The modern chronology system dates back just over two thousand years after the birth of Jesus Christ and several hundred centuries before this event. However, before the advent of Christian chronology, different nations had their own ways of measuring time. Slavic tribes are no exception. Long before the rise of Christianity, they had their own calendar.

Origin of the word "calendar"

According to the official version, the term “calendar” comes from Latin. In ancient Rome, debt interest was paid on the first day of each month, and data about them was recorded in a debt book called calendarium. Later, it was from the title of the book that the word “calendar” came, which came to the Slavs with Christianity.

Some scientists believe that this term comes from the phrase “Kolyadin Dar” (gift of Kolyada), which was used to refer to chronology. Researchers consider a Slavic origin to be quite possible. Some of them are sure that the Romans borrowed the word “calendar” from the Slavs, and not vice versa. Judge for yourself: there is no translation of the word calendarium, as well as an explanation of how it is connected with debts and books. After all, in Latin debt is debitum, and book is libellus.

Calculation from the Nativity of Christ

Today our era from the birth of Christ is more than 2000 years old. However, the tradition of counting years this way has been used for about a thousand years, because even with the recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, years continued to be counted from important worldly dates. For the Romans, this was the year of the founding of Rome, for the Jews - the year of the destruction of Jerusalem, for the Slavs - the year of the creation of the world in the Star Temple.

But one day the Roman monk Dionysius, while compiling Easter tables, became confused among various chronology systems. Then he came up with a universal system, the starting point of which would be the year of Christ’s birth. Dionysius calculated the approximate date of this event and henceforth used the chronology called “from the Nativity of Christ.”

This system became widespread 200 years later thanks to the monk Bede the Venerable, who used it in his historical work on the Anglo-Sanson tribes. Thanks to this book, the British nobility gradually switched to the Christian calendar, and after it the Europeans did so. But it took church authorities another 200 years to start using the Christian chronology system.

The transition to Christian chronology among the Slavs

In the Russian Empire, which at that time included many of the original Slavic lands of Belarus, Poland, Ukraine and other countries, the transition to the Christian calendar occurred from January 1, 1700 to Many believe that Tsar Peter hated and tried to eradicate everything Slavic, including the calendar, therefore introduced the Christian system of counting time. However, it is most likely that the king was simply trying to put such a confusing chronology in order. Slavic hostility most likely does not play a role here.

The fact is that with the advent of Christianity to the Slavs, the priests actively tried to convert the pagans to the Roman calendar. The people resisted and secretly adhered to the old calendar. Therefore, in Rus' there were actually 2 calendars: Roman and Slavic.

However, confusion soon began in the chronicles. After all, Greek chroniclers used the Roman calendar, and students of the monasteries of Kievan Rus used the Slavic calendar. Moreover, both calendars differed from the Dionysian calendar accepted in Europe. To solve this problem, Peter I ordered the forced transfer of the entire empire under his control to a chronology system dating from the Nativity of Christ. As practice has shown, it was also imperfect and in 1918 the country was transferred to a modern accounting

Sources of information about the ancient Slavic calendar

Today there is no reliable data about what the real ancient Slavic calendar looked like. The now popular “Circle of Chislobog” was reconstructed on the basis of information from various historical sources of later periods. When reconstructing the ancient Slavic calendar, the following sources were used:

• East Slavic folk ritual calendar. Written evidence about it dates back to the 17th-18th centuries. Despite such a “young” age, this calendar has preserved a lot of information about the life of the Slavs during the times of pagan Rus'.
• Church calendar "Monthly". In the process of Christianization of Rus', church authorities often celebrated Christian holidays on important pagan holidays. By comparing the dates of holidays from the Monthly Book with dates from other calendars, as well as from folklore sources, it is possible to calculate the time of important ancient Slavic holidays.
• In the 19th century, about 400 gold plates with inscriptions were found on the site of the Vedic temple in Romania, later called “Santii Dacov”. Some of them are over 2000 years old. This find not only indicates the presence of writing among the ancient Slavs, but is also a source of information about the eras of ancient Slavic history.
• Chronicles.
• Archaeological finds. Most often these are ritual ones depicting calendar symbols. The most informative are the clay vases of the Chernyakhov Slavic culture (III-IV centuries AD).

Epochs of the ancient Slavs

According to the information contained in the “Santii Dacov”, the history of the ancient Slavs dates back to 14 eras. The most important event that served as the starting point for the calendar was the convergence of the Solar and two other planetary systems, as a result of which earthlings observed three suns in the sky at once. This era was called the “Time of Three Suns” and was dated to the year 604,387 (relative to 2016).

