The strength of Russian weapons and the dignity of a soldier made a significant impression even in lost wars - there were such in our history. Eastern, or Crimean, war of 1853-1856. belongs to them. But at the same time, admiration went not to the winners, but to the vanquished - the participants in the defense of Sevastopol.
Causes of the Crimean War
Russia took part in the war on the one hand and a coalition of France, Turkey, England and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other. In the domestic tradition, it is called Crimean - its most significant events took place on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In foreign historiography, the term "Eastern War" is adopted. The reasons for it are purely practical, and all the participants did not object to it.
The real impetus for the clash was the weakening of the Turks. At that time, their country was nicknamed the "sick man of Europe", but strong states claimed the "sharing of the inheritance", that is, the possibility of using Turkish possessions and territories to their advantage.
The Russian Empire needed free passage of the navy through the Black Sea straits. She also claimed to be the patron of the Christian Slavic peoples who wanted to free themselves from the Turkish yoke, especially the Bulgarians. The British were especially interested in Egypt (the idea of the Suez Canal had already matured) and the possibility of convenient communication with Iran. The French did not want to allow the military strengthening of the Russians - Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte III, the nephew of Napoleon I, defeated by ours, had just (officially since December 2, 1852) on their throne (revanchism intensified accordingly).
The leading European states did not want to allow Russia to become their economic competitor. France because of this could lose the position of a great power. England was afraid of Russian expansion in Central Asia, which would lead the Russians directly to the borders of "the most valuable pearl of the British crown" - India. Turkey, having repeatedly lost in Suvorov and Potemkin, simply had no choice but to rely on the help of the European "tigers" - otherwise it could simply fall apart.
Only Sardinia had no special claims to our state. She was simply promised support for her alliance in the confrontation with Austria, which was the reason for her entry into the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Claims of Napoleon the Small
Everyone was not opposed to fighting - everyone had purely pragmatic reasons for this. But at the same time, the British and French were clearly superior to ours in technical terms - they had rifled weapons, long-range artillery and a steam flotilla. The Russians, on the other hand, were smoothed and polished, 
looked great in parades, but fought with smooth-bore junk on wooden sailboats.
Under these conditions, Napoleon III, nicknamed V. Hugo "Small" for his apparent inability to compete with his uncle's talents, decided to speed up the events - it is not for nothing that the Crimean War is considered "French" in Europe. He chose as an occasion a dispute over the ownership of churches in Palestine, which were claimed by both Catholics and Orthodox. Both were not then separated from the state, and Russia was directly obliged to support the claims of Orthodoxy. The religious component well masked the ugly reality of the conflict over markets and bases.
But Palestine was under the control of the Turks. Accordingly, Nicholas I reacted by occupying the Danube principalities, vassal to the Ottomans, and Turkey after that, with good reason, on October 4 (16 according to the European calendar), October 1853, declared war on Russia. It remains for France and England to be "good allies" and do the same on March 15 (March 27) next year.
Battles during the Crimean War
Crimea and the Black Sea acted as the main theater of military operations (it is noteworthy that in other regions - in the Caucasus, the Baltic, the Far East - our troops operated mostly successfully). In November 1853, the Battle of Sinop took place (the last big sailing battle in history), in April 1854, Anglo-French ships fired on Odessa, and in June the first skirmish near Sevastopol took place (shelling of fortifications from the sea surface).
Source of maps and symbols - https://en.wikipedia.org
It was the main Black Sea port of the empire that was the goal of the allies. The essence of the hostilities in the Crimea was reduced to its capture - then the Russian ships would have turned out to be "homeless". At the same time, the allies remained aware that it was fortified only from the sea, and it had no defensive structures from land.
The landing of the allied ground forces in Yevpatoria in September 1854 was precisely aimed at capturing Sevastopol from land by a roundabout maneuver. The Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Menshikov, organized the defense badly. A week after the landing, the landing was already in the vicinity of the current hero city. The Battle of the Alma (September 8 (20), 1854) delayed his advance, but in general it was a defeat for the domestic troops due to unsuccessful command.
But the Sevastopol defense showed that our soldier had not lost the ability to do the impossible. The city held out in the siege for 349 days, withstood 6 massive artillery bombardments, although the number of its garrison was about 8 times less than the number of stormers (a ratio of 1:3 is considered normal). There was no support for the fleet - outdated wooden ships were simply flooded in the fairways, trying to block the enemy's passages.
The notorious defense was accompanied by other famous, iconic battles. It is not easy to describe them briefly - each is special in its own way. So, the one that happened under (13 (25) October 1854) is considered the decline of the glory of the British cavalry - this branch of the army suffered heavy inconclusive losses in it. Inkermanskaya (October 24 (November 5) of the same year) showed the advantages of French artillery over Russian and a poor idea of \u200b\u200bour command about the capabilities of the enemy.
On August 27 (September 8), 1855, the French took possession of the fortified height dominating the policy, and 3 days later occupied it. The fall of Sevastopol marked the defeat of our country in the war - there were no more active hostilities.
Heroes of the First Defense
Now the defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War is called - in contrast to the Second, the period of the Great Patriotic War. However, there are no less bright characters in it, and maybe even more. 
Its leaders were three admirals - Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin. All of them died defending the main policy of the Crimea, and are buried in it. Brilliant fortifier, engineer-colonel E.I. Totleben survived this defense, but his contribution to it was not immediately appreciated.
Artillery Lieutenant Count LN Tolstoy fought here. Then he published the documentary "Sevastopol Stories" and immediately turned into a "whale" of Russian literature.
The graves of three admirals in Sevastopol, in the Vladimir Cathedral-tomb, are considered city amulets - the city is invincible while they are with it. It is also considered a symbol that now adorns the 200-ruble bill of a new sample.
Every autumn, the surroundings of the hero-city are shaken by cannonade - these are historical reconstructions at the battlefields (Balaklavsky, and others). Members of historical clubs not only demonstrate the equipment and uniforms of those times, but also act out the most striking episodes of clashes.
At the sites of the most significant battles, monuments to the dead have been erected (at different times) and archaeological research is underway. Their goal is to become more familiar with the soldier's way of life.
The British and the French willingly take part in reconstructions and excavations. There are also monuments to them - after all, they are also heroes in their own way, otherwise the confrontation was not entirely fair for anyone. And anyway, the war is over.
Introduction
For my essay, I chose the topic "The Crimean War of 1853-1856: goals and results." This topic seemed to me the most interesting. "The Crimean War is one of the turning points in the history of international relations and especially in the history of Russia's domestic and foreign policy" (EV Tarle). It was an armed resolution of the historical confrontation between Russia and Europe.
Crimean War 1853-1856 considered one of the largest and most dramatic international conflicts. To one degree or another, all the leading powers of the world of that time took part in it, and in terms of its geographical scope, until the middle of the 19th century, it had no equal. All this allows us to consider it a kind of "proto-world" war.
She claimed the lives of more than 1 million people. The Crimean War can in some way be called a rehearsal for the world wars of the 20th century. It was the first war when the leading world powers, having suffered gigantic losses, came together in a fierce confrontation.
I wanted to work on this topic and evaluate in general terms the goals and results of the Crimean War. The main tasks of the work include:
1. Determination of the main causes of the Crimean War
2. Overview of the course of the Crimean War
3. Evaluation of the results of the Crimean War
1. Literature review
In historiography, the topic of the Crimean War was dealt with by E.V. Tarle (in the book "The Crimean War"), K.M. Bazili, A.M., Zaionchkovsky and others.
Evgeny Viktorovich Tarle (1874 - 1955) - Russian Soviet historian, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
Bazili Konstantin Mikhailovich (1809 - 1884) - an outstanding Russian orientalist, diplomat, writer and historian.
Andrei Medardovich Zayonchkovsky (1862 - 1926) - Russian and Soviet military leader, military historian.
For the preparation of this work, I used books:
"Russian Imperial House" - for information about the significance of the Crimean War for Russia
"Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" - a description of the Crimean War and some general information on this issue are taken from this book
Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - I used this literature to describe the general history of the war of 1853-1856.
Tarle E.V. "Crimean War" - information about military operations and the significance of the Crimean War
Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War 1853-1856" - to obtain information about the events that preceded the war and the beginning of hostilities against Turkey.
2. Causes of the Crimean War
The Crimean War was the result of many years of rivalry between the Western powers in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was going through a period of decline and the European powers that had plans for its possessions carefully watched each other's actions.
