Homoforms, homophones, homographs, paronyms, their difference from homonyms
With lexical homonyms one should not confuse the so-called homoforms, homophones and homographs ,as well as paronyms , which are similar to lexical homonymy, but characterize in the broad sense of the word as a phenomenon of the so-called stylistic homonymy:
1) the coincidence of the sound and spelling of one or more forms of words is homoforms (cf. expensive- im.p. masculine adjective and expensive- genus., date., proposition. feminine adjective cases (for example, expensive clothes); verse from a poem and verse from subside);
2) the same pronunciation, but different spelling of words and phrases - homophones (cf. eye- voice; could– wet; bow - meadow);
3) the same spelling, but different pronunciation of words - homographs (cf. castle (stress on 1 syllable) and lock (stress on the 2nd syllable), mugs (stress on the 1st syllable) and mugs (stress on the 2nd syllable).
Words should not be confused with homonymous words - paronyms (gr. para- near + opuma- name), which differ in meaning, but are similar in pronunciation, grammatical affiliation, and often in the relationship of roots. For example, subscription - subscriber, weekday - everyday, offensive– touchy, give- introduce and many others. others
In Russian there is a phenomenon called paronomasia. Paronomases - consonant heterogeneous words. For example, staple, stack; health resort, health resort and etc.
Homoforms, homophones, homographs, along with proper lexical homonymy, can be used for various stylistic purposes: to create expressiveness of speech, in puns, jokes, etc.
See, for example, Y. Kozlovsky in the poem "The Bear and the Wasps" from the series of poems "About the words diverse, the same, but different":
Carried a bear walking to the market
For sale to honey lid.
Suddenly on a bear-
here attack!–
The wasps took it into their heads attack.
Teddy bear with an army aspen
Fought torn aspen.
Could he be furious fall,
If the wasps climbed in the mouth
Stung where horrible,
Im for this and horrible.
Poets are especially fond of using homonyms, homoforms and homophones as rhyming words: the same-sounding words located at the end of a line and rhyming turn out to be especially expressive:
And what does the wife do?
Alone in the absence of a spouse? (Pushkin).
Defender of Liberty and Rights
In this case, he is completely wrong (Pushkin).
There are individual author's homonyms. They are often very expressive and funny. They are the basis of many jokes: On what basis do you cross out sports? By the principle of contradiction. What kind of sport is disgusting to me, I cross it out. (Literary newspaper).
Gusar - poultry farmer, goose farm worker; sackcloth - a dentist; goner - winner in race walking, etc.
Often homonyms (in the broad sense) are referred to as negative phenomena. Such an opinion cannot be considered proven. They do not impede communication, as they are almost always neutralized by the context. They have great visual and expressive possibilities.
Synonyms - words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very close lexical meaning, for example: cavalry - cavalry, brave - brave.
Synonyms serve to increase the expressiveness of speech, their use allows you to avoid the monotony of speech.
However, synonyms can be not only words, but also phrases, phraseological units, morphemes, constructions, etc., similar in one of the meanings with a difference in sound and stylistic coloring
Synonymous words are functionally equivalent, that is, they perform the same function, but may differ in:
Expressive coloring (labor - work - coven)
Attachment to a certain style (ending - inflection)
Semantic valence (brown eyes BUT brown door)
By use (lanites - cheeks)
Synonyms are used: 1. To clarify thoughts. 2. To highlight the most important semantic shades. 3. To increase the figurativeness and artistic figurativeness of speech. 4. For the image in speech of language stamps.
Antonyms are words of one part of speech, different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lies, good - evil, speak - be silent.
It must also be said that antonyms must have:
Equal degree of emotionality (laugh and sob are not antonyms, as they have different emotionality, antonyms - laugh and cry, laugh and sob)
Equal semantic valency (high part (no low honor))
Antonymy is the basis of an oxymoron - a combination of words that are opposite in meaning. Antithesis ("WAR and PEACE").
Homonyms are identical-sounding words that do not have common semantic features that make it possible to consider the corresponding meanings as the meanings of one word.
1) Homophones, i.e. such cases as a pond and a rod, words that sound the same in the nominative and accusative cases, but have a different composition of phonemes, which is found in other forms of these words and in derivatives:
2) Homoforms, i.e. cases when two words have the same pronunciation and composition of phonemes, but only in one form or in separate forms
3) Actually homonyms, which, in turn, can fall into significantly different groups:
a) Genuine homonyms, i.e. words that sound the same, have the same composition of phonemes and morphological composition: onion - “plant” and onion - “weapon”, lama - “hoofed animal” and lama - “Tibetan priest”, once such Homonyms arise in a language either when words are borrowed, or as a result of the operation of phonetic laws in their language.