• In 460,531, aliens from the constellation Ursa Minor arrived on Earth. They were called Da'Aryans, and this era was called the “Time of Gifts.”
• In 273,910, aliens arrived on Earth again, but this time from the constellation Orion. They were called Kh'Aryans, and in their honor the era is called "The Time of Kh'Arr."
• In 211,699, the next visit of alien beings took place, marking the beginning of the “Time of Swag.”
• In 185,779, the rise of one of the four most important cities of the continent of Daaria - Thule - began. This city was famous for its skilled craftsmen and flourished for almost 20,000 years. This period of time was called "Thule Time".
• In 165,043, Perun’s daughter, the goddess Tara, brought the Slavs many seeds, from which numerous forests subsequently grew - this is how the “Time of Tara” began.
• In 153,349, a grandiose war between Light and Darkness took place. As a result, one of Lutitium's satellites was destroyed, and its fragments became a ring of asteroids - this is the era of "Assa Dei".
• In 143,003, earthlings, with the help of scientific achievements, were able to drag a satellite from another planet, and the Earth, which at that time already had two satellites, now had three. In honor of this significant event, the new era is called the “Three Moon Period.”
• In 111,819, one of the three moons was destroyed and its fragments fell to Earth, drowning the ancient continent of Daaria. However, its inhabitants escaped - the era of the “Great Migration from Daariya” began.
• In 106,791, the city of the Gods, Asgard of Iria, was founded on the Irtysh River, and the new chronology system was based on the year of its foundation.
• In 44,560, all Slavic-Aryan clans united to live together in the same territory. From this moment on, the era of the “Creation of the Great Colo of Russia” began.
• In 40,017, Perun arrived on Earth and shared his knowledge with the priests, which is why there was a tremendous leap in the development of human technology. Thus began the era of the “Third Arrival of Vaitmana Perun”.
• In 13,021, another Earth satellite was destroyed and its fragments, falling on the planet, affected the tilt of the axis. As a result, the continents split and icing began, called the era of the “Great Cooling” (Cold). By the way, in terms of time, this period coincides with the last ice age of the Cenozoic era.

Modern humanity lives in an era that began counting years from the creation of the world in the Star Temple. The age of this era today is more than 7.5 thousand years.

St. George the Victorious and the era of the creation of the world in the Star Temple

As you know, the word “peace” has several meanings. Thus, the name of the modern era is often interpreted as the time of the creation of the Universe. However, “peace” also means reconciliation between warring parties. In this regard, the title “Creation of the World in the Star Temple” has a completely different interpretation.

Shortly before the first year “from the Creation of the World in the Star Temple” was celebrated, a war broke out between the Slavic tribes and the Chinese. With huge losses, the Slavs managed to win, and on the day of the autumn equinox, peace was concluded between the two peoples. To mark this important event, it was made the starting point of a new era. Subsequently, in many works of art, this victory was allegorically depicted in the form of a knight (Slavs) and a slaying dragon (Chinese).

This symbol was so popular that with the advent of Christianity it could not be eradicated. Since the time of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise, the knight who defeated the dragon began to be officially called George (Yuri) the Victorious. Its significance for the Slavs is also evidenced by the fact that the cult of St. George the Victorious was very widespread among all Slavic tribes. In addition, at different times, Kyiv, Moscow, and many other ancient Slavic cities depicted this saint on the coat of arms. Interestingly, the story of St. George is popular not only among Orthodox and Catholics, but also among Muslims.

The structure of the ancient Slavic calendar

The ancient Slavic calendar calls one full revolution of the Earth around the Sun not a year, but a summer. It consists of three seasons: autumn (autumn), winter and spring. Each season included 3 months of 40-41 days each. A week in those days consisted of 9 days, and a day consisted of 16 hours. The Slavs did not have minutes and seconds, but they had parts, shares, moments, blinks, whitefish and centigs. It is difficult to even imagine what level the technology must have been if names existed for such short periods of time.

Years in this system were measured not in decades and centuries, as they are today, but in 144-year cycles: 16 years for each of the 9 constellations of the Svarog Circle.

Each ordinary year from the creation of the world consisted of 365 days. But the leap year 16 had as many as 369 days (each month in it consisted of 41 days).

New Year among the ancient Slavs

Unlike the modern calendar, in which the New Year begins in the middle of winter, the Slavic calendar considered autumn to be the beginning of the year. Although the opinions of historians differ on this issue. Most scientists believe that the New Year was originally on the day of the autumn equinox, which helped the Slavs more accurately adjust the calendar from the creation of the world in the Star Temple. However, according to Byzantine tradition, they tried to move the beginning of the new year to the first month of spring. As a result, not only two calendars existed in parallel, but also two traditions of celebrating the New Year: in March (like the Romans) and in September (like in Byzantium and the Slavs).