Russia sought to secure its southern borders (to create friendly, independent Orthodox states in Southeastern Europe, whose territory could not be swallowed up and used by other powers), to expand political influence in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, to establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles - an important for Russia the way to the Mediterranean. This was significant both from the military and from the economic side. The Russian emperor, recognizing himself as a great Orthodox monarch, sought to liberate the Orthodox peoples under the influence of Turkey. Nicholas I decided to strengthen his position in the Balkans and the Middle East with the help of hard pressure on Turkey.
By the time the war broke out, Sultan Abdulmejid was pursuing a reform policy - the tanzimat, caused by the crisis of the Ottoman feudal society, socio-economic problems and increased rivalry between European powers in the Middle East and the Balkans. For this, borrowed funds from Western states (French and English) were used, which were spent on the purchase of industrial products and weapons, and not on strengthening the Turkish economy. It can be said that Turkey gradually fell under the influence of European powers peacefully.
The possibility of forming an anti-Russian coalition and weakening Russia's influence in the Balkans opened up before Great Britain. The French emperor Napoleon III, who had attained the throne through a coup d'état, was looking for an opportunity to intervene in European affairs and take part in some serious war in order to support his power with the splendor and glory of the victory of French arms. Therefore, he immediately joined England in its eastern policy against Russia. Turkey decided to use this chance to restore its positions and seize the territories of Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia.
Thus, the causes of the Crimean War were rooted in the clash of the colonial interests of the countries, i.e. (all countries that participated in the Crimean War pursued serious geopolitical interests).
Nicholas I was sure that Austria and Prussia, Russia's partners in the Holy Alliance, would remain at least neutral in the Russian-French conflict, and France would not dare to fight Russia one on one. In addition, he believed that Great Britain and France were rivals in the Middle East and would not conclude an alliance between themselves. Nicholas I, speaking out against Turkey, hoped for an agreement with England and for the isolation of France (in any case, the Russian emperor was sure that France would not come closer to England).
The formal reason for the intervention was the dispute over the holy places in Jerusalem, where the Turkish sultan gave some advantages to the Catholics, infringing on the rights of the Orthodox. Relying on the support of France, the Turkish government not only handed over the keys to the Bethlehem Church to the Catholics, but also began to restrict the Orthodox in the Holy Land, did not allow the restoration of the dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and did not allow the construction of a hospital and an almshouse for Russian pilgrims. All this provoked the participation in the dispute of Russia (on the side of the Orthodox Church) and France (on the side of the Catholic Church), who were looking for a reason to put pressure on Turkey.
Defending fellow believers, Emperor Nicholas I demanded that the Sultan comply with the treaties on the rights of Russia in Palestine. To do this, in February 1853, by the highest order, Prince A.S. sailed to Constantinople with emergency powers. Menshikov. He was instructed to demand that the Sultan not only resolve the dispute over the holy places in favor of the Orthodox Church, but also give the Russian Tsar a special right to be the patron of all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. When this was refused, Prince Menshikov notified the Sultan of the break in Russian-Turkish relations (although the Sultan agreed to give the holy places under the control of Russia) and departed from Constantinople. After that, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and England and France, in order to support Turkey, brought their fleets into the Dardanelles. The Sultan, having declared to Russia the demand for the cleansing of the Danube principalities in 15 days, did not wait for the end of this period and began hostile actions against Russia. On October 4 (16), 1853, Turkey, counting on the help of the European powers, declared war on Russia. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), 1853, Nicholas I published a manifesto on the war with Turkey. Turkey willingly went to unleash a war, wanting the return of the northern coast of the Black Sea, Crimea, Kuban.
The Crimean War began as a Russian-Turkish war, but then turned into a coalition war between England, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. The Crimean War got its name because the Crimea became the main theater of military operations.
The active policy of Nicholas I in the Middle East and Europe rallied interested countries against Russia, which led to its military confrontation with a strong bloc of European powers. England and France sought to prevent Russia from accessing the Mediterranean, establish their control over the straits and carry out colonial conquests in the Middle East at the expense of the Turkish Empire. They sought to take control of the Turkish economy and public finances.
In my opinion, the main reasons for hostilities can be formulated as follows:
firstly, England, France and Austria sought to consolidate their influence in the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire, oust Russia from the Black Sea region, thereby limiting its advance to the Middle East;
secondly, Turkey, encouraged by England and France, hatched plans to seize the Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia;
thirdly, Russia sought to defeat the Ottoman Empire, seize the Black Sea straits and expand its influence in the Middle East.
3. The course of the Crimean War
The Crimean War can be divided into two major stages. On the first (from 1853 to the beginning of 1854) Russia fought one on one with Turkey. This period can be called a classic Russian-Turkish war with the Danube, Caucasian and Black Sea theaters of military operations. At the second stage (from 1854 to February 1856), England, France, and then Sardinia took the side of Turkey. The small Sardinian kingdom sought to achieve recognition of the status of a "power" by the European capitals. This was promised to her by England and France if Sardinia entered the war against Russia. This turn of events had a great influence on the course of the war. Russia had to fight a powerful coalition of states that surpassed Russia in the scale and quality of weapons, especially in the field of navies, small arms and means of communication. In this regard, it can be considered that the Crimean War opened a new era of wars of the industrial era, when the importance of military equipment and the military-economic potential of states sharply increased.
The Turkish sultan, supported by England and France, on September 27 (October 4), 1853, demanded that Russia clear the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) and, without waiting for the 15 days allotted for them to respond, began hostilities. October 4 (16), 1853 Turkey declared war on Russia. Under the command of Omar Pasha, the Turkish army crossed the Danube.
The day before the declaration of war on October 3 (15), 1853, the Ottomans fired on Russian pickets on the left bank of the Danube. October 11 (23), 1853. shelling by the Ottomans of Russian military ships passing along the Danube. On October 15 (27), 1853, hostilities began on the Caucasian front with an attack by Ottoman troops on Russian fortifications. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), Nicholas I issued a manifesto on Russia's entry into the war with the Ottoman Empire, and in November opened hostilities.
On November 18 (30) in the Sinop Bay, the Russian Black Sea squadron, under the command of Nakhimov, attacked the Turkish fleet and, after a stubborn battle, destroyed it all.
On November 11 (23), the commander Nakhimov approached Sinop with small forces and blocked the entrance to the port. A ship was sent to Sevastopol with a request for reinforcements. On November 17 (29), the first part of the expected reinforcements arrived. At that moment, Nakhimov's squadron included 6 battleships and two frigates. The Turkish squadron, which arrived in Sinop from Istanbul, stood in the roadstead and prepared for the landing of a large landing of troops in the region of Sukhumi and Poti. On the morning of November 18 (30), without waiting for the arrival of Kornilov's detachment, Nakhimov led his squadron to Sinop. By the evening of the same day, the Turkish squadron was killed almost completely along with the entire team. Of the entire Turkish squadron, only one ship survived, which fled to Constantinople and brought there the news of the death of the fleet. The defeat of the Turkish squadron significantly weakened the Turkish naval forces.
Alarmed by Russia's victory at Sinop, on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), England and France entered their fleet into the Black Sea, and demanded that Russia withdraw Russian troops from the Danubian principalities. Nicholas I refused. Then on March 15 (27) England and March 16 (28) France declared war on Russia.
England is trying to draw Austria and Prussia into the war with Russia. However, she did not succeed, although they took a position hostile to Russia. On April 8 (20), 1854, Austria and Prussia demand that Russia clear the Danubian principalities from its troops. Russia is forced to fulfill the requirements.
On August 4 (16), French troops captured and destroyed the fortress of Bomarzund on the Aland Islands, and after that a brutal bombardment was carried out in Sveaborg. As a result, the Russian Baltic Fleet was blocked at its bases. But the confrontation continued, and the attack of the allied forces on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the end of August 1854 ended in complete failure.
Meanwhile, in the summer of 1854, a 50,000-strong expeditionary force of allied troops was concentrated in Varna. This unit was provided with the latest weapons, which the Russian army did not have (rifled guns, etc.).
England and France tried to organize a broad coalition against Russia, but managed to involve only the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was dependent on France, into it. At the beginning of hostilities, the Allied fleets bombarded Odessa, but without success. Then the British squadrons made demonstrations in the Baltic Sea, in the White Sea, near the Solovetsky Monastery, even off the coast of Kamchatka, but they did not take serious action anywhere. After a meeting of French and British commanders, it was decided to strike Russia on the Black Sea and besiege Sevastopol as an important military port. If this operation was successful, Britain and France expected to simultaneously destroy both the entire Russian Black Sea Fleet and its main base.
