIS is trying to destroy the architectural monuments of Palmyra in Syria.

Palmyra - the ancient city of Syria with a rich history

A few reasons why Palmyra is a special historical site included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

1. Palmyra was a major trading center of the Greco-Roman period

For several centuries, Fort Palmyra in Syria served as an important commercial point in the Middle East. The ancient city gained world fame when the Romans mastered the area.

A settlement in the middle of the desert, Palmyra had an ideal geographical location. The routes of merchants between the West and Parthia in the East passed through the city.
A huge number of caravans flocked to Palmyra, the markets were filled with a variety of goods: from spices to slaves, incense and ivory. The taxes collected for stopping in the city went to the development and construction of Palmyra, as a result of which the city became incredibly wealthy.

2. The ruler of the ancient city of Palmyra was a woman

The ancient city was ruled by a woman for a long time. Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, became the most famous ruler of the Syrian city. Her fame reached Rome. She tried to oppose a powerful empire and expand the sphere of influence of civilization. As a result, the attempts were unsuccessful, but her name was sung for several more centuries.

Even her sworn enemy, the Roman emperor Aurelian, admitted in the Historia Augusta that the queen of Palmyra was a worthy opponent.

When Aurelian demanded Xenovia's surrender, she replied that she would rather die like the one she considered her ancestor.

3. Palmyra: the history of the city and the attempts to conquer Mark Antony

The people of Palmyra were well aware of the news of Rome and the enemies of the empire - Parthia. Any state could invade the city.

In 41 BC , being in a relationship with Cleopatra, he decided to plunder the richest settlement on earth - Palmyra. He sent cavalry to plunder a city near Euraphat, located on the border between the Romans and the Parthians.

In fact, it is believed that Antony simply wanted to take revenge on Palmyra, who occupies a neutral position. Antony dreamed of showing off his booty to his friends. Residents took action to protect their lives. They moved the property across the river and were ready to fire on the attackers. Many of them were good archers.

As a result, Antony's army did not find anything in the city and, having not met a single enemy, returned empty-handed, writes Appian.

Historical value of the ruins of Palmyra

The architectural monuments of the city have been perfectly preserved over the centuries. The ruins can tell a lot about the life of the inhabitants of the ancient settlement.

The sculptures of Palmyra are somewhat different in style from the Roman ones. The combination of burial reliefs on stone and the fusion with the culture of the Roman Empire led to the creation of especially beautiful bas-reliefs.

Among the wonders of the art of Palmyra of Emperor Hadrian, the temple of the goddess Allat, the temple of Baal-Shamin and the ruins of buildings where various peoples of the ancient world left historical traces.

The city that rose from the sand

The ancient city will survive a new invasion of barbarians, who have repeatedly sought to wipe it off the face
earth. Actually, thanks to the barbarians, Palmyra has survived to this day.

There are many amazing paradoxes in history: for example, Pompeii was preserved for us by volcanic lava, and Palmyra - by human oblivion. The city was abandoned by people and forgotten for many centuries.

This happened after the city was captured by Arab conquerors in the 7th century, who
expelled a small local population, and founded a fortress on the ruins of ancient temples,
quickly fallen into disrepair. Left at the mercy of winds, sands and time, grandiose
structures stood still until the 11th century, when a devastating earthquake in 1089
completed the destruction of Palmyra, leaving only a pile of ruins on the outskirts of the oasis.

The remains of the magnificent capital of antiquity were buried under the sands during the frequent
sandstorms, and those buildings that remained on the surface served as building material
for the huts of local residents. Much of what was of interest from the point of view of art,
was plundered and transported to large cities, and from there to the museums of world capitals.
When the Spanish rabbi Benjamin reached Palmyra in the 12th century, he saw only the Arabic
a village located in the huge courtyard of the temple of the god Bel.

The second discovery of Palmyra occurred at the beginning of the 17th century, when he stumbled upon the ancient ruins
Italian traveler Pietro della Balle. About 1692 the English comes here
Pastor Halifax. He was the first to copy three Palmyrene inscriptions, but to read the Palmyrene
he failed to write.

Only 70 years later, English travelers and scientists reached Palmyra Robert
Wood (Robert Wood) and James Dawkins (James Dawkins). They made the first description of the ruins
Palmyra, made measurements and sketches, which subsequently made a great impression
on contemporaries.

Comparing these drawings with later photographs, we can see what was lost and
plundered by the Arabs, and what has been restored in our time.