Months among the ancient Slavs

The first month of the ancient Slavic nine-month calendar was called Ramhat (beginning September 20–23), followed by the winter months Aylet (October 31–November 3), Baylet (December 10–13), and Geilet (January 20–23).

The spring months were called Daylet (March 1-4), Eilet (April 11-14) and Veilet (May 21-24). Afterwards, autumn began, consisting of the months of Haylet (July 1-4) and Tailet (August 10-13). And the next, autumn month of Ramhat was the beginning of the New Year.

With the adoption of Christianity instead of Roman ones, they gave Slavic names to the months. With the establishment of a new calendar by Peter I, the Latin names were returned to the months. They remained in the modern Russian language, while the fraternal peoples retained or returned the usual Slavic names of the months.

It is not known for certain what they were called with the advent of Christianity before the reform of Peter I, however, there are several options reconstructed thanks to the folklore of various Slavic peoples.

Week among the Slavs

The question of the number of days in a week before the reform of Peter I remains controversial to this day. Many claim that there were 7 of them - hence the preserved names in all

However, if you think about the words from “The Little Humpbacked Horse”, it becomes surprising how the text of 1834 mentions such a day of the week as “octagon”, which precedes another day - “week”.

It turns out that the memories of a nine-day week remained in the memory of the Slavs, which means that initially there were only 9 days.

How to calculate the year according to the ancient Slavic calendar?

Today, many Slavs are trying to return to the traditions of their ancestors, including their calendar.

But the modern world, living according to the Christian calendar, requires a person to be able to navigate this system of counting years. Therefore, everyone who uses the Slavic chronology (from the creation of the world) should know how to convert years from it to the Christian system. Despite the obvious differences between both chronology systems, this is easy to do. You need to add the number 5508 to any date in the Christian calendar (the difference in years between the systems) and it will be possible to convert the date to the Slavic chronology. What year it is now according to this system can be determined by the following formula: 2016 + 5508 = 7525. However, it is worth considering that the modern year begins in January, and for the Slavs - from September, so for more accurate calculations you can use an online calculator.

More than three hundred years have passed since the inhabitants of the Russian Empire stopped using the Slavic calendar. Despite its accuracy, today it is only history, but it should be remembered, since it not only included the wisdom of the ancestors, but was also part of the Slavic culture, which, despite the opinion of Peter I, was not only not inferior to European, but also was superior to her in some things.

We need to remember our history and follow our own path.

Currently, we use dating years from the birth of Christ and the Gregorian calendar.

The Julian calendar, the so-called “old style”, has not been forgotten either. Every year in January we remember him when we celebrate the “old” New Year. Also, the media carefully reminds us of the change of years according to the Chinese, Japanese, Thai and other calendars.

Of course, it broadens our horizons. Let's broaden our horizons.

But, to make our horizons even broader, let’s touch on the ancient tradition of calculating the chronology of the Slavic peoples - the Daarian Circle of Chislobog, according to which our Ancestors lived not so long ago.

Nowadays, this calendar is used only by Old Believers - representatives of the most ancient Slavic-Aryan Faith - Ingliism.

The widespread use of our ancient calendar ceased a little over 300 years ago, when Tsar Peter 1, by his Decree, introduced a foreign calendar into the territory of Rus' and ordered to celebrate the advent of 1700 years from the birth of Jesus Christ on the night of January 1. The calendar reform stole (at least) 5500 years of our stories.

And in Rus' at that time it was Summer 7208 from the Creation of the World in the Star Temple.

But it is not said at all that the emperor not only changed the calendar, he actually “stole” it, at a minimum (!). five and a half thousand years of our true history.

After all, the event from which the years were counted - the Creation of the World in the Star Temple (5508 BC) did not mean the creation of the universe by the biblical god, but literally; the signing of a peace treaty in the year of the Star Temple according to the Circle of Chislobog after the victory of the Power of the Great Race (in the modern sense - Russia) over the Empire of the Great Dragon (in the modern sense - China).

By the way, the symbolic image of a rider on a white horse slaying a dragon with a spear, known in Christian tradition as St. George the Victorious, actually symbolizes precisely this victory.

That is why this symbol has long been so widespread and revered in Rus' among the Slavic-Aryan peoples.

From what events was chronology based?

A natural question arises: from what event was the chronology until the Creation of the World in the Star Temple?

The answer is obvious - from an earlier significant event.

Moreover, years from different events could be counted in parallel. This is exactly how the ancient chronicles began with the mention of several time periods.