On September 2-6 (14-18), 1854, a 62,000-strong Allied army landed near Evpatoria, more numerous, better equipped and armed than the Russian army. Due to a lack of forces, the Russian troops were unable to stop the landing of the Allied forces, but nevertheless tried to stop the enemy on the Alma River, where on September 8 (20), 1854, Prince Menshikov met the Allied army with only 35 thousand people and, after an unsuccessful battle, retreated to the south, to Sevastopol - the main stronghold of Russia in the Crimea.
The heroic defense of Sevastopol began on September 13 (25), 1854. The defense of the city was in the hands of V.A. Kornilov and Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. The garrison of Sevastopol consisted of only 11 thousand people, and there were fortifications only on one seaside side, and from the north and south the fortress was almost unprotected. Allied troops, supported by a strong fleet, stormed the northern part of Sevastopol. In order to prevent the enemy fleet from reaching the south side, Menshikov ordered the ships of the Black Sea squadron to be flooded, and their guns and crews to be transferred to the shore to reinforce the garrison. At the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, the Russians sank several sailing ships, thus blocking access to the bay for the Anglo-French fleet. In addition, the strengthening of the southern side began.
On October 5 (12), the allied shelling of the city began. One of the main defenders, Kornilov, was mortally wounded by a cannonball at the moment when he was descending from Malakhov Kurgan, after inspecting the positions. The defense of Sevastopol was headed by P.S. Nakhimov, E.I. Totleben and V.I. Istomin. The besieged garrison responded to the enemy, and the first bombardment did not bring much results to the Allies. They abandoned the assault and led a reinforced siege.
A.S. Menshikov, trying to divert the enemy's wax from the city, undertook a series of offensive operations. As a result of which the Turks were successfully driven out of their positions at Kadikioy, but he failed to win the battle with the British near Balaklava on October 13 (25). The battle of Balaklava was one of the largest battles of the Crimean War between Great Britain, France and Turkey on the one hand, and Russia on the other. The city of Balaklava was the base of the British Expeditionary Force in the Crimea. The blow of the Russian troops on the positions of the allies at Balaklava could, if successful, lead to a disruption in the supply of the British. On October 13 (25), the battle took place in the valleys north of Balaklava. It was the only battle in the entire Crimean War in which the Russian troops significantly outnumbered the forces.
The Russian detachment consisted of 16 thousand people. Allied forces were represented mainly by British troops. French and Turkish units also participated in the battle, but their role was insignificant. The number of allied troops was about two thousand people.
The battle began early in the morning. In order to cover the too wide front of the attack of the Russian cavalry, the Scottish commander Campbell ordered his soldiers to line up in twos. The first Russian attack was repulsed.
Lord Raglan ordered an attack on the Russian positions, which led to tragic consequences. During this attack, two-thirds of the attackers were killed.
By the end of the battle, the opposing sides remained in their morning positions. The number of dead allies ranged from 400 to 1000 people, Russians - about 600.
On October 24 (November 5), Russian troops under the command of General Soymonov attacked the positions of the British. The enemy was taken by surprise. As a result, the Russians captured the fortifications, but could not hold them and retreated. With the help of the detachment of General Pavlov, who approached from Inkerman, the Russian troops managed to achieve a significant advantage, and the British troops were in a critical situation. In the heat of battle, the British lost a large number of their soldiers and were ready to admit defeat, but were saved by the intervention of the French, led by General Bosquet. The entry into the battle of the French troops turned the tide of the battle. The outcome of the battle was decided by the advantage in their weapons, which were more long-range than the Russians.
Russian troops were defeated and forced to retreat with heavy losses (11,800 people), the Allies lost 5,700 people. General Soymonov was among those who died in the battle. The battle also had a positive outcome: the general assault on Sevastopol, scheduled by the allies for the next day, did not take place.
The Russians were defeated at Inkerman, and Menshikov's detachment was forced to withdraw from the city deep into the peninsula.
The war continued. On January 14 (26), 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allied anti-Russian coalition.
The conditions for the defense of Sevastopol were incredibly difficult. There were not enough people, ammunition, food, medicines.
With the onset of winter, hostilities subsided. Nicholas I gathered a militia and sent it to help the defenders of Sevastopol. For moral support, Grand Dukes Mikhail and Nikolai Nikolaevich arrived in the Russian army.
In February, hostilities resumed, and, by order of the emperor, Russian troops went on the offensive near the highest point in Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan. From the hills closest to him, several enemy detachments were knocked down, the occupied hills were immediately fortified.
On February 18, 1855, among these events, Emperor Nicholas I died. But the war continued under the successor of the sovereign, Alexander II. Siege and defensive work on both sides went on until the end of March; On the 28th of this month, the Allies began the bombardment from land and continued it until April 1, then soon resumed it again, and only on April 7 did the besieged breathe more freely. There have been big changes in their lineup. In place of Prince Menshikov, Emperor Alexander II appointed Prince Gorchakov. In turn, among the Allies, the French commander-in-chief Canrobert was replaced by General Pélissier.
Realizing that Malakhov Kurgan is the key to the defense of Sevastopol, Pelissier directed all his efforts to seizing it. On May 26, after a terrible bombardment, the French took hostilities to the fortifications closest to Malakhov Kurgan. It remained to take possession of the mound itself, but it turned out to be more difficult than the attackers expected. On June 5 (17), a cannonade began, on June 6 (18) an assault was made, but unsuccessfully: General Khrulev repelled all attacks, the enemy had to retreat and fought for another 3 whole months fight over the mound, near which all the forces of both sides are now concentrated. On June 8 (20), the wounded leader of the defense Totleben dropped out from the defenders of the fortress, and on June 27 (July 9) they were struck by a new heavy loss: Nakhimov was mortally wounded in the temple and through died for three days.
On August 4, Gorchakov launched an offensive against the enemy positions near the Black River, and the next day he fought there, which ended unsuccessfully for the Russian army. After that, from August 6 (18), Pelissier began the bombardment of the city and continued it continuously for 20 days. Gorchakov was convinced that it was unthinkable to defend Sevastopol for longer, and in the event of a new assault, the fortress would be taken. To prevent the enemy from getting anything, they began to lay mines under all the fortifications, and a floating bridge was built to transfer troops.
On August 27 (September 8), at 12 o'clock in the afternoon, the enemy moved to Malakhov Kurgan and, after a terrible battle, took possession of it, and General Khrulev, the main defender, was wounded and almost captured. Russian troops immediately began to leave along the bridge to the north side, the remaining ships were flooded, and the fortifications were blown up. After 349 days of stubborn struggle and many bloody battles, the enemy captured the fortress, which was a heap of ruins.
After the occupation of Sevastopol, the allies suspended military operations: they could not launch an offensive into Russia without wagons, and Prince Gorchakov, who fortified with an army near the captured fortress, did not accept battles in the open. Winter completely stopped the military operations of the allies in the Crimea, as illnesses began in their army.
Sevastopol defense 1854 - 1855 showed everyone the strength of the patriotic feeling of the Russian people and the steadfastness of their national character.
Not counting on the imminent end of the war, both sides started talking about peace. France did not want to continue the war, not wanting to either strengthen England or weaken Russia beyond measure. Russia also wanted an end to the war.
4. Results of the Crimean War
On March 18 (30), 1856, peace was signed in Paris with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The Russian delegation was headed by Count A.F. Orlov. He managed to achieve conditions that were less difficult and humiliating for Russia than expected after such an unfortunate war.
Under the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia received back Sevastopol, Evpatoria and other Russian cities, but returned the Kars fortress taken in the Caucasus to Turkey, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and southern Bessarabia, the Black Sea was declared neutral, and Russia was deprived of the right to keep a navy on it, also pledging not to build fortifications along the coast. Thus, the Russian Black Sea coast became defenseless against possible aggression. Eastern Christians came under the patronage of European powers, i.e. Russia was deprived of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population in the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which weakened Russia's influence on Middle Eastern affairs.
The Crimean War had unfavorable consequences for Russia. Its result was a significant weakening of the influence of Russia, both in Europe and in the Middle East. The destruction of the remnants of the military fleet on the Black Sea and the elimination of fortifications on the coast made the southern border of the country open to any enemy invasion. Although, under the terms of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea Fleet, it always had the opportunity to bring its squadrons there from the Mediterranean through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
The positions of France and Great Britain and their influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, on the contrary, were seriously strengthened, and France became one of the leading powers in Europe.
Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. claimed the lives of more than 1 million people (522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British).
In terms of its enormous scale (the size of the theater of operations and the number of mobilized troops), the Crimean War can be compared with the world war. Russia fought alone in this war, defending itself on several fronts. She was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (since 1855), which inflicted a crushing defeat on Russia.