They are used to give expressiveness to the text. One of the main techniques is a pun, that is, a play on words.
22. Barbarisms, vulgarisms, macaronic speech in literary works.
Barbarism is a foreign word or expression perceived as alien, a violation of the language norm. Over time, this word can either go out of circulation and be forgotten, or get circulation in limited areas, or become widely used. As an artistic device, barbarisms are used: to achieve a comic effect, to create local color, in an era when the knowledge of a foreign language is the exclusive property of the ruling class, to indicate the high social position of the characters.
Vulgarisms – words that feel harsh. In artistic speech, they serve to indicate the low social status of the characters.
Argo (slang)
compás, at the theater
Argo functions:
1) increase or decrease in style (from bibleisms to obscene vocabulary).
2) creation of local color.
3) stylization of speech of a certain era, locality, professional group.
4) imitation of oral speech.
5) characteristics of the hero's individual speech.
6) language update.
7) comic function.
Outside of these functions, argotisms usually clog and coarsen the speech of speakers.
Macaronism is a foreign word or expression mechanically inserted into speech, often distorted. Internal pasta also includes complex hybrid words formed from the roots of different languages. M. in fiction is often a source of comedy (especially when a character thoughtlessly uses foreign words).
23. Dialectisms, jargon, professionalism.
Dialectisms - words characteristic of any territorial varieties of the language. They are perceived as foreign, but close to their native language.
By the 20th century, dialectical differences were almost leveled out, because widely disseminated by the media.
Ethnographic (ethnic) dialectisms- words of local use, denoting an object that is not found in other places, or classifying the world in more detail.
I perform the same function as barbarisms, i.e. give it a local touch. They can also be used to characterize a character, to enliven the author's speech; as a nomination that is absent in the literary language.
Interest in dialectisms and folklore arises in the first third of the 19th century. They are collected by the brothers Grimm, V. Dahl, A. Pogorelsky, N. Gogol.
Dialectism is a lexical unit (word, phrase, syntactic construction) characteristic of a particular dialect. There are phonetic, lexical, ethnographic dialectisms. Along with other elements of passive vocabulary, dialectisms are introduced into the language of fiction in order to create local color, an accurate designation of realities, and also a comic effect.
Argo (slang) - these are varieties of speech common in certain limited groups (professional, etc.). The same as the sociolect.
Argo may contain phonetic or grammatical differences: compás, at the theater. But usually the differences appear in the vocabulary.
Argo includes languages of subcultures, youth slang, conditional languages (their goal is to hide something): thieves' language, the language of card cheats; professional vocabulary (“guild languages”): the language of the ofens, doctors, sailors ... As society becomes more professional, more jargons appear.
Argos exist on the basis of natural language, but use elements borrowed from other languages, from territorial dialects, or artificially created for conspiracy purposes.
Jargon is a lexical unit (usually a word or phrase) that is not part of the spoken language, characteristic of the non-normative conditional language of a social group. Jargon duplicates the literary language in an "encrypted form", makes the speech of those who speak it incomprehensible to the uninitiated. Varieties of Zh. salon, student, army, thieves, sports, youth, family, etc. Zh. are used in an artistic text, along with other units of passive vocabulary, as a means of artistic expression.
Professionalisms - a category of words representing specific terminology in the "natural" speech of representatives of a particular profession. Creating artistic images of these people, writers turn to this type of "passive" vocabulary to make their characters' speeches come alive. Professionalisms are a kind of vocabulary of a socially limited sphere of use, they include words that reflect the characteristics of a particular type of activity (profession). P. - corporate vocabulary, they recognize their own by it. In fiction, poetry is usually characterized not only (and often not so much) as the subject of speech, but as the speaker (narrator, character, lyrical hero). P.
24. Archaisms, historicisms, neologisms.
historicisms - words denoting phenomena of the past that do not exist now (for example, armyak, nepman, collegiate assessor). The appearance of I. in the language is due to extralinguistic reasons: the development of society, science, culture, changes in the customs of the people. I. are characterized by varying degrees of obsolescence. I. lexical, or complete, are distinguished - words (single- or multi-valued) that have gone out of active use and are not used to nominate new realities (for example, caftan, mayor), and I. semantic, or partial, - obsolete meanings of polysemantic words (meaning ‘a person announcing official news to the people’ in the word herald).
Historicism - words denoting objects or concepts that have passed away or have lost their relevance. Unlike archaisms, they do not have synonyms in the modern language. Usually they are found in works on historical themes; with their help, writers recreate the flavor of the era.