As an example, here are a few dates from RX for the current year 2016:

Summer 7524 from the Creation of the World in the Star Temple

Summer 13024 from the Great Cooling

Summer 44560 from the Creation of the Great Colo of Russia

Summer 106794 from the Founding of Asgard of Iria

Summer 111822 from the Great Migration from Daariya

Summer 143006 from the period of Three Moons

Summer 153382 from Assa Dei

Summer 185782 from Thule Time

Summer 604390 from the Time of Three Suns, etc.

Obviously, in the context of modern “official” chronology, these dates look simply fantastic,

But for an independently thinking person who is interested in the ancient cultural heritage of the peoples of the Earth, such “chasms of years” do not look so frightening.

After all, not only in the Slavic-Aryan Vedas, but also in quite numerous written monuments that have reached us throughout the Earth, much longer periods of historical time are mentioned,

Unbiased archaeological and paleo-astronomical studies also point to these same facts.

It will also be very interesting to remember that in pre-Petrine times in Rus', not numbers were used to designate numerical quantities, as is now customary, but titular initial letters, i.e. Slavic letters with service symbols.

What did Cyril and Methodius “fix”?

And since the calendar is a written tradition (try orally leading and transmitting such a complex and dynamic array of information from generation to generation), it is obvious that before the time of Peter I, writing already existed in Rus' for at least (!) seven centuries. more than a thousand years.

However, it is believed that writing was “invented” especially for us “illiterates” by two Greek monks Cyril and Methodius, who only added a few Greek letters to our alphabet instead of diphthongs they did not understand.

And, modestly speaking, the ever-increasing pompousness during the annual “Cyril and Methodius celebrations” and “birthdays” of “Slavic” writing is surprising. At present, since we use the modern calendar (from A.D.), it would be more correct to use it only for events of the last three hundred years.

And more ancient events, for a clear understanding of their essence, must be dated in the chronology system that was used before 1700. Otherwise, a misinterpretation of our history, culture, traditions and customs is possible.

The dating of pre-Petrine events in modern textbooks is sincerely regrettable.

For example, the year of the Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipus is called 1242, and at that time in Rus' it was 6750.

Or, for example, the year of baptism of Kyiv is considered to be 988 from the birth of Jesus Christ.

But in Kyiv they celebrated the Summer of 6496 from the Creation of the World in the Star Temple.

Brothers and sisters, let's remember our past, look for it, if evil minds are hiding it from us on purpose.

The Slavs are a great race.

At the First Ecumenical Council of Nicea in 325, the rule was established: to celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the first spring full moon, and The celebration of the beginning of the church year will be moved to September 1, instead of March 1. The First Ecumenical Council (Σύνοδος) took place in the city of Nicaea under the Byzantine Emperor Constantine the Great. At the First Council of Nicaea in 325, 318 bishops were present, among them were: St. Athanasius the Great, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, James Bishop of Nizibia, Spyridon of Trimythous.

The counting of time used in Byzantium refers to the date Creation of the world by September 1, 5508 before our calendar (i.e. before the Nativity of Christ, or BC), therefore September 1 was celebrated in the Byzantine Empire as the beginning of the year. The Byzantine era was adopted by the Greeks in the 7th century.

In the 10th century Having adopted Christianity and the Byzantine chronology from the Creation of the world, Ancient Rus' preserved the pre-Christian the spring celebration of the New Year is on March 1, and not on September 1, in the fall, as was customary in Byzantium. Before the adoption of Christianity in Rus', time was counted in spring years, and not in autumn, as was customary in Byzantium. The Old Russian system of chronology of the X-XIV centuries was carried out from the Creation of the world, and the beginning of the year was celebrated on March 1.

On coins of the X-XIV centuries, all millennium digits of the year were not indicated. For example, indicating the year 207 meant 7207 from the Creation of the world. To transfer the year 7207 to the new chronology from the “Nativity of Christ”, the number “5508” should be subtracted. Therefore, a coin dated 207 dates back to 1699.

Prince Rurik "Summer 6370"

At the turn of the 14th – 15th centuries, records about September 1 as the beginning of the year appeared in ancient Russian chronicles. From this time on, the New Year began on September 1, its celebration was preserved in Russia until the famous royal Decree of Peter I of December 20, 7208 from the Creation of the World.

Tsarist Russia traded with many European countries, and in all trade agreements and contracts with Europeans it had to indicate dates according to the Gregorian calendar, while in Russia the Julian calendar was still in effect, adopted by the Decree of Tsar Peter I of December 20, 7208 from the Creation world, introducing chronology from the Nativity of Christ. Peter's decree was called: “ About the writing henceforth of Genvar from the 1st day of 1700 in all papers of the year from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world.” The decree of Tsar Peter I ended with a prudent clause: “And if anyone wants to write both those years, from the Creation of the world and from the Nativity of Christ, freely in a row.”