Thanks to Wood and Dawkins, Palmyra rose to prominence.
Russian traveler A.A. Rafalovich wrote in his
"Travel notes about Syria and Palestine 1844 - 1847":
“They (Bedouins) tell with pride and reverence that among their sandy steppes stand
remnants of the great city of Tadmor, erected by the wise Solomon, whom they recognize
for their ancient king."

Bedouin reverence, however, did not prevent further looting of the ruins.

In photographs taken in 1880, Palmyra appears somewhat more plucked,
than in the drawings of the XVIII century.

After the First World War, Palmyra becomes one of the most relevant
and attractive problems for archaeologists.

Its architecture and art are a kind of artistic phenomenon in the culture of the Roman
empire, and the monuments and inscriptions discovered as a result of archaeological excavations - priceless
historical documents. It was in Palmyra that for the first time in history there was a peaceful mixing
cultural values ​​of the East with the ideology of the West. As a result, a new
a culture striking in its richness and brilliance, which, being neither eastern nor western,
actually belongs to both of them.

The Palmyrene religion, for example, is a conglomeration of various cults of the ancient East mixed with
elements of Western religions, namely Greek and Roman. Bel and Baalshamin, the main deities
Palmyra has much in common with Zeus, and the goddess Allat has much in common with Athena. Figures on Palmyra
sculptures are dressed in oriental, Parthian attire, and their eyes are outlined in the manner of Assyrian
sculptural images. But the composition, and above all the decorative elements, go back to
traditional ornamentation typical of Greek and Roman art.

Reconstruction of the Temple of Bel

Altar of Baalshamin from Palmyra. On the left is the god Malakbel, on the right is Aglibol.

Altar of the god Bel (he sits on the right). Standing: Yaribol, Aglibol and Baalshamin.

Goddess Alatat

Temple remains

Partially excavated, partly protruding from the sands of the desert and gravel, long
colonnades; complex of the sanctuary of Bela, Roman baths, agora, small but well preserved
theatre; esplanade of the western part of the city (the so-called camp of Diocletian). All this is surrounded
well-preserved fortification walls.

In Arabic, Palmyra is called Tadmor - this is the name in all likelihood of a pre-Semitic
origin. The first surviving mention of Tadmor, found on cuneiform
Assyrian tiles found at Kul Tepe in Cappadocia date back to the beginning of the second millennium
BC. In the XVIII century BC. e. Tadmor is mentioned on two tablets found in Mari
- an area located on the right bank of the Euphrates, where the French have been excavating for many years
under the guidance of prof. A. Parro. The city of Tadmor is also mentioned in the annals of Tiglathpalasar,
dating back to the beginning of the 11th century BC. e. In the biblical "Book of Kings", which arose in the VI century BC
n. e. where Solomon's building work is referred to, among the various localities,
also Tamar in the desert; in a similar passage in the Book of Chronicles, referring to the 3rd century BC
n. e., instead of Tamar, the name Tadmor is already used.

What is the origin of the name "Palmyra", found already in the 1st century AD? e.? This title
officially used in the Greco-Roman period arose in all likelihood on the basis of
false etymology, identifying the pre-Semitic word Tadmor with the Semitic word Tamar,
meaning date palm.

Urban-type settlements in this desert oasis undoubtedly existed already in the second
millennium BC. e., and flint tools and products found in the nearby desert
testify to the presence of settlements in the area as early as the Stone Age. hitting here
the somewhat saline spring of Efka and the sulphurous waters favored the early settlement of the oasis.
The earliest settlements on the territory of Palmyra have not yet been explored by archaeologists,
but starting from the 1st century AD, Palmyra was already a large trading center.

Here was compiled the world's first set of detailed customs regulations - so
called the Palmyra Tariff. The inscription was made in the Palmyrene language - a mixture of Greek
and Aramaic languages. This code was discovered and deciphered by our compatriot Professor
St. Petersburg University S.S. Abamelek-Lazarev.

Slaves and female slaves from Egypt and Asia Minor were sold here, spices were brought from India and Arabia
and aromatic substances, there was a constant demand for wine, salt, clothing, harness, shoes ... High
purple-dyed wool was also valued: merchants, praising their goods, unanimously claimed that
compared to Palmyra, other purple fabrics look faded, as if they were sprinkled
ashes.

Under the arches of the Arc de Triomphe there was always a multilingual rumble, but they called it the Triumphal
Europeans. In their view, arches and gates have always been placed to glorify the glorious
military victories or in honor of great commanders. But the Palmyran architects decided in this case
another task: the double gates of the Arc de Triomphe were set at an angle and, as it were,
concealed the break in the street, straightened it.