In a broad sense: the property of works on a historical theme, the ability of the author to reflect the originality of the described era, to show the originality of the appearance and characters of the characters. I. changes as historical knowledge accumulates.
Archaism is one of the types of passive vocabulary, a lexical unit (word, phrase, syntactic construction) that has gone out of use, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names. And they do not disappear without a trace: they are preserved in the literature of past eras, are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and linguistic coloring of the era.
Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the color of distant times.
Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech an elevated, solemn sound. Old Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In the poetic speech of the XIX century. with the high Old Slavonic vocabulary, Old Russianisms were stylistically equalized, which also began to be involved in creating the pathos of artistic speech. The high, solemn sound of obsolete words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century.
25. Trails, their artistic function.
The interaction of word meanings in the creation of artistic images has long been studied in stylistics under the general name of a trope.
Tropes, therefore, are lexical figurative and expressive means in which a word or phrase is used in a transformed meaning.
As figurative and expressive means of language, tropes have attracted attention since classical antiquity and have been described in detail in rhetoric, poetics, and other humanities1. A fairly detailed classification of them, or rather, detailed classifications, has long been developed.
The essence of the tropes is to compare the concept presented in the traditional use of a lexical unit and the concept conveyed by the same unit in artistic speech when performing a special stylistic function. Tropes play an important, although auxiliary role in the interpretation and interpretation of the text, but, of course, stylistic analysis should lead to a synthesis of the text and cannot be reduced to the recognition of tropes.
The great variety of tropes and their functions gave rise to many of their classifications.
The most important tropes are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, hyperbole, litotes and personification. Allegory and paraphrase, which are built as an extended metaphor or metonymy, stand somewhat apart.
Trail functions:
· 1. Reflect a person's personal view of the world;
· Make speech attractive;
PERSONIFICATION - an artistic technique (tropes), in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
The task of personification is to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLE (Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTA (Greek Litotes, simplicity) - an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.
METAPHOR (Greek Metaphora, transfer) is a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."
26. Comparison, epithet, their aesthetic role.
Epithet (from gr. epitheton - "application") - a kind of trail. This is a word or phrase that names some feature of an object and thereby highlights it, emphasizing: the sea is blue; light-winged joy (A. S. Pushkin); thoughts breathing power (M. Yu. Lermontov); enchantress winter; waves rush, thundering and sparkling (F. I. Tyutchev).
Grammatically, the epithet is most often an adjective, but in the same role (as can be seen from the examples given) a noun, participle, adverb, participle can act. Accompanying the word being defined, the epithet characterizes, evaluates, individualizes an object or phenomenon, transfers its meaning to it, participating in the creation of an artistic image. According to L. I. Timofeev, any epithet can be considered as a trope, since everywhere “we are dealing with the transfer of the meaning of a word to another and a new semantic meaning arising from this combination, i.e. a sign of a trope<...>Wooden clocks carry a meaning that is different from both clocks and wood; only certain properties of the concept of a tree are noted here.
Comparison (lat. Comparatio, German Gleichnis), as a term of poetics, denotes a comparison of the depicted object, or phenomenon, with another object according to a common feature for both of them, the so-called. tertium comparationis, that is, the third element of comparison. Comparison is often considered as a special syntactic form of expressing a metaphor, when the latter is connected with the object expressed by it through the grammatical link "like", "as if", "as if", "precisely", etc., and in Russian these conjunctions can be are omitted, and the subject of comparison is expressed in the instrumental case. “The streams of my poems run” (Block) - a metaphor, according to “my poems run like streams” or “my poems run in streams” - there would be comparisons. Such a purely grammatical definition does not exhaust the nature of comparison. First of all, not every comparison can be syntactically compressed into a metaphor. For example, “Nature amuses itself jokingly, like a carefree child” (Lermontov), or an antithetical comparison in “The Stone Guest”: “The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon.”
The epithet enhances the expressiveness, figurativeness of the language of the work, gives it artistic, poetic brightness. Epithets highlight a characteristic feature or quality of an object, phenomenon, evaluate this object or phenomenon, evoke a certain emotional attitude towards them, help to see the author's understanding of the surrounding world.
27. Metaphor, its varieties and figurative and expressive means.
Metaphor - (from ancient Greek. metaphor- transfer) - an allegorical word based on the identification of the phenomena of life by the similarity of signs, qualities, properties. It can be color, shape, character of movement, any individual properties of an object that are close or correspond to the individual properties of another object. Associative correspondences between objects play the main role in the formation of artistic metaphors. Metaphors created by writers activate perception, break the automatism and "comprehensibility" of a literary text, make it expressive. In language and in artistic speech, two main models are distinguished, according to which metaphors are formed.