According to the Decree of Tsar Peter I from December 20, 7208 From the Creation of the world, the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia, counting from the Nativity of Christ. In order to switch to a new calendar with chronology “from the Nativity of Christ” it followed in the old calendar from the “creation of the world” from 7208 years subtract 5508 years.

The Decree of Peter I prescribed that after December 31, 7208 from the Creation of the world, January 1, 1700 from the Nativity of Christ would come, “from the birth of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ.”

By decree of Peter I Russia switched to the Julian calendar in 1700 , who considered the solar or astronomical year to be 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds long and New Year from January 1st. Russia's adoption of the Julian calendar greatly facilitated trade, cultural and scientific ties with Europe, although many European countries had already adopted the Gregorian calendar in the 16th and 17th centuries.

By his decree, Tsar Peter I ordered postpone celebration of the beginning of the year from September 1 to January 1.

The tsar’s decree ordered everyone to celebrate this event especially solemnly: “And as a sign of that good beginning and the new century, in joy, congratulate each other on the New Year... Along noble and thoroughfares, at the gates and houses, make some decorations from trees and branches of pine and spruce and junipers... to fire small cannons and rifles, fire rockets, as many as anyone has, and light fires.”

Tsar Peter I ordered the Gostiny Dvor building to be decorated with spruce and pine branches, and government officials and boyars were ordered to wear European dress for the holiday. The first Christmas tree in Moscow was also erected on New Year's Eve 1700 on Red Square; as a sign of fun, a festive New Year's fireworks display, cannon and rifle salutes were arranged for the people.

About the Scythian monk Dionysus the Less.

The adoption of a new era, counting from the birth of Christ, was proposed Pope John I ( from 523-526), on whose instructions his archivist, monk, Dionysius the Lesser (Egzegius -exiguous - small) in 525 carried out calculations of the days of celebration of Christian Easter and compiled a table of Easter calculations for 95 years.

The Scythian monk Dionysius had absolutely no information about the exact time of the birth of Jesus Christ; this date was accepted by him conditionally. Dionysius calculated the year of Christ's birth through calculations that had nothing to do with science. Dionysius did not know zeros. In 1202, Europeans were introduced to Arabic numerals and the mathematical concept of zero from the Arabs. ABOUT -

It is impossible to represent “zero” in Roman numerals. - X- 10, or LX -60, or CXX -120, and zero -?

According to the calculations of Dionysius the Lesser, Jesus Christ was born on December 25, 753 years after the founding of Rome. The Scythian monk Dionysius called the 753rd year from the founding of Rome the first year after the Nativity of Christ (Anno Domini).

Dionysius the Less recorded the dates of Easter days in the years of the era “from the birth of Christ” and in the months of the Julian calendar, universally accepted in the Roman Empire. The Paschals of Dionysus or Easter tables made it much easier for Christians to calculate the date of Easter.

Calculations Scythian monk Dionysius Small ones have been used by the Roman church since 533, when the chronology of the new era was introduced.

The Age of Dionysus is the counting of years from the Nativity of Christ. The Magi - in Greek “magicians” - came to the cradle of the born Baby Jesus Christ. In evangelical times, magicians (Magi) throughout the entire Roman Empire and the East were called, namely, Persian priests, followers , since the Greek language does not have the sound “Ш”, his name in Greek is Zoroaster - "Son of the Star". Researchers believe that Persian magicians, priests and interpreters of the holy book visited Bethlehem proto-Aryan Avesta, followers of Zoroaster.

Era of Dionysius or the chronology from the Nativity of Christ spread in Western Europe startingsince 6th century , and by the 19th century it was accepted in all Christian countries and many non-Christian countries.

2017-12-17

The year 6360 from the creation of the world, or, as is believed, the 852nd year from the Nativity of Christ, is an important date in the history of Ukrainian lands. It is from that time that we can talk about the existence of Rus'-Ukraine. In the Tale of Bygone Years, chronology is calculated from this date and it is said that since then our land began to be called the Russian land. Translated it sounds like this:

“In the year 6360, index 15, when Michael began to reign, it began to be called... Russian land. And we learned about this [from the fact] that Rus' came to this emperor at Constantinople, as [George] wrote in the Greek chronicler. That’s why we’ll start from here and put down the number.” Next comes a broad chronology: it says what important events took place from the creation of the world to the Nativity of Christ, and then from Christmas until the time of Emperor Michael III, and then we talk about which princes ruled in Rus' from the time of Michael III to Yaroslav the Wise and Svyatopolk. It indicates how many years have passed from one event to another. However, the given chronology is not exact. The article under the year 6360 ends with these words: “But we will return to the previous one and tell you what happened in these years, how we began to be before - [in] the first year [of the reign] of Michael - and we will put the numbers [of years] in order.”