The Crimean War frankly demonstrated the fact that the West is ready to combine its power with the Muslim East in order to achieve its global goals. In the event of this war, to crush the third center of power - Orthodox Russia.
In addition, the Crimean War showed the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lagging behind Europe threatened with more serious consequences. As a result, the main task of Russia's foreign policy in 1856 - 1871. there was a struggle for the abolition of some articles of the Paris Treaty, tk. Russia could not tolerate the fact that its Black Sea border remained undefended and open to military attack. The security interests of the state, as well as economic and political ones, demanded the abolition of the neutral status of the Black Sea.
Conclusion
Crimean War 1853-1856 was originally fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires for dominance in the Middle East. On the eve of the war, Nicholas I misjudged the international situation (regarding England, France and Austria). Nicholas I took into account neither the advantage for Napoleon III of diverting the attention of the French broad strata of the people from internal affairs to foreign policy, nor the economic interests of the French bourgeoisie in Turkey. The victories of the Russian troops at the beginning of the war, namely the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop, prompted England and France to intervene in the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the warring coalition, which wanted to receive the status of a world power. Sweden and Austria, which were bound by the bonds of the "Holy Alliance" with Russia, were ready to join the allies. Military operations were conducted in the Baltic Sea, in Kamchatka, in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities. The main actions unfolded in the Crimea during the defense of Sevastopol from the Allied forces.
As a result, by common efforts, the united coalition won the war. Russia signed the Treaty of Paris with unfavorable conditions.
The defeat of Russia can be explained by several groups of reasons: political, socio-economic and technical.
The political cause of Russia's defeat in the Crimean War was the unification of the leading European powers (England and France) against it. The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serf labor, which hindered the economic development of the country and caused its technical backwardness. From which the limited industrial development followed. The technical reason for the defeat was the obsolete weapons of the Russian army.
Military factories, which existed in small numbers, worked poorly due to primitive technology and unproductive serf labor. The main engines were water and horse traction. Before the Crimean War, Russia annually produced only 50-70 thousand guns and pistols, 100-120 guns and 60-80 thousand pounds of gunpowder.
The Russian army suffered from a lack of weapons and ammunition. The armament was outdated, and new types of weapons were hardly introduced.
The military training of the Russian troops was also low. The Military Ministry of Russia before the Crimean War was headed by Prince A.I. Chernyshev, who prepared the army not for war, but for parades. For shooting training, 10 live rounds per soldier per year were allocated.
Transport and communications were also in poor condition, which negatively affected the combat capability of the Russian army. There was not a single railway from the center to the south of the country. The troops marched on foot, carrying weapons and ammunition on oxen. It was easier to deliver soldiers to the Crimea from England or France than from the center of Russia.
The Russian Navy was the third in the world, but inferior to the British and French. England and France had 454 warships, including 258 ships, and Russia 115 ships with 24 ships.
I believe that the main reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War can be called:
an incorrect assessment of the international situation, which led to the diplomatic isolation of Russia and the war with not one, but several strong opponents
backward military industry (based mainly on serf labor)
obsolete weapons
lack of a developed road transport system
The defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated that the country could finally lose the status of a great power.
The Crimean War was the strongest impetus for the aggravation of the social crisis within the country, contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, accelerated the fall of serfdom and the implementation of bourgeois reforms.
The world-historical significance of the Crimean War lies in the fact that it clearly and convincingly drew a line of civilizational division between Russia and Europe.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean War led to the loss of its leading role in Europe, which it had played for forty years. A so-called "Crimean system" has taken shape in Europe, based on the Anglo-French bloc directed against Russia. The articles of the Paris Peace Treaty dealt a tangible blow to the Russian Empire. The most severe of them was the one that forbade her to have a navy on the Black Sea and build coastal fortifications. However, by and large, Russia paid a much lower price for the defeat than it could have, subject to more successful military actions on the part of the allies.
List of used literature
1. "Russian Imperial House". - Moscow, publishing house "OLMA Media Group", 2006
2. "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary". - Moscow, publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1981, p.669
3. Tarle E.V. "Crimean War". - Moscow, publishing house "AST", 2005 - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/evgeniy-tarle-krimskaya-voyna.html
4. Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/a-andreev-istoriya-krima.html
5. Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War, 1853-1856". - St. Petersburg, publishing house "Polygon", 2002 - http://www.adjudant.ru/crimea/zai00. htm
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CRIMEAN WAR
1853-1856
Plan
1. Background of the war
2. Course of hostilities
3. Actions in the Crimea and the defense of Sevastopol
4. Military operations on other fronts
5.Diplomatic efforts
6.Results of the war
Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-56 was fought between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), France, Great Britain and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East, the Black Sea basin, and the Caucasus. The Allied Powers did not want to see Russia anymore on the world political stage. The new war served as an excellent opportunity to achieve this goal. Initially, England and France planned to wear Russia out in the fight against Turkey, and then, under the pretext of protecting the latter, they expected to attack Russia. In accordance with this plan, it was planned to deploy military operations on several fronts separated from one another (on the Black and Baltic Seas, in the Caucasus, where they had special hope for the mountain population and for the spiritual leader of the Muslims of Chechnya and Dagestan-Shamil).
PREREQUISITES FOR WAR
The reason for the conflict was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy over the possession of Christian shrines in Palestine (in particular, in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem). The prelude was the conflict between Nicholas I and Emperor Napoleon III of France. The Russian emperor considered his French "colleague" illegal, because. the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne by the Congress of Vienna (a pan-European conference during which the boundaries of the states of Europe were determined after the Napoleonic wars). Napoleon III, realizing the fragility of his power, wanted to divert the attention of the people with the then popular war against Russia (revenge for the war of 1812) and at the same time satisfy his irritation against Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon also sought to repay ally, defending the interests of the Vatican in the international arena, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and directly with Russia. (The French referred to an agreement with the Ottoman Empire on the right to control Christian holy places in Palestine (in the 19th century, the territory of the Ottoman Empire), and Russia referred to the decree of the Sultan, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine and gave Russia the right to protect the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire ).France demanded that the keys to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem be given to the Catholic clergy, and Russia demanded that they remain with the Orthodox community. Turkey, which was in a state of decline in the middle of the 19th century, did not have the opportunity to refuse either side, and promised to fulfill the demands of both Russia and France. When the typical Turkish diplomatic ploy was discovered, France brought a 90-gun steam battleship under the walls of Istanbul. As a result, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were given to France (i.e. the Catholic Church). In response, Russia began mobilizing the army on the border with Moldavia and Wallachia.
In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Prince A.S. Menshikov as an ambassador to the Turkish Sultan. with an ultimatum to recognize the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places in Palestine and to provide Russia with protection over Christians in the Ottoman Empire (who accounted for about a third of the total population). The Russian government counted on the support of Austria and Prussia and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible. However, Great Britain, fearing the strengthening of Russia, went to an agreement with France. The British ambassador, Lord Stratford-Redcliffe, persuaded the Turkish sultan to partially satisfy Russia's demands, promising support in case of war. As a result, the Sultan issued a decree on the inviolability of the rights of the Orthodox Church to the holy places, but refused to conclude an agreement on patronage. Prince Menshikov defiantly behaved at meetings with the Sultan, demanding the full satisfaction of the ultimatum. Feeling the support of its Western allies, Turkey was in no hurry to respond to Russia's demands. Without waiting for a positive response, Menshikov and the embassy staff left Constantinople. Trying to put pressure on the Turkish government, Nicholas I ordered the troops to occupy the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan. (Initially, the plans of the Russian command were distinguished by courage and decisiveness. It was supposed to conduct a “Bosphorus expedition”, providing for the equipment of landing ships to go to the Bosphorus and connect with the rest of the troops. When the Turkish fleet went to sea, it was planned to break it and then go to the Bosphorus. Breakthrough Russian stage in the Bosporus endangered the capital of Turkey, Constantinople.To prevent France from supporting the Ottoman Sultan, the plan provided for the occupation of the Dardanelles.Nicholas I accepted the plan, but after listening to the next anti-arguments of Prince Menshikov, he rejected it.Subsequently, other active offensive plans were also rejected and the choice of the emperor settled on another faceless plan, refusing to take any active action.The troops, under the command of Adjutant General Gorchakov, were ordered to reach the Danube, but avoid military operations.The Black Sea Fleet was to remain on its shores and evade battle, allocating only cruisers for observation position behind enemy fleets. By such a show of force, the Russian emperor hoped to put pressure on Turkey and accept her own terms.)