These monumental gates of basalt, granite and marble were erected around the year 200.
A huge 20-meter arch rests on double columns, and two small arches at the edges lead
to the side streets. The main trade thoroughfare of Palmyra was the street of the Great Colonnades,
crossed the city from end to end. Its entire length (more than 1 km) stretched four rows
17-meter columns, behind which were residential buildings, warehouses and shops.

Away from the street of the Great Colonnades was a theater built in the busiest quarter
Palmyra. On the right side, it adjoined the Senate building: the theater and the Senate were located on
a square square surrounded by porticos in the Ionic style. The porticos were adorned with statues
Roman and Palmyrene commanders, officials and other famous people of the city.

Palmyra, which retained its independence for a long time, became a vassal of Rome in the early years of the Empire. On the
At that time, Palmyra archers began to enter military service in the Roman troops, of which
starting from the time of Trajan, separate detachments were formed. Hadrian around 129 personally visited
the city, which at that time was already at the height of its wealth and splendor. Emperor Hadrian
recognizes the right of Palmyra to be a free city within the Roman Empire, the right of which the city
used until the reign of Septimius Severus.

In 212, during the reign of the Severan dynasty, Palmyra officially becomes Roman.
province and remains so until 260, when the Persian king Shapur defeated the legions of the emperor
Valerian, and captured him himself. Persian troops approached the very walls of Palmyra,
and then the Romans turned to the Palmyra ruler Odaenathus with a plea for help. And it happened
something that will later cause bewildered admiration of chroniclers and historians: Odaenathus, having collected
best Palmyrene archers, defeated the Persian army.

Odenath

Having recovered from the defeat, the Persians again opposed the Romans, and again the decisive role in the defeat
enemy belonged to the Palmyrenes. In gratitude, the Roman emperor appointed Odenathus vice-
emperor of the East - the second person in the Roman Empire. However, the ruler of Palmyra understood
that any attempt to exalt himself would cause fear and anger in Rome. However, regardless
from his will and Palmyra, and he himself gained more and more influence in the Middle East. And
indeed, the time had come when Rome began to fear her ally. Strip Odaenathus of the title
and the army had nothing to do - he remained faithful to the oath, Rome no longer dared to declare him an enemy.
And then Rome resorted, as happens very often, to a tried and tested remedy -
murder. The Roman authorities of the country of Suri in 267 invited Odaenathus to discuss the current
cases to Emessa and there they killed him along with his eldest son Herodian.

Power in the country passed to his widow, Queen Zenobia (or Zenobia). The Romans were firmly convinced
that the troops of Palmyra would refuse to go into battle under the command of a woman. And they miscalculated a lot!
The Palmyrene chiefs swore allegiance to Zenobia, and the army that had gone over to her side soon
seized Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and in the north reached the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

Zenobia's military victories alarmed Rome, and the emperor Aurelian decided to move against her army.
After the defeat at Emessa, Zenobia decided to sit out in Palmyra, but endure a long siege
failed. It only remained to take all the wealth out of the city and retreat beyond the Euphrates, and there
save the width of the river and the accuracy of the famous archers of Palmyra. But the emperor's cavalry
Aurelian followed closely, and Zenobia was taken prisoner at the very river. In the autumn of 272, i.e.
almost two years after Zenobia's armed uprising against Rome, Palmyra was taken
troops of Aurelian, who personally led the siege of the city.

"Farewell view of Queen Zenobia on Palmyra". Painting by Herbert Schmalz.

What was the fate of the educated and ambitious queen, who was also famous for her beauty?
According to ancient sources, Zenobia was taken to Rome in chains - the captive queen must
was to give splendor to the triumph of Aurelian in the capital of the empire.

An ancient stele with an inscription dedicated to Zenobia.

The siege of Palmyra, and then the second capture of the city after the uprising raised by the inhabitants of Palmyra
in 273, led to serious destruction of the city. Zenobia herself for expansion and strengthening
fortifications ordered to dismantle some of the tombs and use their blocks to strengthen
city ​​walls; part of the tombs located in the immediate vicinity of Palmyra was destroyed
soldiers of Aurelian, standing under the walls of the city.

In honor of the triumph, Emperor Aurelian ordered the construction of a grandiose palace in the city (reconstruction).

All that remains of the emperor's palace.