First, let us pay attention to the conceptual points in the above chronicle article. It highlights the following key events in chronology - the Nativity of Christ (which is quite understandable for Christians) and the reign of Emperor Michael III, which is interpreted as the beginning of Russian history and statehood. And although the author of this article refers to the Greek chronicle, in fact, the “Chronicle” of George Amartol, he probably adhered to the generally accepted ideas of ancient Russian intellectuals that it was in these times that one should look for the “beginning of Rus'”.

BYZANTINE EMPEROR MICHAEL III AND THE FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN STATE

Why did Emperor Michael III (840-867) become a key figure in Russian history for the chronicler? Of course, Grecophile sympathies made themselves felt here. However, the times of Emperor Michael III were truly important both for Rus' and for the Slavic world in general.

During the time of Michael III, the period of the iconoclastic crisis, which lasted from 711 to 843, ended. At this time, due to internal conflicts, the empire fell into decay. Michael III, or rather his comrades, had to bring her out of this difficult state. An important role was played by the co-ruler of Emperor Bardas, as well as one of the most prominent Byzantine scientists of that time, Photius, who on December 28, 858 became the Patriarch of Constantinople.

Vardas in 849 reformed the Magnavrian school in Constantinople, founded back in 425 by Emperor Theodosius. This school was turned into a university-type institution, which was called Pandidakterion. Some consider it the first European university. In the Pandidakterion, teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin, philosophy was studied, in particular the works of Plato and Aristotle, law, medicine and rhetoric. For some time, Constantine the philosopher, who is considered one of the “apostles of the Slavs,” worked here. Over time, the Pandidakterion became a school of a religious type, where much attention was paid to theological issues.

Regarding Photius, he was known not only as a scientist. The famous German Byzantine scholar G. Ostrogorsky gives him the following description: “Photius was the most outstanding personality, the most capable and most resourceful diplomat among all who had so far been on the patriarchal throne in Constantinople.”

RUSSIAN CAMPAIGNS TO CONSTANTINOPLE

In our opinion, one point is connected with Photius, which is present in the cited chronicle article for 6360. There, in particular, it says that during the time of Michael III, Rus' came to Constantinople.

In this case there is no exact dating. However, it is known from Byzantine sources that in 860 or 861, when Emperor Michael III was on a campaign against the Arabs, the Russians surrounded the capital of Byzantium, plundered its outskirts, caused a lot of harm to the Greeks and calmly returned home with the booty. This campaign demonstrated the great military strength of the Russians and caused quite a stir both in Byzantium and beyond. To organize such a campaign, an appropriate government organization was needed. It was not for nothing that the ancient Russian chronicler associated the beginning of Rus' with this campaign. Patriarch Photius also wrote about this campaign in two of his conversations. There are mentions of it in other sources.

Obviously, this campaign forced the political elite of Byzantium to pay attention to the “Russian” and generally “Slavic” issue. Not without the sanction of Photius, at this time Constantine the philosopher finds himself on a diplomatic mission in the Northern Black Sea region. His main task was to convert the Khazars, who dominated this region, to Christianity. Constantine’s trip to the Khazars and his disputes with Jewish and Muslim clergy are mentioned in the Pannonian Life of this Slavic Apostle, as well as in other sources.

It seemed that the Khazar mission had nothing to do with Rus'. But that's not true. The Khazar Khaganate at that time was not only the largest military-political attempt in the Northern Black Sea and Azov regions, it also tried to subjugate the East Slavic tribes, in particular the Polans, to its power. Having Christianized Khazaria, the Byzantines could make it their ally, bringing it into their sphere of influence. In this case, they could, with the help of the Khazars, restrain the Russians from attacks on Byzantium.

It is difficult to say whether Constantine took any steps towards the Christianization of the Russians during the “Khazar mission”. A lack of sources makes it impossible to reproduce these events. There are both supporters and opponents of the idea that Constantine baptized the Rusyns. True, in the mentioned Pannonian Life we ​​find a message that he found in Korsun (Chersonese) a Gospel written in Russian characters. There are different opinions regarding the “real language” of this Gospel, but the reference itself is interesting. Obviously, in Chersonesus, which was the largest Christian center in the Northern Black Sea region, attempts were made to Christianize the “barbarian” population and for this purpose religious texts were translated into the local dialect.