This caused a protest by the Porte, which led to the convening of a conference of commissioners from England, France, Prussia and Austria. Its result was the Vienna Note, a compromise on all sides, demanding the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danubian Principalities, but giving Russia the nominal right to protect the Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.
The Vienna note was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Turkish sultan, who succumbed to the promised military support of the British ambassador. The Porte proposed various changes to the note, which caused the refusal of the Russian side. As a result, France and Britain entered into an alliance with the obligation to protect the territory of Turkey.
Trying to use the favorable opportunity to “teach Russia a lesson” by proxy, the Ottoman Sultan demanded to clear the territory of the Danubian principalities within two weeks, and after these conditions were not met, on October 4 (16), 1853, he declared war on Russia. On October 20 (November 1), 1853, Russia responded with a similar statement.
PROGRESS OF MILITARY ACTIONS
The Crimean War can be divided into two stages. The first is the Russian-Turkish company itself (November 1853 - April 1854) and the second (April 1854 - February 1856), when the allies entered the war.
STATE OF THE ARMED FORCES OF RUSSIA
As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army was far from those listed; the reserve system was unsatisfactory; due to the intervention of Austria, Prussia and Sweden, Russia was forced to keep a significant part of the army on the western border. The technical backwardness of the Russian army and navy has become rampant.
ARMY
In the 1840s and 50s, the European armies were actively replacing obsolete smoothbore guns with rifled ones. At the beginning of the war, the share of rifled guns in the Russian army was approximately 4-5% of the total; in French-1/3; in English - more than half.
FLEET
From the beginning of the 19th century, obsolete sailing ships were replaced in European fleets with modern steam ones. On the eve of the Crimean War, the Russian fleet occupied the 3rd place in the world in terms of the number of warships (after England and France), but in terms of the number of steam ships it was significantly inferior to the Allied fleets.
START OF HOSTILITIES
In November 1853 on the Danube against 82 thousand. army of General Gorchakov M.D. Turkey has put forward almost 150,000 army of Omar Pasha. But the attacks of the Turks were repulsed, and the Russian artillery destroyed the Danube flotilla of Turkey. The main forces of Omar Pasha (about 40 thousand people) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardagan detachment (18 thousand people) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was stopped, and on November 14 (26) defeated near Akhaltsikhe 7 - thousand detachment of General Andronnikov I.M. November 19 (December 1) the troops of Prince Bebutov V.O. (10 thousand people) near Bashkadyklar defeated the main 36 thousand. Turkish army.
At sea, initially success also accompanied Russia. In mid-November, the Turkish squadron went to the Sukhumi (Sukhum-Kale) and Poti region for landing, but due to a strong storm, it was forced to take refuge in the Sinop Bay. This became known to the commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral PS Nakhimov, and he led his ships to Sinop. On November 18 (30), the Battle of Sinop took place, during which the Russian squadron defeated the Turkish fleet. The battle of Sinop went down in history as the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet.
The defeat of Turkey hastened the entry into the war of France and England. After Nakhimov's victory at Sinop, the British and French squadrons entered the Black Sea under the pretext of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. On January 17 (29), 1854, the French emperor issued an ultimatum to Russia: withdraw troops from the Danubian principalities and begin negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with France and England.
March 15 (27), 1854 Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.
To preempt the enemy in the Balkans, Nicholas I ordered to go on the offensive in this area. In March 1854, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Paskevich I.F. invaded Bulgaria. At first, the company developed successfully - the Russian army crossed the Danube at Galati, Izmail and Braila and occupied the fortresses of Machin, Tulcha and Isakcha. But in the future, the Russian command showed indecision, and the siege of Silistria broke only on May 5 (18). However, the fear of entering the war is on the side of the coalition of Austria, which, in alliance with Prussia, has concentrated 50 thousand. army in Galicia and Transylvania, and then, with the permission of Turkey, entered into the possession of the latter on the banks of the Danube, forced the Russian command to lift the siege, and then completely withdraw troops from this area at the end of August.
Crimean War.
Causes of the war: in 1850, a conflict began between France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the reason for which was the dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy regarding the rights to the Holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Nicholas I counted on the support of England and Austria, but miscalculated.
The course of the war: in 1853, Russian troops were introduced into Moldova and Wallachia, met with a negative reaction from Austria, which took a position of unfriendly neutrality, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops and moved its army to the border with Russia. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia.
The first stage of the war - November 1853 - April 1854: Russian-Turkish campaign. November 1853 - Battle of Sinop. Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet, Russian actions in the Caucasus were going on in parallel. England and France declared war on Russia. Anglo-French squadron bombarded Russian territories (Kronstadt, Sveaborg, the Solovetsky Monastery, Kamchatka).
Second stage: April 1854 - February 1856 Russia against a coalition of European powers. September 1854 - the allies began landing in the Evpatoria region. Battles on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russians lost. Under the command of Menshikov, the Russians to Bakhchisaray. Sevastopol (Kornilov and Nakhimov) was preparing for defense. October 1854 - the defense of Sevastopol began. The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations (the battle of Inkerman in November 1854, the offensive of Evpatoria in February 1855, the battle on the Black River in August 1855), but they were not successful. August 1855 - Sevastopol is taken. At the same time, in Transcaucasia, Russian troops managed to take the strong Turkish fortress of Kars. Negotiations began. March 1856 - Peace of Paris. Part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia, it lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia. The most important thing is the neutralization of the Black Sea: both Russia and Turkey were forbidden to keep a navy in the Black Sea.
In Russia, there is an acute internal political crisis, because of which reforms began.
39. Economic, socio-political development of Russia at the turn of the 50-60s. 19th century Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.
In the 50s, the needs and hardships of the masses noticeably worsened, this happened under the influence of the consequences of the Crimean War, the increasing frequency of natural disasters (epidemics, crop failures and, as a result, famine), as well as the oppression from the landowners and the state that increased in the pre-reform period. Recruitment kits, which reduced the number of workers by 10%, requisitions of food, horses and fodder had a particularly severe effect on the economy of the Russian countryside. He exacerbated the position and arbitrariness of the landowners, who systematically reduced the size of peasant allotments, transferred peasants to courtyards (and thus deprived them of land), and resettled serfs on worse lands. These acts took on such a scale that shortly before the reform, the government was forced by special decrees to impose a ban on such actions.
The response to the deteriorating situation of the masses was the peasant movement, which, in its intensity, scale and forms, differed markedly from the performances of previous decades and caused great concern in St. Petersburg.
This period is characterized by mass escapes of landlord peasants who wanted to join the militia and hoped to gain freedom in this way (1854-1855), unauthorized resettlements in the Crimea devastated by the war (1856), a “sober” movement directed against the feudal system of wine farming (1858-1859 ), unrest and escapes of workers on the construction of railways (Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod, Volga-Don, 1859-1860). It was also restless on the outskirts of the empire. In 1858, Estonian peasants came out with weapons in their hands (the “war in Makhtra”). Large peasant unrest broke out in 1857 in Western Georgia.
After the defeat in the Crimean War, in the context of a growing revolutionary upsurge, the crisis of the top escalated, which manifested itself, in particular, in the activation of the liberal opposition movement among part of the nobility, dissatisfied with military failures, Russia's backwardness, which understood the need for political and social changes. “Sevastopol hit stagnant minds,” wrote the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky about this time. The “censorship terror” introduced by Emperor Nicholas I after his death in February 1855 was actually swept away by a wave of publicity, which made it possible to openly discuss the most pressing problems facing the country.
There was no unity in government circles on the question of the future fate of Russia. Here, two opposing groups formed: the old conservative bureaucratic elite (Head of Section III V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, etc.), who actively opposed the implementation of bourgeois reforms, and supporters of reforms (Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lanskoy, Ya.I. Rostovtsev, brothers N.A. and D.A. Milyutins).
The interests of the Russian peasantry were reflected in the ideology of the new generation of revolutionary intelligentsia.
In the 1950s, two centers were formed that led the revolutionary democratic movement in the country. The first (emigrant) was headed by A.I. Herzen, who founded the “Free Russian Printing House” in London (1853). Since 1855, he began to publish the non-periodic collection "Polar Star", and since 1857 - together with N.P. Ogarev - the newspaper "Kolokol", which was very popular. In the publications of Herzen, a program of social transformations in Russia was formulated, which included the liberation of the peasants from serfdom with land and for ransom. Initially, the publishers of Kolokol believed in the liberal intentions of the new Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) and pinned certain hopes on reasonable reforms “from above”. However, as projects for the abolition of serfdom were being prepared, the illusions dissipated, and on the pages of London publications a call for a struggle for land and democracy sounded in full voice.