The general reconstruction of some quarters and individual buildings of Palmyra was started on
at the turn of the III and IV centuries. under the emperor Diocletian. During the construction of new buildings and partial
restoration of the old ones, stone blocks and tombstones from necropolises were used at that time
surrounding Palmyra. As we can see, the loss of independence, the defeat of the troops of Queen Zenobia and
the capture of the city by Aurelian was by no means the final disaster for either the inhabitants of Palmyra,
nor for the development of urban construction. In Byzantine times, Palmyra, as well as the whole
The Eastern Empire is going through periods of prosperity and decline. During the reign of Arcadius, ca.
400, Palmyra regains some importance as the seat of the legion, and
150 years later, under Justinian, a partial restoration of the fortress walls was carried out,
built under Zenobia. At the same time, one of the Christian basilicas was being built in the city.

After the Romans, the Arabs came here, and the city surrendered without resistance to the troops of Khaled ibya-al-Walid,
one of the commanders of the first Caliph Abu Bekr. The inhabitants were expelled. However, they are already
for a long time they did not live in the city, but huddled behind the walls of the sanctuary of the god Bel, having stuck a lot of
dark and cramped adobe shacks. Then the Turks came here for many years, who themselves
they did not want to know anything about the culture of the peoples subject to them, and others were not allowed to study it.
No one cared about the brilliant history of the dying city, and numerous earthquakes
completed the destruction of the surviving temples, palaces and colonnades, and the advancing sands of the Syrian
the deserts finally swallowed up the ruins of Palmyra.

outskirts of Palmyra. Arabic buildings are visible.

Arab conquerors, whose culture was completely alien to the Roman architecture
Palmyra, adapt city buildings, colonnades and temples for defense and their own
utilitarian purposes. For example, under the Seljuks, a magnificent citadel was rebuilt
complex of the sanctuary of Bela.

Arabian Palmyra

Russian archaeologist B.V. Farmakovsky, who took part in the restoration of Palmyra, wrote:
“The majestic monuments of art of ancient Palmyra have long attracted the attention of scientists
and beauty lovers. Cut off from the world by a vast waterless desert and located
among a forest of palm trees in a distant, luxurious oasis, the ruins of Palmyra ... always excited
imagination, always seemed to be something fabulously magnificent ... Ancient Palmyra was one
of the outstanding cultural centers in the East. And here was a society whose art
was the essential need of life, which loved and bowed before its creators.

Palmyra at dawn

After members of the Islamic State terrorist group known for their
barbaric attitude to objects of culture and art, entered Palmyra, a representative
UNESCO said hundreds of valuable statues were safely evacuated to safety.
However, scientists are very concerned about the fate of museums, massive sarcophagi
and large sculptures that cannot be taken out..

History attributes the discovery of Palmyra to the Italian Pietro della Valle. For a long time, with great difficulty, travelers reached Palmyra in the 17th century, but when they returned to Europe, they simply did not believe them: a city in the Syrian desert? Is that possible?

However, a century later, the artist Wood brought to England drawings made in Palmyra. The most curious find of that time was made by S.S. Abamelek-Lazarev. He found and published a Greco-Aramaic inscription detailing customs regulations (the so-called "Palmyra Tariff"). Today this document is kept in the Hermitage.

In ancient times, the locals called (however, they still call) Palmyra "Tadmor". This word is translated as "to be wonderful, beautiful." The beauty of Palmyra is quiet, natural, the city seems to continue the surrounding nature. From the yellow sand of the valley, framed by purple hills, columns with capitals rise - curly, like the crowns of palm trees.

Grape leaves and bunches, camels, eagles are carved on the golden, sun-warmed walls. Until our times, Palmyra has been preserved unrebuilt; later stratifications do not obscure it.

There are many amazing paradoxes in history: Pompeii, for example, was preserved by volcanic lava, and Palmyra by human oblivion. It was abandoned by people and forgotten.

And once it all started with Efka - an underground source with lukewarm water, reeking of sulfur. Desperate travelers, wanderers, merchants arranged a halt here, watered tired camels, horses and donkeys, pitched tents for the night. Over time, something like a transit point has grown here - a lively crossroads of buying and selling. After that, it turned into a city of customs, inns and taverns, a city of money changers, merchants, peddlers, horse-carriers, vagabonds, warriors, priests of various religions, healers, runaway slaves, masters of all professions.

Slaves and female slaves from Egypt and Asia Minor were sold there. Purple-dyed wool was highly valued; merchants, praising their goods, arguing that, compared to Palmyra, other purple fabrics look faded, as if sprinkled with ashes. Spices and aromatic substances were imported from Arabia and India. There was a constant demand for wine, salt, clothes, harness, shoes.