Metaphor is the most capacious trope. It is able to highlight an object or phenomenon from a completely new, unusual side, to make the text uniquely poetic. Metaphors are simple and detailed. Expanded are those metaphors in which the metaphorical image covers, for example, several phrases. An extended metaphor is, for example, the image of the "troika bird" in Gogol's "Dead Souls".
HYPERBOLE (Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.
METONYMY (Greek Metonomadzo, to rename) - a type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.
Allegory - the image of an abstract (abstract) concept through a specific image, when one phenomenon is depicted and characterized through another.
The allegory consists of two elements:
semantic - this is some concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.), which the author seeks to depict without naming it;
figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing the named concept or phenomenon.
The connection of an allegory with the designated concept is more direct and unambiguous than, for example, that of a symbol. Basically, an allegory expresses a strictly defined object or concept (the connection between the image and the concept, the image and its meaning is established by analogy). Traditionally, allegory is used in a fable, a parable. A classic example of an allegory is a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands, the goddess Themis, an allegory of justice.
In the modern Russian language, a significant number of homonyms have been recorded, and with the development of the language, their number is increasing. The question arises whether homonymy interferes with the correct understanding of speech? After all, homonyms are sometimes called "sick" words, since homonymy reduces the informative function of the word: different meanings receive the same form of expression. In support of the negative assessment of the phenomenon of homonymy, the idea is also expressed that the very development of the language often leads to its elimination. For example, at the beginning of the XIX century. in linguistics, the term "dialectical" was used, meaning "pertaining to a dialect" (local dialect). But with the spread of the concept of "dialectical materialism" the word dialectical more often it began to be used in a different sense - "related to dialectics." And then the linguistic term fell out of use, giving way to another - "dialect" - "associated with a dialect, relating to a dialect." Many examples of such opposition of the language itself to the phenomenon of homonymy can be cited. So, adjectives disappeared from the dictionary eternal(from eyelid), wine(from guilt); the latter is supplanted by a related word - guilty.
However, this process is far from active and not consistent in the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Along with the facts of the elimination of homonymy, the emergence of new homonyms, homophones and homographs is observed, which has a certain linguistic value and therefore cannot be considered as a negative phenomenon, which the language itself "obstructs".
First of all, the context clarifies the semantic structure of such words, excluding inappropriate interpretation. In addition, homonyms belonging to different areas of use and having an ambiguous expressive coloring, different functional attribution, as a rule, do not collide in speech. For example, "paths do not cross" of such homonyms as bar" - "type of restaurant" and bar- "unit of atmospheric pressure"; a lion"- "beast" and a lion- "monetary unit in Bulgaria"; scolding- "swearing" and scolding- "war" (obsolete) and under.
At the same time, the deliberate clash of homonyms has always been an indispensable means of witty word play. Kozma Prutkov also wrote: Nicely caress a child or a dog, but it is most necessary to rinse the mouth. Similar homophones are used in folk jokes: I in the forest, and he got in, I for the elm, and he stuck (Dal); Not under rain- let's stand let's wait .
Poets use homonymous rhymes, which often give the poem a special attraction.
You puppies! Follow me! You'll be on a roll, Yes, look, don't talk, Or I'll beat you! (P.). Snow said: - When I flock, A river of pigeons will become, It will flow, shaking a flock of Reflected pigeons (Goat).
The use of homonymous rhymes is all the more justified in humorous and satirical genres, for example, in epigrams: Don't flaunt, buddy topics that you have too much topics. Works we know themes where the best died themes (Min.). The successful comparison of consonant forms, their playing out in speech is of great interest.
However, it is necessary to be careful in word usage, since in some cases homonymy (and related phenomena) can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement, inappropriate comedy. For example, when commenting on a football match: " Today the players left the field headless"; "On the TV screen you see Gavrilov in a beautiful combination ". Even professional writers and great writers are not immune from such speech errors: Heard or you... (P.); with lead I lay motionless in my chest(L.); Is it possible to be indifferent to evil? (modern translation from Kazakh). The most common cause of puns is homophony.
Homonyms are words, morphemes, and other units of the language that are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling. Homonyms exist in many languages. The Russian language is not at all an exception to the rule, so in this article we will analyze the homonyms of the Russian language.
The term "homonyms" was first introduced by the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle.
Unlike polysemy, in which words have different but historically related meanings, homonymy is a completely random coincidence of words.
According to the generally accepted classification, homonyms can be complete (they are also absolute), partial and grammatical.
Full homonyms are those that have the same entire system of forms. For example: outfit (clothing) - outfit (guard or garrison service), lynx (horse running) - lynx (animal), pen (writing tool) - handle (door, locker), key (door) - key (source of water ) - key (musical sign), bow (weapon) - bow (vegetable).