The second center arose in St. Petersburg. It was headed by the leading employees of the Sovremennik magazine, N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Shelgunov and others). The censored articles of N.G. Chernyshevsky were not as frank as the publications of A.I. Herzen, but differed in their consistency. N.G. Chernyshevsky believed that when the peasants were freed, the land should be transferred to them without redemption, the liquidation of the autocracy in Russia would take place in a revolutionary way.
On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, a demarcation of the revolutionary-democratic and liberal camps was outlined. The liberals, who recognized the need for reforms "from above", saw in them, first of all, an opportunity to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country.
The Crimean War put the government before a choice: either to preserve the feudal order that existed in the country and, as a result of this, ultimately, as a result of a political and financial and economic catastrophe, not only lose the prestige and position of a great power, but also jeopardize the existence of autocracy in Russia, or proceed to carry out bourgeois reforms, the most important of which was the abolition of serfdom.
Choosing the second path, the government of Alexander II in January 1857 created a Secret Committee "to discuss measures to arrange the life of the landlord peasants." Somewhat earlier, in the summer of 1856, in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Comrade (Deputy) Minister A.I. Levshin developed a government program of peasant reform, which, although it gave civil rights to serfs, kept all the land in the ownership of the landowner and provided the latter with patrimonial power in the estate. In this case, the peasants would receive allotment land for use, for which they would have to perform fixed duties. This program was set out in imperial rescripts (instructions), first addressed to the Vilna and St. Petersburg governors-general, and then sent to other provinces. In accordance with the rescripts, special committees began to be created in the provinces to consider the case locally, and the preparation of the reform received publicity. The Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. A significant role in the preparation of the reform began to play the Zemsky Department under the Ministry of Internal Affairs (N.A. Milyutin).
Within the provincial committees there was a struggle between liberals and conservatives over the form and degree of concessions to the peasantry. Reform projects prepared by K.D. Kavelin, A.I. Koshelev, M.P. Posen. Yu.F. Samarin, A.M. Unkovsky, were distinguished by the political views of the authors and economic conditions. Thus, the landlords of the black earth provinces, who owned expensive land and kept the peasants on corvee, wanted to keep the maximum possible amount of land and keep the hands of the workers. In the industrial non-chernozem quitrent provinces, in the course of the reform, the landowners wanted to receive significant funds for restructuring their farms in a bourgeois way.
Prepared proposals and programs were submitted for discussion to the so-called Editorial Committees. The struggle around these proposals was carried on both in these commissions and during the consideration of the draft in the Main Committee and in the State Council. But, despite the differences in opinion, in all these projects it was about carrying out a peasant reform in the interests of the landowners by maintaining landownership and political dominance in the hands of the Russian nobility, “Everything that could be done to protect the benefits of the landowners has been done,” - Alexander II declared in the State Council. The final version of the reform project, which underwent a number of changes, was signed by the emperor on February 19, 1861, and on March 5, the most important documents regulating the implementation of the reform were published: the “Manifesto” and “General Provisions on Peasants who Abandoned Serfdom”.
In accordance with these documents, the peasants received personal freedom and could now freely dispose of their property, engage in commercial and industrial activities, buy and lease real estate, enter the service, receive an education, and conduct their family affairs.
All the land remained in the ownership of the landowner, but part of it, usually a reduced allotment of land and the so-called “estate residence” (a plot with a hut, outbuildings, vegetable gardens, etc.), he was obliged to transfer to the peasants for use. Thus, the Russian peasants were released with land, but they could use this land for a certain fixed dues or serving corvee. The peasants could not give up these allotments for 9 years. For complete liberation, they could buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, put it on, after which they became peasant owners. Until that time, a “temporarily liable position” had been established.
The new sizes of allotments and payments of peasants were fixed in special documents, "statutory charters". which were drawn up for each village over a two-year period. The size of these duties and allotment land was determined by the “Local Regulations”. So, according to the “Great Russian” local position, the territory of 35 provinces was distributed into 3 bands: non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe, which were divided into “localities”. In the first two lanes, depending on local conditions, the “higher” and “lower” (1/3 of the “highest”) sizes of the allotment were established, and in the steppe strip - one “decree” allotment. If the pre-reform size of the allotment exceeded the “highest”, then pieces of land could be produced, but if the allotment was less than the “lower”, then the landowner had to either cut the land or reduce the duties. Cuts were also made in some other cases, for example, when the owner, as a result of allocating land to the peasants, had less than 1/3 of the entire land of the estate. Among the cut off lands, the most valuable plots (forest, meadows, arable land) often turned out to be, in some cases the landowners could demand the transfer of peasant estates to new places. As a result of the post-reform land management, the Russian village became characterized by striped stripes.
Statutory charters were usually concluded with the whole rural society, the "world" (community), which was supposed to provide mutual responsibility for the payment of duties.
The “temporarily liable” position of the peasants ceased after the transfer to redemption, which became mandatory only 20 years later (since 1883). The ransom was carried out with the assistance of the government. The basis for calculating redemption payments was not the market price of land, but the assessment of duties that were feudal in nature. At the conclusion of the deal, the peasants paid 20% of the amount, and the state paid the remaining 80% to the landowners. The peasants had to repay the loan provided by the state annually in the form of redemption payments for 49 years, while, of course, accrued interest was taken into account. Redemption payments were a heavy burden on the peasant farms. The value of the purchased land significantly exceeded its market price. During the redemption operation, the government also tried to get back the huge sums that were provided to the landowners in the pre-reform years on the security of land. If the estate was mortgaged, then the amount of the debt was deducted from the amounts provided to the landowner. The landlords received only a small part of the redemption amount in cash, and special interest tickets were issued for the rest.
It should be borne in mind that in modern historical literature, issues related to the implementation of the reform have not been fully developed. There are different points of view on the degree of transformation in the course of the reform of the system of peasant allotments and payments (at present, these studies are being carried out on a large scale using computers).
The reform of 1861 in the inner provinces was followed by the abolition of serfdom on the outskirts of the empire - in Georgia (1864-1871), Armenia and Azerbaijan (1870-1883), which was often carried out with even less consistency and with greater preservation of feudal vestiges. Specific peasants (belonging to the royal family) received personal freedom on the basis of decrees of 1858 and 1859. “Regulations June 26, 1863.” the land arrangement and conditions for the transition to redemption in the specific village were determined, which was carried out during 1863-1865. In 1866, a reform was carried out in the state village. The redemption of land by state peasants was completed only in 1886.
Thus, the peasant reforms in Russia actually abolished serfdom and marked the beginning of the development of the capitalist formation in Russia. However, while retaining landownership and feudal remnants in the countryside, they were unable to resolve all the contradictions, which ultimately led to further aggravation of the class struggle.
The response of the peasantry to the publication of the "Manifesto" was a massive explosion of discontent in the spring of 1861. The peasants protested against the preservation of corvée and the payment of dues, cuts of land. The peasant movement acquired a particularly large scale in the Volga region, in the Ukraine and in the central black earth provinces.
Russian society was shocked by the events in the villages of Bezdna (Kazan province) and Kandeevka (Penza province), which took place in April 1863. The peasants, outraged by the reform, were shot there by military teams. In total, in 1861, more than 1,100 peasant unrest took place. Only by drowning the demonstrations in blood did the government manage to bring down the intensity of the struggle. Disunited, spontaneous and devoid of political consciousness, the protest of the peasants was doomed to failure. Already in 1862-1863. the range of motion has been significantly reduced. In the following years, it declined sharply (in 1864 there were less than 100 performances).
In 1861-1863. during the period of exacerbation of the class struggle in the countryside, the activity of democratic forces in the country intensified. After the suppression of peasant uprisings, the government, feeling more confident, attacked the democratic camp with repressions.
Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.
The peasant reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, marked the beginning of the capitalist formation in the country.
main reason Peasant reform was the crisis of the feudal-serf system. Crimean War 1853–1856 discovered the rottenness and impotence of serf Russia. In the situation of peasant unrest, especially intensified during the war, tsarism went to the abolition of serfdom.
In January 1857 A secret committee was formed under the chairmanship of Emperor Alexander II "to discuss measures to arrange the life of the landlord peasants", which at the beginning of 1858. was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. At the same time, provincial committees were formed, which were engaged in the development of draft peasant reforms, considered by the Editorial Commissions.
February 19, 1861 in St. Petersburg, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", consisting of 17 legislative acts.