Under the arches of the Arc de Triomphe, transactions were made, there was a multilingual rumble, but the Europeans called it the Arc de Triomphe. In their representations, arches and gates are placed to glorify high-profile military victories and in honor of great commanders. But the Palmyra architects solved a different problem: they set the double gates of the arch at an angle and, as it were, concealed the break in the street, straightened it.

The second important intersection of the city, the Tetrapylon, has survived to this day. It is built of granite monoliths on four huge pedestals. They also traded with might and main, the stone floors of the shops have survived to this day.

There were many temples in the city. The inhabitants of Palmyra were a multilingual people, wanderers of the desert, they did not want to obey one god. In their religious rituals, they more often commemorated Bel, the god of heaven, one of the most interesting temples in the Middle East (the prototype of Baalbek) is dedicated to him. The temple stood out from all city buildings, had a central hall with an area of ​​200 m². It was then that the glory of the beauty and perfection of Palmyra spread throughout the Ancient East.

There were three entrances to the temple, decorated with gilded panels. Now they have been replaced by wooden gates through which tourists enter the sanctuary. The broken slab is crowned with dragon teeth, which gives the sanctuary a menacing look. A special entrance has been preserved, which was made for camels, bulls and goats doomed to be slaughtered, as well as a drain for blood - the god Bel demanded sacrifices.

In Palmyra, a temple was erected in honor of the god Nabo, the son of Marduk, the ruler of the Babylonian sky. Nabo was in charge of the fate of mortals and was the messenger of the gods of the multi-tribal Palmyra pantheon. A native of Mesopotamia, he got along with the Phoenician Baalshamin, the Arab Allat and the Olympian Zeus.

From the temple of Nabo, only the foundation has survived, from the temple of Allat - only doors, but the temple of Baalshamin (the Phoenician god of thunder and fertility) rises to this day.

And the daily affairs of Palmyra were in charge of the leaders, priests, rich merchants who sat in the Senate. Their decisions were approved by the governor appointed from Rome. Emperor Adrian, who visited Palmyra, gave the city some kind of independence - having recalled the governor, lowering taxes, he transferred power to the local leader.

Gradually, over time, Palmyra has become one of the most prosperous cities in the Middle East. Just like in Rome, gladiatorial fights were held there, young men fought with wild animals. Frantikhs from the upper strata of society dressed in the latest Roman fashion, and even ahead of it. Children were called Roman names, often in combination with Palmyra.

The ancient Palmyrenes loved to erect monuments to each other. Almost all columns of the Great Colonnade, temples and public buildings have stone shelves in the middle, on which stood sculptural images of noble and respected people. Once upon a time, the columns of Agara (the Palmyra forum, surrounded by porticos and lined with busts) held about 200 such images.

Gradually, the Palmyra leaders stopped listening to the Senate and began to pursue their own policy. The ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, defeated the troops of the Persian king himself, but he was well aware that any attempt to rise would cause fear and anger in Rome. But regardless of his will, both Palmyra and he himself were gaining more and more influence in the Middle East.

Then Rome resorted (as it often happens) to a proven means - the physical elimination of a person. The Roman authorities of the country of Suri in 267 (or in 266) invited Odaenathus to discuss current affairs in Emessa (the modern city of Homs). And there, during the meeting, he, along with his eldest son Herodian, fell at the hands of his nephew Meon.

According to other historical sources, his wife Zenobia, who was the stepmother of Herodianus, took part in the murder of Odaenathus. She allegedly wanted to eliminate both of them in order to clear the way to power for her young son Vaballat. In fact, the energetic widow ruled on her own. The loud glory of Palmyra, the expansion of the borders of the state are associated with her name. She endured the hardships of military campaigns no worse than any of her soldiers.

In the local language, the name Zenobia sounded like Bat-Zobbi. Translated into Russian, this is the daughter of a merchant, merchant. She was a very beautiful woman, this can be seen even on the coins that preserved her image. “Matte, swarthy skin and black eyes of amazing beauty, a lively look with a divine brilliance. She dressed in luxurious outfits, knew how to wear military armor and weapons.

According to the testimonies of the ancient chroniclers, Zenobia was an educated woman, she appreciated scientists, she was sympathetic to philosophers and sages.