Partial homonyms are those in which not all forms coincide. For example: forty (number 40) and forty (the name of a bird in the genitive plural), weasel (animal) - weasel (tenderness) - they diverge in the form of the genitive case "weasels - weasels".
Grammatical homonyms include words that coincide only in separate forms (of the same part of speech or different parts of speech). For example: three (number) - three (the verb "rub", which in only one form corresponds to the number "three"), swords (tools) - swords (a form from the verb "to throw").
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that sound homonyms, which are also called homophones, often appear in oral speech. These are words that sound the same, although they are spelled differently: boil (boil) and open (open, open), mushroom (plant) - influenza (virus, disease).
Such a stylistic device as homonymy is very popular among poets who, using this device, create interesting puns and puns.
An example of such a homonymous pun can be found in A.S. Pushkin in the following lines:
But what does spouse(feminine noun "spouse" in the nominative singular)
One, in the absence spouse(noun "spouse" is masculine in the genitive singular).
The poet V.Ya. Bryusov also uses homonyms in his works.
Closing tormented eyelids,
The moment gone shore(the verb "to save" in the first form of the singular),
Oh, if only to stand like this forever
On this quiet shore(the noun "shore" in the prepositional case of the singular).
Along with the separate sound significance of homonyms, in the example of Bryusov's poem, it is worth paying attention to how the poet plays with homonyms and what character they get in this case. The author of the above lines rhymes homonyms, which emphasizes the meaning of these words. The contrast between the same sound and different meanings of homonyms, which usually gives a sharply comic character to puns, in Bryusov, on the contrary, leads to the seriousness and depth of their content. And due to the fact that this contrast is enhanced by the very position of homonyms, which provide the poem with rhyme, the seriousness and depth of these homonymous words becomes even more obvious. Indeed, the homonyms “shore” (from the verb “save”) and “shore” (from the noun “shore”), with their consonant opposition and contrast, enrich each other and fill with a deeper meaning.
At the same time, the more specific word “shore” expands its meaning and content, receiving a certain abstract connotation due to the word “shore” (from the verb “protect”), and vice versa, the more abstract verb “protect” acquires a more specific connotation from the noun “shore”.
As we have clearly seen, homonymy is widespread both in our ordinary everyday speech and in literature, and in particular in poetry. We often, without noticing it, use homonyms. But, authors and poets, unlike us, use homonymous words specifically in order to achieve special stylistic effects in their works.
"The Artistic Culture of Islam" - It happens that love will pass by itself, Without touching the heart or mind. How will the vessel that you have broken into shards water you? Abu Mohammed Ilyas ibn Yusuf Nizami Ganjavi. Islamic architecture. The lover is blind. Dragging your days without a friend is the worst of troubles. It is called "the seventh wonder of Hindustan". To find treasures of happiness, resort to the omnipotence of words.
“Homonymy Lesson” - In the sight of honest people, Lyuda is struggling to go down the hill. Name the homonyms: I have one question: How many braids are there in the world? The common people of the world have taken the cause of protecting the world into their own hands. In practice, you can check exactly Who was able to master the theory firmly! There is dew on the grass, - A scythe mows the grass. It was raining down the village.
"Artistic Labor" - The content of the program "Artistic Labor". Type of creative work: Technology. With the basics of visual literacy. Art. Artistic work solves problems: Children get acquainted with the leading museums of the country. Work with natural materials, fabric. Toys of Polkhovsky Maidan. Introduce.
"Artistic culture of the 19th century" - MP Mussorgsky. Bogorodskaya toy. 2. Theater. Brother. Khokhloma painting. Russian history. Circus goat. Artistic culture (part 2). Monument to A.N. Ostrovsky. How to explain the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century? P.I. Tchaikovsky. 3. Artistic crafts. XIX century. 1.Music. Moscow Conservatory.
"Rhythmic Gymnastics" - Russia is the birthplace of rhythmic gymnastics. Made from wood or plastic. Exercises should last 57-90 seconds. ball The ball must be made of rubber or soft plastic. P.F. Lesgaft. Rhythmic gymnastics is divided into basic, applied and rhythmic gymnastics with a sports focus.
"Antonyms synonyms homonyms" - Contents. Mouth. Write words that have multiple meanings. Forehead. Words that have the opposite meaning are called ANTONYMS. In the open-hearth. Lanites. I will say the word HIGH, and you will answer... From the railway. Lips. Lesson Objective: Eye. Lesson-holiday in the Russian language on the topic "Vocabulary" (Grade 3).