The main act - "The General Regulations on Peasants Who Have Emerged from Serfdom" - contained the main conditions for the peasant reform:
1. peasants received personal freedom and the right to dispose of their property;
2. The landowners retained ownership of all the lands belonging to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with "estate settlement" and a field allotment for use "to ensure their life and to fulfill their duties to the government and the landowner";
3. peasants for the use of allotment land had to serve corvee or pay dues and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years. The size of the field allotment and duties had to be fixed in charter letters of 1861, which were drawn up by the landowners for each estate and checked by peace mediators;
- the peasants were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field plot, before this they were called temporarily liable peasants.
The "general provision" determined the structure, rights and obligations of the bodies of peasant public (village and volost) administration and courts.
Four "Local Regulations" determined the size of land allotments and duties of peasants for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. The first of them is "Great Russian", for 29 Great Russian, 3 Novorossiysk (Ekaterinoslav, Tauride and Kherson), 2 Belarusian (Mogilev and part of Vitebsk) and parts of Kharkov provinces. All this territory was divided into three bands (non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe), each of which consisted of "localities".
In the first two bands, depending on the "locality", the highest (from 3 to 7 acres; from 2 from 3/4 to 6 acres) and the lowest (1/3 of the highest) sizes of soul taxes were established. For the steppe, one "decree" allotment was determined (in the Great Russian provinces from 6 to 12 acres; in Novorossiysk, from 3 to 6 1/5 acres). The size of the state tithe was determined to be 1.09 hectares.
Allotment land was provided to the "rural society", i.e. community, according to the number of souls (only male) by the time the charters were drawn up, who had the right to put on.
From the land that was in the use of the peasants before February 19, 1861, cuts could be made if the per capita allotments of the peasants exceeded the highest size established for this "locality", or if the landowners, while maintaining the existing peasant allotment, had less than 1/3 of the land of the estate. Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landlords, as well as upon receipt of a donation.
If the peasants had plots of less than the lowest size in use, the landowner was obliged to cut the missing land or reduce duties. For the highest spiritual allotment, a quitrent was set from 8 to 12 rubles per year or corvée - 40 male and 30 female working days per year. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties decreased, but not proportionally.
The rest of the "Local provisions" basically repeated the "Great Russian", but taking into account the specifics of their regions.
Features of the peasant reform for certain categories of peasants and specific areas were determined by 8 "Additional rules": "Arrangement of peasants settled in the estates of small landowners, and on benefits to these owners"; "People assigned to private mining plants of the department of the Ministry of Finance"; "Peasants and workers serving work at Perm private mining plants and salt mines"; "Peasants serving work in the landowner's factories"; "Peasants and yard people in the Land of the Don Cossacks"; "Peasants and yard people in the Stavropol province"; "Peasants and yard people in Siberia"; "Olyudyakh, who came out of serfdom in the Bessarabian region".
The Manifesto and "Regulations" were promulgated on March 5 in Moscow and from March 7 to April 2 in St. Petersburg. Fearing the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the conditions of the reform, the government took a number of precautionary measures: it redeployed troops, sent members of the imperial retinue to the places, issued an appeal by the Synod, and so on. However, the peasants, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky and Kandeevsky performances of the peasants in 1861.
On January 1, 1863, the peasants refused to sign about 60% of the letters. The purchase price of the land significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in some areas -
2-3 times. In many districts, peasants sought to receive donation plots, thereby reducing allotment land use: in Saratov province by 42.4%, Samara province by 41.3%, Poltava province by 37.4%, Yekaterinoslav province by 37.3%, etc. The lands cut off by the landlords were a means of enslaving the peasants, since they were vital to the peasant economy: watering, pasture, haymaking, etc.
The transition of the peasants to ransom lasted for several decades, on December 28, 1881. a law on compulsory redemption was issued on January 1, 1883, the transfer to which was completed by 1895. In total, by January 1, 1895, 124,000 redemption transactions were approved, according to which 9,159 thousand souls in areas with communal farming and 110,000 households in areas with household farming were transferred to the redemption. About 80% of buyout transactions were mandatory.
As a result of the peasant reform (according to the information of 1878) in the provinces of European Russia, 9860 thousand souls of peasants received 33728 thousand acres of land (an average of 3.4 acres per capita). U115 thousand landlords left 69 million dessiatines (an average of 600 dessiatins per owner).
What did these "average" indicators look like after 3.5 decades? The political and economic power of the tsar rested on the nobles and landowners. According to the 1897 census in Russia there were 1 million 220 thousand hereditary nobles and more than 600 thousand personal nobles, to whom the noble title was given, but not inherited. All of them were landowners.
Of these: about 60 thousand - small estate nobles, had 100 acres each; 25.5 thousand - average local, had from 100 to 500 acres; 8 thousand large nobles who had from 500 to 1000 acres: 6.5 thousand - the largest nobles who had from 1000 to 5000 acres.
At the same time, there were 102 families in Russia: the princes Yusupovs, Golitsyns, Dolgorukovs, counts Bobrinskys, Orlovs, and others, whose possessions amounted to more than 50 thousand acres, that is, about 30% of the landed estates of Russia.
The largest owner in Russia was Tsar Nicholas I. He owned vast tracts of so-called cabinet and specific lands. Gold, silver, lead, copper, timber were mined there. He leased out much of the land. The property of the king was managed by a special ministry of the imperial court.
Filling out the questionnaire for the census, Nicholas II wrote in the column about the profession: "The owner of the Russian land."
As for the peasants, the average allotment of a peasant family, according to the census, was 7.5 acres.
The significance of the peasant reform of 1861 was that it abolished feudal ownership of workers and created a market for cheap labor. The peasants were declared personally free, that is, they had the right to buy land and houses in their name, to conclude various transactions. The reform was based on the principle of gradualness: within two years, statutory letters were to be drawn up that determined the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants, then the peasants were transferred to the position of "temporarily liable" until the transition to redemption and in the subsequent 49-year period, paying the debt to the state that bought the land for the peasants from the landowners. Only after that the land allotments should become the full property of the peasants.
For the liberation of the peasants from serfdom, Emperor Alexander II was called by the people the "LIBERATOR". Judge for yourself what was more here - truth or hypocrisy? It should be noted that out of the total number of peasant unrest that occurred throughout the country in 1857-1861, 1340 out of 2165 (62%) speeches occurred after the announcement of the 1861 reform.
Thus, the peasant reform of 1861. was a bourgeois reform carried out by the feudal lords. This was a step towards the transformation of Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. However, the peasant reform did not resolve the socio-economic contradictions in Russia, retained landownership and a number of other feudal-serf remnants, led to a further aggravation of the class struggle, and served as one of the main causes of the social explosion of 1905–1907. XX century.
Crimean War (Eastern War), Russia's war with a coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East. By the middle of the 19th century. Great Britain and France forced Russia out of the Middle East markets and subjugated Turkey to their influence. Emperor Nicholas I unsuccessfully tried to negotiate with Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore lost positions by direct pressure on Turkey. Great Britain and France contributed to the aggravation of the conflict, hoping to weaken Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus and other territories from it. The pretext for war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in 1852 over the possession of "holy places" in Palestine. In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Ambassador Extraordinary A. S. Menshikov to Constantinople, who demanded in an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan be placed under the special protection of the Russian Tsar. The tsarist government counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible.
However, the British Prime Minister J. Palmerston, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia. In May 1853, the Turkish government rejected the Russian ultimatum, and Russia severed diplomatic relations with Turkey. With the consent of Turkey, an Anglo-French squadron entered the Dardanelles. On June 21 (July 3), Russian troops entered the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish Sultan. Supported by Great Britain and France, on September 27 (October 9) the Sultan demanded the cleansing of the principalities, and on October 4 (16), 1853 declared war on Russia.
Against 82 thousand. army of General M. D. Gorchakov on the Danube, Turkey put forward almost 150 thousand. the army of Omer Pasha, but the attacks of the Turkish troops at Chetati, Zhurzhi and Calaras were repulsed. Russian artillery destroyed the Turkish Danube flotilla. In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army of Abdi Pasha (about 100 thousand people) was opposed by the weak garrisons of Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Alexandropol and Erivan (about 5 thousand), since the main forces of the Russian troops were busy fighting the highlanders (see the Caucasian War of 1817 -64). An infantry division (16 thousand) was hastily transferred from the Crimea by sea and 10 thousand were formed. Armenian-Georgian militia, which made it possible to concentrate 30 thousand troops under the command of General V. O. Bebutov. The main forces of the Turks (about 40 thousand) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardagan detachment (18 thousand) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was repulsed, and on November 14 (26) defeated near Akhaltsikhe 7 thousand. detachment of General I. M. Andronnikov. On November 19 (December 1), Bebutov's troops (10 thousand) defeated the main Turkish forces (36 thousand) at Bashkadiklar.