Another point that gives certain grounds to talk about the possibility of Constantine preaching among the Russian population is the “Speech of the Philosopher,” which is located in the “Tale of Bygone Years” and is attributed specifically to this figure. True, the “Speech...” was allegedly proclaimed before Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who lived a hundred years later than Constantine. However, is this not an echo of the “old memory” that Constantine proclaimed such a sermon before some pagan prince, for example Askold, who probably led the Russian campaign against Constantinople in 860 or 861?

Apparently in the early 60s. IX Art. The Byzantines failed to Christianize the Russians and pacify them. True, at this time the Christianization of other Slavic peoples was carried out. In 863, Constantine and his brother Methodius found themselves in the Great Moravian Empire, where they Christianized the local population. At the same time (863-864), the Christianization of the Bulgarians took place.

Apparently, around 866, the Russians, at least their military elite, also accepted Christianity. Some researchers believe that the adoption of Christianity by the Russians was associated with another campaign (this time unsuccessful) against Constantinople. In the Tale of Bygone Years we read the following: “In the year 6374 Askold and Dir went to the Greeks, and came [there] in the fourteenth year... of Michael the Caesar. And the Caesar... was on a campaign against the Hagarians. And when he reached the Black River, the eparch (the ruler of Constantinople - P.K.) ... sent him the news that Rus' was going to Constantinople. And the Tsar returned. And these [Russians] entered the middle of the Court, committed the murder of many Christians and surrounded Constantinople with two hundred ships. The Caesar barely entered the garden, and with Patriarch Photius in the Church of the Holy Mother of God, which is in Blachernae, they prayed all night. And then, having carried out the divine robe of the Holy Mother of God with singing, they dipped [it] into the sea. There was silence and the sea calmed. [And here] a storm with the wind immediately arose, and again large waves arose, and the ships of godless Rus' were scattered and driven to the shore, and washed them [so] that few of them got out of such trouble and returned to themselves.”

Based on dating, if we use the Constantinople chronology system, the events described above took place in 866. Indeed, this description seemed to synthesize the description of the various campaigns of the Russians at that time.

In our opinion, it is worth talking about two large campaigns of the Russians against Byzantium in the 60-70s. IX century, as given in the Tale of Bygone Years. The first occurred in 860 or 861 and, in fact, from it the “beginning of Rus'” began. As noted, Byzantine sources also spoke about this campaign. If we use not the Constantinople system (from the creation of the world to the Nativity of Christ in 5508), but the Alexandrian system of chronology (from the creation of the world to the Nativity of Christ in 5500), which, it seems, was used by our chroniclers when recording the beginning of our history, then 6360 the year when “the Russian land began to be called” actually falls on 860. Accordingly, the campaign recorded in 6374 falls not on 866, but on 874. Moreover, from the context of the “Tale...” one can understand that fourteen years have passed since the first campaign of Rus' during the time of Michael III. It can be assumed that there were other campaigns of the Russians against Byzantium, which did not have much publicity.

CHRISTIANIZATION OF Rus' IN THE 60s. 9th century

No matter how the issue of Russian campaigns against Constantinople was resolved, we can say that in the first half or mid-60s. 9th century they (more precisely, part of them) accepted Christianity. This is confirmed by the “District Epistle” of Patriarch Photius, written and sent out at the beginning of 867. But before citing the corresponding quotation, it is worth saying a few words about the context in which this message appeared. Patriarch Photius pursued an active church policy, which objectively contributed to the independence of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Roman papal throne and in the long term led to the division of Christianity. These events were preceded by the act of consecration of Charlemagne to the imperial throne by the Pope. This took place in 800, when Byzantium was in decline, in a state of “iconoclast crisis.” This consecration led to the creation of an alternative Holy Roman Empire to Byzantium. This violated the principle that had been established in recent centuries: one empire - one Christian church. With the creation of the Holy Roman Empire, supported by the Roman throne, one way or another the Byzantine Church would have to be distanced from Rome. This is what happened after the end of the “iconoclast crisis.” During the time of Patriarch Photius, the ecclesiastical conflict between Rome and Constantinople became completely obvious. The Patriarch tried to expand the influence of the Byzantine Church. Having actually lost his position in the Eastern Mediterranean, conquered by the Arabs, Photius sought to spread the ecclesiastical influence of Constantinople to the Balkans, the Northern Black Sea region and, in particular, to the Slavic peoples. The “Khazar mission” of Constantine, the mission of Constantine and Methodius to Great Moravia, as well as the baptism of Bulgaria in 864 are somehow connected with this. This, in turn, caused dissatisfaction on the part of the Roman throne, which also claimed to Christianize these territories. Patriarch Photius, for his part, began a theological discussion with Pope Nicholas I, condemning the filioque dogma, independently recognized by the Roman Church. To this end, preparations began in Byzantium for a church council, at which it was planned to discredit Nicholas I and the “Romans.”