The Roman emperor Gallienus hoped that the second son of Odaenathus would not be able to rule Palmyra due to his childhood. But he did not take into account that the widow, the beautiful Zenobia, the smartest and most educated woman, was ready to engage in state activities. Her teacher, the famous Syrian philosopher Cassius Longinus of Emessa, advised her to enthrone Vaballathus and become his regent. She waited with great care for the hour of the expulsion of the Roman legions from the Middle East, in order to forever establish the power of her dynasty in the kingdom that she would create.

For the time being, Zenobia kept her intentions well hidden in the hope that her son would be allowed to inherit his father's throne. However, Rome was wary of strengthening the outskirts and retained only the title of vassal king for the ruler of Palmyra. And then Zenobia declared war on mighty Rome.

The Romans were sure that the Palmyrene troops would not go into battle under the command of a woman. And very miscalculated. The warlords Zabbey and Zabda swore allegiance to Zenobia. The army that went over to its side soon captured Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and in the north reached the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

Zenobia's military victories alarmed Rome. Emperor Lucius Domitius Aurelian decided to oppose her army. After the defeat at Homs, Zenobia hoped to sit out in Palmyra, but it was not possible to withstand a long siege.

All that remained was to take out all the riches of the city and retreat beyond the Euphrates - and there there would be a saving width of the river and the accuracy of the famous Palmyra archers. However, Aurelian's cavalry followed on his heels, and Zenobia was taken prisoner at the very river. Palmyra fell.

It was seventeenth century ago. The further fate of Zenobia is mysterious and gives rise to many conjectures and assumptions: as if the willful queen was killed, as if she was led around Rome in golden chains, as if she was married to a Roman senator and she lived to her very old age.

Having taken Palmyra, the Roman troops knocked down the statue of Zenobia, but they did not touch the city. Under Emperor Diocletian, construction was even resumed there: the residence of Zenobia was turned into a Roman military camp, the barracks were expanded there, the water supply was improved, and a Christian basilica was erected.

Several times the Palmyrenes raised an uprising for independence, but unsuccessfully. Over time, the city's nobility left the city, the merchants, deprived of ties with the East, left, and after them, caravan drivers, officials, and skilled artisans remained idle. And Palmyra began to wither, turned into an ordinary border post, a place of exile ...

The Arabs took it without a fight, the townspeople could not even resist. After that, for many years, the Turks came, who themselves had no idea about the culture of the peoples subject to them and did not allow others to study it.

... Palmyra had to be rediscovered. In the twentieth century, they became seriously interested in it. Russia's interest in Palmyra gradually increased. The Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople sent an expedition, the researchers took many photographs, drawings, diagrams, plans, topographic maps of the city. Based on these materials, Professor F. Uspensky then published a detailed work.

Another Russian scientist who contributed to the study of the history and culture of Palmyra was B. Farmakovsky.

Recently, the frescoes of the cave of Megaret Abu Sahel have become known. This cave served in ancient times, like the Roman catacombs, as a place for the burial of the dead. In the painting of the cave, there are mainly Hellenistic motifs: there are plots from Greek mythology - the abduction of Ganymede by the eagle of Zeus, Achilles among the daughters of Lycomedes, the winged goddess of victory Nike. All of them decorate the walls between individual burial chambers. Immediately before us is a whole gallery of the inhabitants of Palmyra. The portraits in the medallions are made more carefully than the rest of the paintings in the catacomb. The number of faces on the medallions is 9, they are all about the same age.

Among the portraits, there are only two female portraits - on pilasters, which form the entrance to the frescoed room. Their images are taken in full size ...

At the entrance to the cave there are two pilasters, and on them at the top are stained grapes, animal figures, a sword, two nails stuck in the center of the circle. Two birds are visible on either side of the circle, and at the bottom of the circle are a rooster, a snake, a tarantula and two scorpions. The circle denoted the evil eye, which these animals attack in order to deprive him of his strength.

Towering in the desert, the colonnades of the legendary ancient Palmyra attract travelers who are surprised to discover two neighboring Palmyra - two Tadmors. One of them is ancient, the other is new, young. People have not lived in one of them for a long time, it has become an eternal museum, in the other since 1928 Bedouins, poor people, began to settle. It was in this year that the Syrian government issued a law on the construction of a new Palmyra.

The city began to be landscaped, new streets were built, electricity was installed. Hard-working residents laid palm groves, orchards, orchards there, plowed fields, raised cattle. By tradition, the Palmyrians are engaged in trade, weaving carpets, scarves, sewing national clothes and selling all this to tourists. The new Palmyra does not compete with the old one, because it is itself a continuation of it.

N.Ionina