The Russian Black Sea Fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports. On November 18 (30), a squadron under the command of Vice-Admiral P. S. Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish Black Sea Fleet in the Battle of Sinop in 1853. Turkey's defeats hastened the entry into the war of Great Britain and France. On December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea. On February 9 (21) Russia declared war on Great Britain and France. On March 11 (23), 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Brailov, Galats and Izmail and concentrated in Northern Dobruja. On April 10 (22), the Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa. In June - July, the Anglo-French troops landed in Varna, and the superior forces of the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet (34 battleships and 55 frigates, including most of the steam ones) blocked the Russian fleet (14 battleships, 6 frigates and 6 steamships). frigates) in Sevastopol. Russia was significantly inferior to Western European countries in the field of military equipment. Its fleet consisted mainly of obsolete sailing ships, the army was armed mainly with flintlock short-range shotguns, while the allies were armed with rifles. The threat of intervention in the war on the side of the anti-Russian coalition of Austria, Prussia and Sweden forced Russia to keep the main forces of the army on the western borders.
On the Danube, Russian troops besieged the fortress of Silistria on May 5 (17), but in view of the hostile position of Austria, on June 9 (21), the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal I.F. Paskevich, ordered a retreat beyond the Danube. In early July, 3 French divisions moved from Varna to cover the Russian troops, but the cholera epidemic forced them to return. By September 1854, Russian troops retreated beyond the river. Prut and the principalities were occupied by Austrian troops.
In the Baltic Sea, the Anglo-French squadrons of Vice Admiral C. Napier and Vice Admiral A. F. Parseval-Deschen (11 screw and 15 sailing ships of the line, 32 steam-frigates and 7 sailing frigates) blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing linear ships ships, 9 steam-frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg. Not daring to attack these bases because of the Russian minefields, first used in combat, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. July 26 (August 7), 1854 11 thousand. Anglo-French troops landed on the Åland Islands and laid siege to Bomarzund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landing forces (in Ekenes, Ganges, Gamlakarleby and Abo) ended in failure. In the autumn of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea. On the White Sea, English ships in 1854 bombarded Kola and the Solovetsky Monastery, but the attempt to attack Arkhangelsk failed. On August 18–24 (August 30–September 5), 1854, the garrison of Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka, under the command of Major General V. S. Zavoyko, repulsed the attack of the Anglo-French squadron, defeating the landing force (see Peter and Paul Defense of 1854).
In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army under the command of Mustafa Zarif Pasha was reinforced to 120 thousand people and in May 1854 went on the offensive against 40 thousand. Russian Corps Bebutov. June 4(16), 34 thousand. The Batumi Turkish detachment was defeated in the battle on the river. Chorokh 13 thousand Andronnikov’s detachment, and on July 17 (29) Russian troops (3.5 thousand) defeated 20 thousand in a meeting battle at Chingilsky Pass. The Bayazet detachment and on July 19 (31) occupied Bayazet. Bebutov's main forces (18,000) were delayed by the invasion of Eastern Georgia by Shamil's detachments and went over to the offensive only in July. At the same time, the main Turkish forces (60 thousand) moved to Alexandropol. On July 24 (August 5), at Kyuruk-Dara, the Turkish army was defeated and ceased to exist as an active fighting force.
On September 2 (14), 1854, the allied fleet began landing near Evpatoria with 62,000 troops. Anglo-French-Turkish army. Russian troops in the Crimea under the command of Menshikov (33.6 thousand) were defeated on the river. Alma and retreated to Sevastopol, and then to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol to its fate. At the same time, Marshal A. St. Arnaud and General F. J. Raglan, who were in command of the allied army, did not dare to attack the northern side of Sevastopol, undertook a roundabout maneuver and, having missed Menshikov’s troops on the march, approached Sevastopol from the south 18 thousand sailors and soldiers at the head with Vice-Admiral V. A. Kornilov and P. S. Nakhimov, they took up defense, deploying the construction of fortifications with the help of the population. To protect the approaches from the sea at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, several old ships were flooded, the teams and guns from which were sent to the fortifications. The 349-day heroic Sevastopol defense of 1854-55 began.
The first bombing of Sevastopol on October 5 (17) did not reach the goal, which forced Raglan and General F. Canrobert (who replaced the deceased Saint-Arno) to postpone the assault. Menshikov, having received reinforcements, tried to attack the enemy from the rear in October, but in the Balaklava battle of 1854 success was not developed, and in the Inkerman battle of 1854 the Russian troops were defeated.
In 1854 in Vienna, with the mediation of Austria, diplomatic negotiations were held between the belligerents. Great Britain and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (i.e., deprivation of Russia access to its mouths). On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with Great Britain and France. December 28 (January 9, 1855) opened a conference of ambassadors of Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia, but the negotiations did not produce results and in April 1855 were interrupted.
On January 14 (26), 1855, Sardinia entered the war, which sent 15,000 troops to the Crimea. frame. 35,000 people concentrated in Evpatoria. Turkish corps of Omer Pasha. February 5 (17), 19 thousand. the detachment of General S. A. Khrulev tried to capture Evpatoria, but the assault was repulsed. Menshikov was replaced by General M. D. Gorchakov.
On March 28 (April 9), the 2nd bombardment of Sevastopol began, which revealed the overwhelming superiority of the allies in the amount of ammunition. But the heroic resistance of the defenders of Sevastopol forced the allies to postpone the assault again. Canrobert was replaced by General J. Pélissier, a supporter of action. May 12 (24) 16 thousand. French corps landed in Kerch. Allied ships devastated the Azov coast, but their landings near Arabat, Genichesk and Taganrog were repelled. In May, the Allies carried out the 3rd bombardment of Sevastopol and drove the Russian troops out of the advanced fortifications. On June 6 (18), after the 4th bombardment, an assault was made on the bastions of the Ship Side, but it was repulsed. On August 4 (16), Russian troops attacked the Allied positions on the river. Black, but were discarded. Pelissier and General Simpson (who replaced the deceased Raglan) carried out the 5th bombardment, and on August 27 (September 8), after the 6th bombardment, began a general assault on Sevastopol. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, Russian troops left the city on the evening of August 27 and crossed to the North side. The rest of the ships were sunk.
In the Baltic in 1855, the Anglo-French fleet under the command of Admiral R. Dundas and C. Peno limited itself to blockading the coast and bombarding Sveaborg and other cities. On the Black Sea, the Allies landed troops in Novorossiysk and occupied Kinburn. On the Pacific coast, the Allied landing at De-Kastri Bay was repelled.
In the Transcaucasus, the corps of General N. N. Muravyov (about 40 thousand) in the spring of 1855 pushed the Bayazet and Ardagan Turkish detachments to Erzurum and blocked 33 thousand. Kars garrison. To save Kars, the Allies landed 45,000 troops in Sukhum. corps of Omer Pasha, but he met on October 23-25 (November 4-6) on the river. Inguri, the stubborn resistance of the Russian detachment of General I.K. Bagration-Mukhransky, who then stopped the enemy on the river. Tskhenistskali. In the Turkish rear, a partisan movement of the Georgian and Abkhaz population unfolded. On November 16 (28) the garrison of Kars capitulated. Omer Pasha withdrew to Sukhum, from where he was evacuated to Turkey in February 1856.
At the end of 1855 hostilities actually ceased, and negotiations resumed in Vienna. Russia did not have trained reserves, there was not enough weapons, ammunition, food, financial resources, the anti-serfdom peasant movement grew, which intensified in connection with the massive recruitment into the militia, and the liberal-noble opposition became more active. The position of Sweden, Prussia and especially Austria, which threatened war, became more and more hostile. In this situation, tsarism was forced to make concessions. On March 18 (30), the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was signed, according to which Russia agreed to the neutralization of the Black Sea with a ban on having a navy and bases there, ceded the southern part of Bessarabia to Turkey, pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands and recognized the protectorate of the great powers over Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia. The Crimean War was unfair and predatory on both sides.
The Crimean War was an important stage in the development of military art. After it, all armies were re-equipped with rifled weapons and the sailing fleet was replaced by steam. In the course of the war, the inconsistency of the tactics of the columns was revealed, the tactics of rifle chains and elements of positional warfare were developed. The experience of the Crimean War was used in the military reforms of the 1860s and 70s. in Russia and was widely used in the wars of the second half of the 19th century.
(the material was prepared on the basis of fundamental works
Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov,
V.O.Klyuchevsky, S.M.Soloviev, and others...)
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