It was in such conditions that Photius’s “District Epistle” appeared, where a call was made for church hierarchs to come to the council in Constantinople. It is quite natural that this message talked about successes in the Christianization of the Slavic peoples. In particular, it said: “And not only this people (Bulgarians - P.K.) replaced their previous wickedness with faith in Christ, but even the so-called Russians, known for their cruelties and murders, who, having enslaved the peoples that surround them, and because of this, becoming very proud, they raised their hands against the Roman state (Byzantium - P.K.). However, now they too have replaced the Hellenic (pagan - P.K.) and ungodly teaching, which they previously adhered to, with the pure Christian faith and kindly placed themselves among our subjects and friends, stopping to rob us and fight against us. And how inflamed was their desire and zeal for faith... that they received the bishop and pastor with great zeal and zealously accepted Christian teaching.”

Not without the fact that Photius sometimes expressed wishful thinking. And yet this was not just a figment of fantasy. The fact that the Russians adopted Christianity at that time is also confirmed by Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, who wrote in the middle of the 9th century.

Based on the above facts, we will try to reconstruct the “formation of Rus'”, as well as its baptism in the middle of the 9th century. Consequently, by that time the Russians had freed themselves from Khazar dependence and a relatively strong Russian state had emerged in the Dnieper region. The period of its formation coincided with the rise of Byzantium, which experienced an “iconoclastic crisis.” In 860 or 861, the Russians carried out a successful campaign against Constantinople. This forced Byzantine diplomacy to turn its attention to Rus'. Steps were taken to bring the young state into the sphere of Byzantine religious and ideological influence. In the mid-60s. 9th century The military-political elite of Rus' adopted Christianity and thanks to this, friendly relations were established with Byzantium. However, after the assassination of Emperor Michael III in 867 and the removal of Photius from the patriarchal throne, they cooled down, or were even torn apart. In 874, Rus' again made a military campaign against Constantinople. True, this time it was unsuccessful. Byzantium, for its part, obviously intensified diplomacy in the Russian direction and carried out the “second baptism” of Rus'.

WAS THE CALLING OF THE VARYAGS “THE BEGINNING OF Rus'”?

As we see, “The Tale of Bygone Years” gives a completely understandable concept of the “emergence of Rus'”. And this concept is based not only on chronicles, but also on foreign, in particular Byzantine, documents. However, Russian imperial historiography decided to build a different concept, which was based on the legend about the calling of the Varangians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus to Novgorod. Under 6370, that is, 10 years after the “appearance of Rus',” the Tale of Bygone Years says that Novgorod, which could not restore order in its city, decided to call the Varangians to rule. And although the latter are called Russia in the “Tale...”, this looks like a later tendentious insertion. After all, the “Tale...” speaks about the Russian land ten years before.

Finally, in the “Tale...” the calling of the Varangians is not interpreted as the beginning of Russian statehood, but only as the beginning of the Rurik dynasty on Russian lands. The Varangian rulers came “ready-made,” that is, the Russian Slavs already had their own state structures.

In general, the “Varangian legend” does not look problem-free. It is practically based only on the message of “The Tale of Bygone Years” and is not supported by foreign sources. There is confusion regarding the first decades of Rurik rule and regarding the chronology of this event. In 1862, Tsarist Russia pompously celebrated the 1000th anniversary of Russian statehood, and this year Russia will celebrate the 1150th anniversary of this event. That is, it is believed that it happened in 862 from the Nativity of Christ. However, there is no such date in ancient Russian chronicles. The specified event dates back to 6370 from the creation of the world, which does not necessarily mean 862 from the Nativity of Christ. As already indicated, the first decades of the existence of the Russian state in the Tale of Bygone Years are dated not according to the Constantinople, but according to the Alexandrian chronology. At least, a comparison of the dates given there with the dates of well-known events that are recorded in the “Tale...” gives us reason to think so. Therefore, probably, the calling of the Varangians (if this event is not fictitious) took place not in 862, but around 870, that is, at a time when the Russian state not only existed, but loudly declared itself in the international arena.

CONCLUSIONS

Of course, the formation of Russian statehood is a complex process. Judging by archaeological and written sources, the beginning of this process dates back to the middle of the 1st millennium. He wasn't straightforward. The resettlement of peoples, the Avar invasion, and the formation of the Khazar Khaganate did not allow the settled Slavic tribes in the territories of modern Ukraine to create their own stable state formations. Only around 860 did such an opportunity arise. It was at this time that Rus' entered the international arena as a powerful state. And that’s when the world started talking about her.

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